Lecture 03

Computer Hardware Fundamentals

Components of a CPU
● Processor
● Memory - RAM
● Motherboard
● Storage Devices - HDD/SSD
● Graphics Card
● Power Supply
Processor
A processor, or central processing unit (CPU), is
the primary component of a computer that
executes instructions and performs calculations
necessary for tasks and operations. It controls
and coordinates the activities of other hardware
components to ensure efficient functioning of the
system.
Some common vendor of processor:
● Intel
● AMD
● Qualcomm
● Apple
Attributes of a Processor
● Generation
● Clock Speed
● Core Count
● Threads
● Cache Memory
● Thermal Design Power - TDP
● Fabrication Process
● Integrated Graphics
Generation
The generation of a processor refers to the iteration or version of a processor
family, typically denoting improvements in performance, efficiency, and
features over previous versions. Newer generations often incorporate
advanced technologies, smaller fabrication processes, and better power
management.
Example:
● The Intel Core i9-13900K is part of Intel's 13th generation of processors,
offering enhancements over the 12th generation Core i9-12900K.
● AMD Ryzen 9 7950X belongs to AMD's 7000 series, representing the latest
advancements over the 5000 series.
Clock Speed
The speed at which a processor executes instructions, measured in gigahertz
(GHz). Higher clock speeds generally indicate faster processing
capabilities, although actual performance also depends on other factors like
architecture and core count.

Example:

● Intel Core i9-11900K has a base clock speed of 3.5 GHz and can boost up
to 5.3 GHz
● AMD Ryzen 9 5900X has a base clock speed of 3.7 GHz and can boost up
to 4.8 GHz.
Core Count
Core count refers to the number of independent cores within a processor,
with each core capable of executing its own thread of instructions
simultaneously. Higher core counts can significantly improve multitasking and
performance in multi-threaded applications.

Example:

● The Intel Core i9-13900K has 24 cores (8 performance cores and 16

efficiency cores)
● AMD Ryzen 9 7950X features 16 cores
Threads
Threads in a processor refer to the smallest sequence of programmed
instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler. Modern
processors often support multiple threads per core, enhancing their ability to
handle numerous tasks simultaneously.

Example:

● The Intel Core i9-13900K supports 32 threads

● The AMD Ryzen 9 7950X supports 32 threads
Cache Memory
Cache in a processor is a small, high-speed memory located on the CPU that
stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing. It
reduces the time the CPU takes to access data from the main memory,
improving overall performance.

Example:

● The Intel Core i9-13900K features 36MB of cache (L2 + L3)

● The AMD Ryzen 9 7950X comes with 80MB of cache (L2 + L3)
Thermal Design Power (TDP)
Thermal Design Power (TDP) represents the maximum amount of heat a
processor is expected to generate under typical workloads, which the cooling
system must dissipate to maintain optimal performance. TDP helps determine
the cooling requirements and power consumption of a CPU. Lower TDP
processors typically consume less power and generate less heat, which
can lead to improved energy efficiency and cooler operation.

Example:

● The Intel Core i9-13900K has a TDP of 125 watts

● The AMD Ryzen 9 7950X has a TDP of 170 watts
Fabrication Process
The fabrication process of a processor refers to the technology used to
manufacture the semiconductor components of the CPU, including transistors
and interconnects, typically measured in nanometers (nm). Smaller
fabrication processes generally result in smaller, more power-efficient
chips with improved performance.

Example:

● The Intel Core i9-13900K is fabricated using Intel's 10nm SuperFin process
● The AMD Ryzen 9 7950X is manufactured using TSMC's 7nm process
Intel Processor: Suffixes
K: Unlocked for overclocking. e.g. Intel Core i9-11900K

H: High-performance graphics. e.g. Intel Core i7-11800H

T: Optimized for efficient desktop computing. e.g. Intel Core i5-11500T

U: Optimized for laptop power efficiency. e.g. Intel Core i7 1245U

F: High-performance processor, no integrated graphics card (ex. Gaming).

e.g. Intel Core i9-11900KF

X: Unlocked for extreme desktop performance. e.g. Intel Core i9-12900X

Intel Processor: Example
Intel Core i9-13900K

● Clock Speed: Base: 3.0 GHz, Boost: Up to 5.5 GHz

● Core Count: 24 cores (12 performance cores + 12 efficiency cores), 32 threads
● Cache: 36MB
● Fabrication Process: Intel 10nm
● TDP: 125 watts

Intel Core i9-12900K

● Clock Speed: Base: 3.2 GHz, Boost: Up to 5.2 GHz

● Core Count: 16 cores (8 performance cores + 8 efficiency cores), 24 threads
● Cache: 30MB
● Fabrication Process: Intel 10nm
● TDP: 125 watts
Intel Core i9-11900K

● Clock Speed: Base: 3.5 GHz, Boost: Up to 5.3 GHz

● Core Count: 8 cores, 16 threads
● Cache: 16MB
● Fabrication Process: Intel 10nm SuperFin
● TDP: 125 watts

For more, visit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_processors

AMD Processor: Suffixes
X: Denotes higher clock speeds or better performance within a product lineup.
G: Indicates processors with integrated graphics card.
U: Signifies processors optimized for ultra-low power consumption in laptops.
H: Typically found in high-performance laptop processors.
PRO: Designates processors tailored for professional applications and
enterprise use.
Threadripper: Indicates high-end desktop processors with a high core and
thread count, optimized for heavy multitasking and workstation use.
AMD Processor: Example
Ryzen 5 7600X

● Clock Speed: Base: 4.7 GHz, Boost: Up to 5.3 GHz

● Core Count: 6 cores 12 threads
● Cache: 32MB
● Fabrication Process: 5nm
● TDP: 105 watts

Ryzen 7 5700G

● Clock Speed: Base: 3.8 GHz, Boost: Up to 4.6 GHz

● Core Count: 8 cores 16 threads
● Cache: 16MB
● Fabrication Process: 7nm
● TDP: 65 watts
Ryzen 3 8300G

● Clock Speed: Base: 4.0 GHz, Boost: Up to 4.9 GHz

● Core Count: 4 cores, 8 threads
● Cache: 8MB
● Fabrication Process: 4nm
● TDP: 65 watts

For more, visit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_Ryzen_processors

RAM
RAM (random access memory) is a computer's short-term
memory, where the data that the processor is currently using is
stored.
Attributes of a RAM
● Capacity
● Type
● Speed/Bandwidth
● Voltage
● Channels
Attributes of a RAM (Type)
● The type of RAM refers to the specific technology and architecture it uses,
such as DDR3, DDR4, or DDR5, each offering different speeds,
bandwidths, and power efficiencies. Newer types, like DDR5, provide
higher performance and greater efficiency compared to older types.
○ Example: Samsung DDR4 3200MHz - A common type of RAM used in many modern PCs,
offering a balance of speed and efficiency.
○ Example: G.SKILL Trident Z5 RGB Series 32GB (2 x 16GB) DDR5 6000MHz - Utilizes the
latest DDR5 technology, providing high-speed performance and improved power
efficiency for demanding tasks and gaming.
Attributes of a RAM (Bus speed)
● Bus speed, also known as memory speed, refers to the rate at which data
can be read from or written to RAM by the processor, typically measured
in megahertz (MHz). Higher bus speeds enable faster data transfer,
improving overall system performance and responsiveness, especially in
tasks requiring frequent memory access.
○ Example: Samsung DDR4 3200MHz - This RAM module operates at a bus speed of
3200MHz, providing high-speed performance for gaming and professional applications.
○ Example: Corsair Vengeance LPX 16GB (2 x 8GB) DDR4 3600MHz - With a bus speed of
3600MHz, this RAM is suitable for overclocking and high-performance computing.
Attributes of a RAM (Voltage)
● The voltage of RAM refers to the electrical power required for it to
operate, typically measured in volts (V). Lower voltage RAM is more
energy-efficient, generating less heat and potentially extending the
lifespan of both the RAM and the system.
○ Example: Corsair Vengeance LPX DDR4 2400MHz - This RAM operates at 1.2V, making it
energy-efficient and suitable for modern desktops.
○ Example: Crucial Ballistix MAX DDR4 4000MHz - With an operating voltage of 1.35V, this
RAM is designed for high-performance overclocking while maintaining stability.
Attributes of a RAM (Channel)
● The channel configuration of RAM refers to how multiple memory
modules are arranged to work together to increase data transfer rates.
Common configurations include single, dual, triple, and quad channels,
with dual and quad channels significantly improving performance by
allowing simultaneous data access.
○ Example: Corsair Vengeance LPX 16GB (2 x 8GB) DDR4 3200MHz - A dual-channel kit
that enhances performance by enabling parallel data processing.
○ Example: G.SKILL Trident Z Royal Series 32GB (4 x 8GB) DDR4 3600MHz - A
quad-channel kit designed for high-end systems, providing superior bandwidth and
performance for intensive tasks.
Motherboard
A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that
holds and allows communication between crucial components such as the
central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage, and other peripherals. It
provides the fundamental connectivity and interfaces necessary for these
components to interact and function cohesively within a computer system.
Motherboard : Components

Source: https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/motherboard-parts-explained,5669.html
Motherboard : Rear Ports
Motherboard : Types
Storage Devices

Hard Disk: Comparatively SSD - Solid State Drive:

inexpensive, slow, relatively Comparatively expensive, extremely
short-lasting, and based on older fast, relatively long-lasting, and based
technology. on new technology. It is available in
various shapes and variants, such as
SATA SSD, M.2 SSD, etc. Currently, it is
very popular.
SSD: Types
2.5”
When shopping for SSDs, the first thing you’ll want to know is which form factor fits in your system. SSDs come in many shapes
and sizes. For example, 2.5” is the most common type of SSD and fits into most laptop or desktop computers. It has a similar
shape to a traditional hard disk drive (HDD) and connects over SATA cables so it offers a very familiar experience to what many
are already used to.

M.2
Another form factor, M.2, has become the standard type of storage for slim laptops and notebooks. Its tiny form factor is often
compared to a stick of gum and is easy to install right on the motherboard in most cases. It is available in various lengths to
enable different SSD drive capacities. The longer the drive, the more NAND flash chips can be mounted on it, leading to higher
capacity drives.

mSATA
mSATA, or mini-SATA, is essentially a smaller version of the full-size SATA SSD. It uses a compact form factor like M.2 but is not
interchangeable. M.2 drives can support both SATA and PCIe interface options, whereas mSATA only supports SATA. This form
factor is designed for smaller form factor systems where space is limited.

U.2
Finally, there’s U.2, which looks like a 2.5” drive but is a bit thicker. It uses a different connector and sends data through the PCIe
interface. U.2 SSD technology is typically reserved for high-end workstations, servers and enterprise applications that need
greater storage. It allows higher operating temperatures and is more favourable for transferring heat than the M.2 form factor.
SSD: Attributes
● Capacity: The amount of data the SSD can store, typically measured in gigabytes (GB) or
terabytes (TB).
● Form Factor: The physical size and shape of the SSD, such as 2.5-inch, M.2, or PCIe.
● Interface: The connection type used by the SSD, such as SATA, NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory
Express), or PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express).
● Read/Write Speeds: The rate at which the SSD can read and write data, measured in
megabytes per second (MB/s) or gigabytes per second (GB/s).
● NAND Type: The type of flash memory used in the SSD, such as SLC (Single-Level Cell), MLC
(Multi-Level Cell), TLC (Triple-Level Cell), or QLC (Quad-Level Cell).
● Endurance: The lifespan of the SSD, often measured in TBW (Terabytes Written) or DWPD
(Drive Writes Per Day).
● DRAM Cache: Some SSDs have a DRAM cache that speeds up data access and improves overall
performance.
● Power Consumption: The amount of power the SSD uses during operation, measured in watts
(W).
Graphics Card
A graphics card, also known as a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit), is a crucial
component in a computer that handles rendering images, video, and
animations. It offloads these tasks from the CPU, enhancing performance in
graphics-intensive applications such as gaming, video editing, and 3D
rendering. Modern graphics cards come with their own dedicated memory
(VRAM) and processors to efficiently manage complex graphics computations.
Examples:
● NVIDIA: GeForce RTX 3080
● AMD: Radeon RX 6800 XT
● Intel: Intel Arc A770
Power Supply
A power supply unit (PSU) converts electrical power
from an outlet into usable power for the internal
components of a computer, distributing the
appropriate voltages to the motherboard, CPU, GPU,
and other peripherals. The wattage rating of a PSU
determines its capacity to provide sufficient power to
all components, which is crucial for system stability
and performance. High-quality PSUs also include
features like modular cabling, efficiency ratings
(e.g., 80 PLUS certification), and various
protections against overvoltage, undervoltage,
and short circuits.
Power Supply: Wattage
The wattage rating of a PSU indicates the maximum amount of power it can supply to a
computer system. Choosing the appropriate wattage ensures that all components receive
adequate power, especially during peak performance.
Examples of Wattage Ratings:
500W PSU: Suitable for basic systems with integrated graphics or low-power dedicated
GPUs.
650W PSU: Common for mid-range gaming PCs or workstations with a single mid-range
GPU.
850W PSU: Ideal for high-end gaming systems or workstations with powerful GPUs and
multiple peripherals.
1000W PSU: Necessary for extreme gaming rigs, multi-GPU setups, or high-performance
workstations requiring substantial power. etc
Power Supply: Efficiency Ratings
Efficiency ratings indicate how effectively a PSU converts AC power from an outlet into DC power for
the computer components, with higher efficiency reducing wasted energy as heat. The 80 PLUS
certification is a common standard that rates efficiency at different loads (20%, 50%, and 100%). Here
are the main 80 PLUS certifications:

80 PLUS: 80% efficiency at 20%, 50%, and 100% load

80 PLUS Bronze: 82% efficiency at 20%, 85% at 50%, and 82% at 100% load

80 PLUS Silver: 85% efficiency at 20%, 88% at 50%, and 85% at 100% load

80 PLUS Gold: 87% efficiency at 20%, 90% at 50%, and 87% at 100% load

80 PLUS Platinum: 90% efficiency at 20%, 92% at 50%, and 89% at 100% load

80 PLUS Titanium: 90% efficiency at 10% load, 92% at 20%, 94% at 50%, and 90% at 100% load
Monitor
A monitor is an output device that displays visual information generated by a
computer.
Properties of Monitor:
•Display Technology:
•LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): The most common type, known for its thin profile and energy efficiency.
•LED (Light Emitting Diode): A type of LCD that uses LEDs for backlighting, offering better contrast and
color accuracy.
•OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode): Provides superior color reproduction and contrast ratios by lighting
each pixel individually, but is generally more expensive.
•Resolution: The resolution indicates the number of pixels displayed on the screen, affecting clarity and
detail. Common resolutions include:
•Full HD (1920 x 1080): Standard for many monitors.
•Quad HD (2560 x 1440): Offers more detail, suitable for gaming and graphic design.
•4K UHD (3840 x 2160): Provides very high detail, ideal for video editing and high-end gaming.
•Refresh Rate: Measured in hertz (Hz), the refresh rate indicates how many times the screen updates per
second. Higher refresh rates (e.g., 100Hz, 120Hz, 144Hz) result in smoother motion, which is particularly
beneficial for gaming and fast-moving content.
•Response Time: This measures how quickly a pixel can change from one color to another. Lower
response times (e.g., 1ms to 5ms) are preferable for gaming.
•Connectivity: Monitors typically have multiple input ports, such as HDMI, DisplayPort, DVI, and VGA,
allowing connection to different devices. Some modern monitors also support USB-C and can charge
devices while transmitting video.
Other Devices
Devices like the keyboard, mouse, and touchpads allow users to interact with the computer.
Output devices like monitors, printers, and speakers display or output data processed by the
computer.
While less common now, optical drives like DVD or Blu-ray drives can read/write data from
optical discs.
The Network Interface Card (NIC) allows the computer to connect to a network, either wired
(Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi). Some motherboards come with built-in networking capabilities,
while others require dedicated cards.
Expansion cards are additional components that add functionality to a computer, such as sound
cards, network cards, and storage controllers. These cards fit into the expansion slots on the
motherboard, typically PCIe slots.
A UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) is a device that provides backup power to a computer or
other electronic devices in the event of a power outage or fluctuations.
Assembling a Computer
Make sure you have the following components:

•Case: Enclosure for all your components.

•Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects all components.
•CPU (Processor): Central processing unit, the brain of the computer.
•CPU Cooler: For cooling the CPU.
•RAM (Memory): Temporary storage for active tasks.
•GPU (Graphics Card): Handles visual processing (optional if your CPU has integrated
graphics).
•Storage (SSD or HDD): For permanent data storage.
•Power Supply (PSU): Provides power to all components.
•Operating System: Windows, Linux, or another OS.
•Cables: Ensure you have the right connectors (SATA, PCIe, etc.).