Web Technology (BCS502)

Unit 1 2024-25
B.TECH.(CSIT) SEMESTER -V
1. Introduction: Introduction and Web Development Strategies

2. History of Web and Internet, Protocols Governing Web, Writing Web Projects, Connecting to
Internet.

3. Introduction to Internet services and tools, Introduction to client-server computing.

4. Web Page Designing: HTML: List, Table, Images, Frames, forms, XML: Document type
definition (DTD)

5. XML schemes, Object Models, presenting and using XML, Using XML Processors: DOM and
SAX.

Faculty
Dr. Aadarsh Malviya
(Associate Professor Department of CSE)

Dronacharya Group of Institutions

Plot No. 27, Knowledge Park-3, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201308

Affiliated to

Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226031
 Web Technology (BCS502) 2024-25 (Odd Semester) [ Dr. Aadarsh Malviya DGI]

1. Introduction: Introduction and Web Development Strategies

Introduction to Web Development

1. What is Web Development? Web development is the process of creating and maintaining websites. It involves
various tasks, including web design, web content development, client-side/server-side scripting, and network
security configuration.
2. Key Areas in Web Development:
 Front-End Development: This focuses on what users interact with directly. It involves HTML
(HyperText Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and JavaScript.
 Back-End Development: This handles the server side of a website. It involves server-side languages like
Python, Ruby, PHP, Java, and frameworks such as Node.js.
 Full-Stack Development: This combines both front-end and back-end skills.
Web Development Strategies
1. Plan and Research:
 Define the website’s purpose and goals.
 Research the target audience and their needs.
 Create a sitemap and wireframes to map out the website’s structure.
2. Choose the Right Tools and Technologies:
 HTML/CSS/JavaScript: The backbone technologies for front-end development.
 Frameworks and Libraries: Use frameworks like React, Angular, or Vue.js for more dynamic interfaces.
 Back-End Technologies: Choose from server-side languages and frameworks like Django (Python), Rails
(Ruby), or Express (Node.js).
3. Focus on User Experience (UX):
 Design with the user in mind. Ensure the website is easy to navigate, visually appealing, and provides a
seamless experience.
4. Optimize for Performance:
 Ensure fast load times by optimizing images, using efficient coding practices, and leveraging caching.
5. Implement Responsive Design:
 Make sure your website looks good and functions well on all devices, including desktops, tablets, and
smartphones.
6. Test and Iterate:
 Test the website across different browsers and devices.
 Collect feedback from users and make improvements based on their experience.
7. Ensure Security:
 Protect against common threats like SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and ensure secure data
transmission.
8. SEO and Analytics:
 Implement SEO best practices to improve search engine visibility.
 Use tools like Google Analytics to track user behavior and make data-driven decisions.

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2. History of the Web and Internet

History of the Web and Internet
The Internet and the World Wide Web (commonly referred to as the web) are often used interchangeably, but
they are distinct entities. The internet is a global network of computers that communicate with each other, while
the web is a system of information that can be accessed via the internet.
1. Origins of the Internet (1960s-1980s)
 1960s – ARPANET: The roots of the internet can be traced back to the Cold War era when the U.S.
Department of Defense funded research to build a robust communication system. In 1969, ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was created, becoming the first operational packet-
switching network that allowed computers to communicate over long distances.
 1970s – TCP/IP Protocol: The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), developed by
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, became the foundational communication protocol of the internet in the early
1970s. It standardized how data is packaged, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received over the
internet.
 1983 – The Modern Internet: ARPANET adopted TCP/IP, and this date is often considered the birth of
the modern internet. Networks around the world began using TCP/IP, forming the global internet we
know today.
2. Birth of the World Wide Web (1989-1991)
 1989 – Tim Berners-Lee’s Vision: British scientist Tim Berners-Lee, working at CERN (the European
Organization for Nuclear Research), proposed a system for sharing information via a "web" of hypertext
documents. His goal was to enable researchers to easily share information regardless of the type of
computer they used.
 1990 – The First Web Page: Berners-Lee developed the first website, created the first web browser
(WorldWideWeb), and designed HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language), and URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). These were foundational technologies for the web.
 1991 – The Web Goes Public: The World Wide Web became publicly available, allowing people outside
CERN to create and view web pages. This event marked the start of the web's explosive growth.
3. Growth and Popularization of the Web (1990s)
 1993 – The First Web Browser (Mosaic): A pivotal moment in the history of the web was the release of
Mosaic, the first graphical web browser, developed by Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina. Unlike previous
text-based browsers, Mosaic made it easy for people to interact with images and text on web pages. This
user-friendly interface led to a surge in web usage.
 1994 – The First Websites and Commercialization: As more websites were created, companies started
seeing the potential for commercial use. In 1994, the first online transaction was made, and websites like
Amazon (1994) and eBay (1995) were launched.
 1996 – Dot-com Boom: The mid-to-late 1990s saw the dot-com boom, where businesses, investors, and
individuals saw vast opportunities in creating websites. The web became a major platform for commerce,
media, and communication.
4. Web 2.0 and Beyond (2000s-Present)
 2000s – Web 2.0: The term "Web 2.0" refers to the shift from static web pages to interactive and user-
generated content. This era saw the rise of social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter), blogs, wikis
(Wikipedia), and video-sharing sites (YouTube). Web technologies such as AJAX allowed for dynamic,
real-time updates on web pages, making them more interactive.
 Mobile Web (2007-present): With the launch of the iPhone in 2007, the mobile web became a
significant part of internet history. The shift from desktop-based browsing to mobile devices
revolutionized how websites were designed, with responsive design and mobile-first strategies becoming
essential.
 Cloud Computing (2010s-present): The cloud revolutionized how data is stored and accessed over the
internet, enabling services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft Azure. Web applications became
more powerful, allowing users to perform tasks online without needing local software.

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 The Rise of Web 3.0 (2020s): Web 3.0 (often called the decentralized web) is the next evolutionary stage
of the web. It emphasizes decentralization, user empowerment, and blockchain technology, where users
control their data, and applications run on decentralized networks rather than centralized servers.
5. Key Technological Developments
 HTML and CSS: HTML, invented by Tim Berners-Lee, is the backbone of web pages, structuring
content. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), introduced in the 1990s, helped developers style and layout web
content.
 JavaScript (1995): Developed by Netscape, JavaScript enabled dynamic and interactive elements within
web browsers, forming the basis for modern web applications.
 Web Standards: Organizations like the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) were established to create
web standards to ensure compatibility and accessibility across platforms and devices.
6. Future of the Web and Internet
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Semantic Web: Future versions of the web may involve AI-driven
content and the "semantic web," where machines understand the meaning of content to provide more
intelligent search and interaction.
 Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT is connecting everyday devices to the internet, creating a network of
smart devices that communicate with each other to improve user experiences.
 5G and Edge Computing: The rollout of 5G networks and advancements in edge computing will
increase the speed and responsiveness of web-based applications, making immersive technologies like
augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) more mainstream.

3. Protocols Governing Web

The web operates on several protocols that define how data is transferred, secured, and interacted with on the
internet. These protocols standardize communication between web servers and browsers, ensuring efficient data
exchange and interoperability across different devices and networks. Below are the key protocols that govern the
web:

1. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
o HTTP is the foundation of data communication on the web. It defines how requests and responses
are structured between web browsers (clients) and servers.
o When you access a website, your browser sends an HTTP request to the server hosting the site.
The server then sends back an HTTP response, which includes the content (HTML, CSS, images)
that the browser renders for you to view.
o HTTP operates at the application layer of the internet protocol suite.
o Limitations: HTTP data is transferred in plain text, meaning it can be intercepted or altered by
malicious actors.
 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):
o HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP. It adds an encryption layer via SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)
or TLS (Transport Layer Security) to protect data transmitted between the client and server.
o HTTPS encrypts all communication, preventing hackers from intercepting sensitive information
such as login credentials, payment details, and personal data.
o How it Works: When a user accesses an HTTPS website, the server sends a public encryption key
to the client. This public key is used to establish a secure connection and encrypt the data
exchange.

2. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
o TCP is responsible for breaking data into smaller packets for transmission over the internet and
reassembling those packets at the destination.

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o TCP ensures reliable communication by making sure that packets arrive at their destination in the
correct order. If packets are lost, TCP requests their retransmission.
o It guarantees data integrity and ensures that large pieces of data, like a webpage or video, are
accurately reconstructed.
 IP (Internet Protocol):
o IP handles addressing and routing the packets of data from the sender to the receiver.
o Each device on the internet has a unique IP address (e.g., IPv4: 192.168.1.1 or IPv6:
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334), which is used to locate and communicate with that device.
 Together (TCP/IP):
o TCP/IP forms the core communication protocol of the internet, allowing web data (HTTP,
HTTPS) to move between servers and browsers across different networks.

3. DNS (Domain Name System)

 What it Does:
o DNS translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like
192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify each other on the network.
o Without DNS, users would have to remember IP addresses instead of website names.
 How it Works:
o When a user types a URL into a browser, the browser contacts a DNS server to resolve the domain
name to its corresponding IP address. Once the IP address is obtained, the browser can send an
HTTP/HTTPS request to that server.
 Security Enhancements (DNSSEC):
o DNSSEC (Domain Name System Security Extensions) adds a layer of security by ensuring the
authenticity of DNS responses and preventing DNS spoofing attacks.

4. SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security)

 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer):
o SSL was the original cryptographic protocol that provided secure communication over a network.
It encrypts the data transferred between clients and servers.
 TLS (Transport Layer Security):
o TLS is the successor to SSL and offers enhanced security features. It ensures data privacy and
integrity by encrypting the connection between a browser and a web server.
o TLS is critical for securing e-commerce transactions, protecting login credentials, and
safeguarding private communications.
o How it Works: TLS uses a handshake process where the client and server exchange cryptographic
keys to establish a secure connection. Once the handshake is complete, all data between the client
and server is encrypted.

5. FTP/SFTP (File Transfer Protocol/Secure File Transfer Protocol)

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o FTP is used to transfer files between computers on a network. It’s commonly used for uploading
website files from a local machine to a web server.
o FTP does not inherently provide encryption, so it is considered insecure for transferring sensitive
data.
 SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol):
o SFTP is a more secure version of FTP, which uses SSH (Secure Shell) to encrypt data during
transfer. It ensures that both the file contents and credentials are transmitted securely, preventing
unauthorized access.

6. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

 What it Does:

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o SMTP is a protocol used for sending emails across the internet. It defines how emails are sent
from the sender’s mail server to the recipient’s mail server.
 Related Protocols:
o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) and POP3 (Post Office Protocol) are used for
retrieving and managing emails from mail servers.
o SMTP is used for outgoing mail, while IMAP and POP3 handle incoming mail.

7. WebSocket Protocol
 What it Does:
o WebSocket is a protocol that provides full-duplex communication channels over a single TCP
connection, enabling real-time data exchange between a client and server.
o WebSocket is commonly used in web applications that require live updates, such as chat
applications, gaming platforms, and stock market tickers.
 Why it’s Important:
o Unlike HTTP, which is request-response-based, WebSocket allows both the client and server to
send messages to each other independently, resulting in faster communication and real-time
interactivity.

8. REST and SOAP (Web Services Protocols)

 REST (Representational State Transfer):
o REST is an architectural style used in building web services that interact over HTTP. RESTful
services use HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to request and manipulate resources.
o How it Works: A REST API sends data in the form of JSON or XML, making it lightweight and
efficient for communication between web applications and servers.
 SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol):
o SOAP is a protocol used to exchange structured information in web services. It’s more formal and
secure than REST, but also more complex.
o SOAP messages are typically encoded in XML and provide higher levels of security and error
handling.

9. QUIC (Quick UDP Internet Connections)

 What it Does:
o QUIC is a transport layer protocol developed by Google that builds on UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) to provide faster, more secure web connections compared to TCP.
o QUIC is designed to improve latency and reliability in web browsing by reducing the time it takes
to establish a connection between the client and server.
 Use Case: QUIC is used by major platforms like Google Chrome and YouTube to deliver faster page
loads and video streaming.

4. Introduction to Internet services and tools

The internet offers a vast range of services and tools that enable communication, information sharing, and a
variety of other activities. These services are designed to enhance the user experience, making it easier to access
data, collaborate, and perform everyday tasks online. Below is an overview of the most common internet services
and tools:

1. Email (Electronic Mail)

 What it Is: Email is one of the most basic and widely used internet services, allowing users to send and
receive messages electronically. Messages can include text, attachments (such as documents or images),
and links.
 Popular Email Services:

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o Gmail (Google): A free email service offering advanced features like spam filtering, integration
with Google services, and a large amount of storage.
o Outlook (Microsoft): Another major email service, often used in business environments, with
integration into Microsoft Office and productivity tools.
o Yahoo Mail: One of the early email providers, offering both free and premium versions.
 Key Tools:
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails.
o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) & POP3 (Post Office Protocol): Used to retrieve
and manage incoming emails.

2. Web Browsing
 What it Is: Web browsing allows users to access information on the World Wide Web. Through
browsers, users can visit websites, read content, watch videos, or perform transactions online.
 Popular Web Browsers:
o Google Chrome: One of the fastest and most popular web browsers, known for its simplicity and
speed.
o Mozilla Firefox: A free and open-source web browser focused on user privacy and customizable
features.
o Microsoft Edge: The default web browser on Windows, known for its integration with Microsoft
services and security features.
o Safari: Apple's browser, optimized for macOS and iOS.
 Key Tools:
o Search Engines: Tools like Google, Bing, and DuckDuckGo allow users to search for information
by typing queries into the browser.
o Web Extensions: Browser extensions like ad blockers, password managers, and VPNs enhance
browsing experiences by adding extra functionality.

3. Search Engines
 What they Are: Search engines help users find specific information on the internet by indexing web
pages and providing results based on keywords.
 Popular Search Engines:
o Google: The most widely used search engine globally, offering results based on complex
algorithms and user data.
o Bing: Microsoft’s search engine, often integrated with Microsoft services and products.
o DuckDuckGo: A privacy-focused search engine that doesn’t track user data.
 Key Tools:
o Search Algorithms: Search engines use algorithms to determine the relevance of web pages and
rank them accordingly.
o SEO (Search Engine Optimization): A strategy used by web developers to ensure their content
ranks high on search engines.

4. File Sharing and Storage

 What it Is: File sharing allows users to upload, download, and exchange files such as documents, images,
and videos over the internet.
 Popular Services:
o Google Drive: A cloud-based storage platform where users can store, share, and collaborate on
files and documents in real-time.
o Dropbox: A widely used file-hosting service that allows users to store and sync files across
multiple devices.
o OneDrive (Microsoft): Cloud storage service integrated into Microsoft products like Office,
enabling collaboration and backup.

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 Key Tools:
o Cloud Storage: A tool for storing data remotely, making it accessible from anywhere with an
internet connection.
o File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server on a
network.

5. Social Media and Networking

 What it Is: Social media platforms provide users with tools to communicate, share content, and connect
with friends, family, and professional networks.
 Popular Social Media Platforms:
o Facebook: A major social networking site where users can share updates, photos, and links, and
connect with others.
o Twitter: A platform for sharing short updates (tweets) and interacting with others via retweets,
likes, and replies.
o LinkedIn: A professional networking site focused on building career connections and sharing
business-related content.
o Instagram: A visually-focused platform for sharing photos, stories, and videos.
o TikTok: A video-sharing platform for creating and viewing short, entertaining clips.
 Key Tools:
o Messaging: Direct messaging allows private communication between users.
o Content Sharing: Tools for uploading photos, videos, links, and other forms of media.

6. Instant Messaging and Communication

 What it Is: Instant messaging services allow real-time text-based communication between users. These
tools also often support voice and video calls.
 Popular Communication Tools:
o WhatsApp: A popular messaging app offering text, voice, and video chat over the internet.
o Slack: A business communication platform that offers messaging channels, file sharing, and
integration with other productivity tools.
o Zoom: A video conferencing tool used for meetings, webinars, and group calls.
o Microsoft Teams: A collaboration tool that integrates chat, video conferencing, and file sharing,
often used in business environments.
 Key Tools:
o VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Technology that allows voice and multimedia
communication over the internet.
o WebRTC (Web Real-Time Communication): An open-source project that enables peer-to-peer
audio, video, and data sharing between browsers without additional plugins.

7. E-Commerce Platforms
 What it Is: E-commerce platforms allow users to buy and sell products and services online, facilitating
digital transactions through secure payment gateways.
 Popular Platforms:
o Amazon: One of the largest e-commerce platforms globally, selling everything from electronics to
groceries.
o eBay: An online marketplace that allows users to buy, sell, and auction products.
o Shopify: A platform enabling businesses to create online stores and sell products directly to
consumers.
o Alibaba: A major global marketplace specializing in wholesale trade and business-to-business
transactions.
 Key Tools:
o Shopping Carts: Tools that allow customers to collect and review items before purchasing.

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o Payment Gateways: Services like PayPal, Stripe, and Square process payments securely between
buyers and sellers.

8. Streaming Media
 What it Is: Streaming services deliver media (audio, video, music) over the internet in real time, without
requiring users to download the entire file first.
 Popular Streaming Platforms:
o YouTube: The largest video-sharing platform where users can upload, view, and share videos.
o Netflix: A subscription-based streaming service offering movies and TV shows on-demand.
o Spotify: A music streaming service offering access to millions of songs and podcasts.
o Twitch: A live-streaming platform, primarily focused on video gaming, where users can broadcast
or watch live streams.
 Key Tools:
o CDNs (Content Delivery Networks): Networks of servers that cache and deliver content more
efficiently to users based on their location.
o Adaptive Streaming: A technology that adjusts the quality of a video or audio stream in real-time
based on the user’s bandwidth.

9. Cloud Computing
 What it Is: Cloud computing services provide users with access to computing resources (storage,
processing power, databases) over the internet. This eliminates the need for physical hardware on the
user’s end.
 Popular Cloud Computing Platforms:
o Amazon Web Services (AWS): Offers a wide range of cloud services, including storage,
computing power, databases, and machine learning.
o Google Cloud: Google’s cloud platform, providing infrastructure, analytics, and AI services.
o Microsoft Azure: A cloud platform offering solutions for computing, storage, and networking,
integrated with Microsoft products.
 Key Tools:
o Virtualization: Allows multiple virtual machines to run on a single physical machine, optimizing
resource usage.
o SaaS (Software as a Service): A cloud service model where software applications are delivered
over the internet, such as Google Workspace or Microsoft 365.

10. Online Collaboration Tools

 What it Is: These tools allow teams to collaborate in real-time, sharing documents, managing projects,
and communicating across various platforms.
 Popular Collaboration Tools:
o Google Workspace (formerly G Suite): A suite of productivity tools (Docs, Sheets, Drive, Meet)
for document collaboration, communication, and file storage.
o Trello: A project management tool that uses boards, lists, and cards to organize tasks and
workflow.
o Asana: A task and project management tool designed for teams to track work, set deadlines, and
ensure productivity.
 Key Tools:
o Document Sharing: Services like Google Docs allow real-time document editing and
collaboration among multiple users.
o Task Management: Tools like Monday.com and Jira help track project progress and assign tasks
to team members.

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Introduction to client-server computing

In client server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides that resource. A server may serve
multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact with only one server. Both the client and server usually
communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may reside in the same system.
An illustration of the client server system is given as follows −

Characteristics of Client Server Computing

The salient points for client server computing are as follows:
 The client server computing works with a system of request and response. The client sends a request to the
server and the server responds with the desired information.
 The client and server should follow a common communication protocol so they can easily interact with
each other. All the communication protocols are available at the application layer.
 A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time. So it uses a system based to
priority to respond to the requests.
 Denial of Service attacks hindera servers ability to respond to authentic client requests by inundating it with
false requests.
 An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It returns the web pages to the clients that
requested them.

Difference between Client Server Computing and Peer to Peer Computing

The major differences between client server computing and peer to peer computing are as follows:
 In client server computing, a server is a central node that services many client nodes. On the other hand, in
a peer to peer system, the nodes collectively use their resources and communicate with each other.
 In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the other nodes. In peer to peer to
computing, all the nodes are equal and share data with each other directly.
 Client Server computing is believed to be a subcategory of the peer to peer computing.

Advantages of Client Server Computing

The different advantages of client server computing are −
 All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So it is easy to protect the data and

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provide authorisation and authentication.

 The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the data can be accessed efficiently.
 It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server model because all the nodes are
independent and request data only from the server.
 All the nodes i.e clients and server may not be build on similar platforms yet they can easily facilitate the
transfer of data.

Disadvantages of Client Server Computing

The different disadvantages of client server computing are −
 If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get overloaded. This may lead to
congestion in the network.
 If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients can be fulfilled. This leads of
failure of the client server network.
 The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.

HTML: List, Table, Images, Frames, forms

1. HTML Lists
HTML supports both ordered and unordered lists.
 Unordered List (<ul>)
<ul>
<li>Item 1</li>
<li>Item 2</li>
<li>Item 3</li>
</ul>
 Ordered List (<ol>)
<ol>
<li>First item</li>
<li>Second item</li>
<li>Third item</li>
</ol>
2. HTML Table
Tables are created with <table>, with rows using <tr>, and data within rows using <td>. Header cells are defined
by <th>.
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Header 1</th>
<th>Header 2</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Data 1</td>
<td>Data 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Data 3</td>
<td>Data 4</td>
</tr>
</table>
3. HTML Images
To embed an image, use the <img> tag. The src attribute specifies the path, and alt provides alternative text.

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html
<img src="image.jpg" alt="Description of image" width="300" height="200">
4. HTML Frames (Deprecated)
Frames used to be created using the <frameset> and <frame> tags, but they are deprecated and no longer used in
modern HTML5. Instead, <iframe> is used to embed external content like web pages.
<iframe src="https://www.example.com" width="600" height="400"></iframe>
5. HTML Forms
Forms allow user input and submission, with the main tags being <form>, <input>, <textarea>, <select>, etc.

<form action="submit.php" method="post">

<label for="name">Name:</label>
<input type="text" id="name" name="name">

<label for="email">Email:</label>
<input type="email" id="email" name="email">

<label for="message">Message:</label>
<textarea id="message" name="message"></textarea>

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>
Key Concepts:
 Lists: Group items together in either ordered (numbered) or unordered (bullet points) fashion.
 Tables: Organize data in rows and columns.
 Images: Display pictures using <img>.
 Frames: Embed external content using <iframe>.
 Forms: Gather user data and submit it to a server.

XML
What is XML?
XML stands for Extensible Markup Language. It is a markup language designed to store and transport data in a
structured, human-readable, and machine-readable format. XML is a simplified form of SGML (Standard
Generalized Markup Language) and was developed by the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium).
Key Characteristics of XML:
 Text-Based: XML documents are plain text files.
 Self-Descriptive: XML tags are user-defined and describe the data they enclose, making it easy to
understand the content.
 Hierarchical Structure: XML organizes data in a tree-like structure, with elements nested inside one
another.
 Extensible: Unlike HTML, XML allows the creation of custom tags suited to the specific needs of the data
being described.
 Platform-Independent: XML is both human-readable and machine-readable, allowing easy exchange of
information across different platforms and systems.
Example of XML:
xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<note>
<to>Tove</to>
<from>Jani</from>

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<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
In this example:
 <note> is the root element, and it contains other child elements like <to>, <from>, etc.
 XML does not predefine any tags, allowing users to create meaningful tags that describe their data.

Why is XML Used?

XML is widely used in various fields for storing, sharing, and transmitting data due to its flexibility, platform-
independence, and ability to describe complex structures. Below are the main reasons why XML is used:
1. Data Storage
XML is often used as a data storage format because it organizes information in a structured way. Since it is text-
based, it is easy to read, edit, and understand both for humans and machines.
2. Data Exchange Between Systems
XML is platform-independent, making it a popular format for exchanging data between different systems,
applications, or even organizations. This is especially common in web services (SOAP, REST) and APIs.
Example:
 A company can export its data in XML format, which can be consumed by another company using different
technologies.
3. Separation of Data from Presentation
XML separates the content (data) from how it is presented. This allows developers to use XML data across
different presentation layers (like HTML for web or PDF for documents) by transforming it using technologies like
XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations).
4. Cross-Platform Data Exchange
Since XML is platform-neutral and based on plain text, it is used to exchange data between different platforms
(Windows, Linux, etc.) and different programming languages (Java, Python, C#, etc.).
5. Web Services and APIs
In web development, XML is used in APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) and web services (SOAP-based
services use XML). It allows the encoding of data for transmission over the web.
6. Configuration Files
Many software applications use XML as a configuration format because it is easy to parse and understand.
Examples include web.config files in ASP.NET or pom.xml in Maven.
7. Document Markup
XML is often used for document formats. For example, Microsoft Office documents (like .docx or .xlsx) and
OpenDocument formats (.odt, .ods) are actually ZIP archives containing XML files that describe the document
content and structure.
8. Support for Complex Data Structures
XML supports hierarchical and nested data structures, making it ideal for representing complex relationships, such
as those found in databases, document models, or object serialization.
9. Industry-Specific Standards
Many industries, such as publishing, healthcare, and finance, have adopted XML-based standards for exchanging
data. For example:
 HL7: A standard for exchanging healthcare data.
 FPML: Financial products markup language for complex financial instruments.
 MathML: Mathematical markup language for representing mathematical notations.

Advantages of XML:
 Readable by Both Humans and Machines: XML is in plain text, making it readable by both developers
and software.
 Extensible and Flexible: XML allows custom tags, providing flexibility to define and represent any kind
of data.

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 Platform-Independent: XML can be used across different systems and applications without compatibility
issues.
 Well-Supported: XML is supported by a wide range of tools, programming languages, and technologies.
Disadvantages of XML:
 Verbose: XML can become large and hard to manage due to its verbose tag structure.
 No Native Data Types: Unlike JSON or binary formats, XML does not have native support for data types
(like integers, floats, etc.) and relies on additional definitions like XML Schema for that.

Conclusion:
XML is a versatile and widely used language for structuring, storing, and exchanging data. It is especially useful in
environments where platform independence, extensibility, and self-describing data are important. Despite newer
formats like JSON gaining popularity for web applications, XML remains crucial in many industries and legacy
systems.

XML: Document type definition (DTD), XML schemes

XML: Document Type Definition (DTD) and XML Schemas
In XML, DTD and XML Schema are mechanisms used to define the structure and rules for an XML document.
They ensure that XML documents follow a specific format, making them valid according to their defined structure.

1. Document Type Definition (DTD)

DTD is a set of markup declarations that define the structure of an XML document. It specifies the elements,
attributes, and entities allowed within an XML document.
There are two types of DTD:
 Internal DTD: Defined within the XML document itself.
 External DTD: Defined in a separate file and referenced in the XML document.
a. Internal DTD
Defined inside the XML document using the <!DOCTYPE> declaration.
Example:

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xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<!DOCTYPE note [
<!ELEMENT note (to, from, heading, body)>
<!ELEMENT to (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT from (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT heading (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT body (#PCDATA)>
]>
<note>
<to>Tove</to>
<from>Jani</from>
<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
 <!ELEMENT> defines elements like <note>, <to>, <from>, etc.
 #PCDATA means parsed character data (text).
b. External DTD
The DTD is stored in a separate file and linked to the XML document.
Example of linking an external DTD:
xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "note.dtd">
<note>
<to>Tove</to>
<from>Jani</from>
<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
Contents of note.dtd:
dtd

<!ELEMENT note (to, from, heading, body)>

<!ELEMENT to (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT from (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT heading (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT body (#PCDATA)>

2. XML Schema
XML Schema is a more powerful and flexible way to define the structure and data types of XML documents
compared to DTD. It is defined in XML Schema Definition (XSD), and it supports data types, namespaces, and
constraints on the content of XML documents.
An XML Schema describes:
 Elements and their data types (e.g., string, integer).
 Attributes.
 Hierarchical relationships.
 Constraints on data.
Example of XML Schema (XSD)
Here’s an XML document with an associated schema definition:

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XML Document:
xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<note xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation="note.xsd">
<to>Tove</to>
<from>Jani</from>
<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
XML Schema (XSD) (note.xsd):
xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<xs:schema xmlns:xs="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema">

<xs:element name="note">
<xs:complexType>
<xs:sequence>
<xs:element name="to" type="xs:string"/>
<xs:element name="from" type="xs:string"/>
<xs:element name="heading" type="xs:string"/>
<xs:element name="body" type="xs:string"/>
</xs:sequence>
</xs:complexType>
</xs:element>

</xs:schema>
In this schema:
 xs:element defines the elements allowed (to, from, heading, body).
 xs:string indicates that each element is of string data type.
 The structure of the <note> element is defined as a sequence of these four elements.

Key Differences between DTD and XML Schema:

Feature DTD XML Schema (XSD)
Data Types Limited to text and PCDATA Supports data types like integer, string, date, etc.
Syntax Non-XML Written in XML
Namespace Support No Yes
Extensibility Limited More flexible and extensible
Usage Older, simpler More modern, powerful, widely used

Summary:
 DTD is an older way of defining the structure of an XML document. It is simple but lacks advanced
features like data types and namespaces.
 XML Schema (XSD) is more powerful and provides extensive support for data types, constraints, and
namespaces, making it more suitable for complex XML documents.

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Object Models, presenting and using XML

Object Models for Presenting and Using XML
When working with XML in programming, it is common to represent and manipulate XML documents using
object models. These object models allow developers to access and modify XML data in a programmatic way.
The two most widely used object models for XML are:
1. Document Object Model (DOM)
2. Simple API for XML (SAX)
Each model has its own approach for handling XML, with different use cases and benefits.

1. Document Object Model (DOM)

DOM is a platform- and language-independent API (Application Programming Interface) that treats an XML
document as a tree structure where each node represents part of the document (elements, attributes, text, etc.). It
allows developers to navigate and manipulate XML documents in memory.
Key Features:
 In-Memory Representation: The entire XML document is loaded into memory as a tree structure.
 Hierarchical Access: You can navigate through parent, child, and sibling nodes of the XML tree.
 Full Read/Write Access: DOM allows both reading and updating the content and structure of XML
documents.
Example:
Consider the following XML document:
xml
<note>
<to>Tove</to>
<from>Jani</from>
<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
Using DOM in JavaScript to manipulate this XML:
javascript

// Load XML into a DOM object

var parser = new DOMParser();
var xmlDoc = parser.parseFromString(xmlText, "text/xml");

// Access elements
var toElement = xmlDoc.getElementsByTagName("to")[0].childNodes[0].nodeValue;
console.log(toElement); // Output: Tove

// Modify the content

xmlDoc.getElementsByTagName("to")[0].childNodes[0].nodeValue = "John";
Pros:
 Random Access: Since the entire XML is loaded into memory, you can access and modify any part of the
document easily.
 Tree Structure: Easy to visualize and traverse XML in a hierarchical manner.
 Full Control: DOM provides comprehensive control over reading, creating, updating, and deleting XML
nodes.
Cons:
 Memory Usage: DOM loads the entire XML document into memory, which can be inefficient for large
documents.

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 Performance: Since it holds the entire document in memory, it can be slow when working with very large
XML files.

2. Simple API for XML (SAX)

SAX is an event-driven, serial-access protocol for reading and processing XML documents. Unlike DOM, SAX
does not load the entire document into memory but processes the XML document as it is read, firing events
(callbacks) for every element, attribute, or text node it encounters.
Key Features:
 Stream-Based Processing: SAX reads the XML document sequentially, firing events for each encountered
element, attribute, or text node.
 Low Memory Footprint: Since SAX doesn’t store the entire XML in memory, it is highly efficient for
large XML documents.
 Read-Only: SAX is mainly used for reading and processing XML. It doesn’t support direct modification of
the XML document.
Example:
Using SAX in Java (with org.xml.sax):
java

import org.xml.sax.Attributes;
import org.xml.sax.SAXException;
import org.xml.sax.helpers.DefaultHandler;

public class MyHandler extends DefaultHandler {

@Override
public void startElement(String uri, String localName, String qName, Attributes attributes) throws
SAXException {
if (qName.equalsIgnoreCase("to")) {
System.out.println("Start element: to");
}
}

@Override
public void characters(char[] ch, int start, int length) throws SAXException {
String content = new String(ch, start, length);
System.out.println("Element content: " + content);
}

@Override
public void endElement(String uri, String localName, String qName) throws SAXException {
if (qName.equalsIgnoreCase("to")) {
System.out.println("End element: to");
}
}
}
In this example, the SAX parser triggers events when it encounters the start and end of the <to> element, and when
it reads the character data inside the element.
Pros:
 Efficiency: SAX is very memory-efficient and suitable for processing large XML files.
 Event-Driven: SAX allows for real-time processing of the XML as it is being read.
 Fast: Since it doesn’t require the entire document to be loaded into memory, SAX is faster for large

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datasets.
Cons:
 Complexity: SAX can be harder to work with because it is event-driven and doesn’t allow random access
to the document.
 Read-Only: SAX is mainly for parsing XML; it doesn’t allow for easy modification of the XML content.

3. Using XML with Other Technologies

a. XPath
XPath (XML Path Language) is used to navigate through elements and attributes in an XML document. It allows
selecting specific parts of the document using expressions.
Example:
javascript

// Sample XML
<catalog>
<book id="bk101">
<title>XML Developer's Guide</title>
</book>
</catalog>

// Using XPath to select the title

var title = xmlDoc.evaluate("//book[@id='bk101']/title", xmlDoc, null, XPathResult.STRING_TYPE,
null).stringValue;
console.log(title); // Output: XML Developer's Guide
b. XSLT
XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations) is used to transform XML documents into other formats
(like HTML, text, or another XML format). It allows for the conversion and presentation of XML in different
formats.
Example of transforming XML to HTML:
xml

<!-- XSLT stylesheet -->

<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:template match="/catalog">
<html>
<body>
<h2>Book Catalog</h2>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Title</th>
</tr>
<xsl:for-each select="book">
<tr>
<td><xsl:value-of select="title"/></td>
</tr>
</xsl:for-each>
</table>
</body>
</html>
</xsl:template>
</xsl:stylesheet>

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c. AJAX with XML

XML can be used in AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) to exchange data between the server and client
without reloading the web page.
Example:
javascript

var xhttp = new XMLHttpRequest();

xhttp.onreadystatechange = function() {
if (this.readyState == 4 && this.status == 200) {
var xmlDoc = this.responseXML;
var title = xmlDoc.getElementsByTagName("title")[0].childNodes[0].nodeValue;
document.getElementById("bookTitle").innerHTML = title;
}
};
xhttp.open("GET", "book.xml", true);
xhttp.send();

Summary of Object Models:

Using XML Processors: DOM and SAX

XML Processors: DOM and SAX
XML Processors are tools or APIs that parse XML documents and provide ways to interact with the data. The two
most common XML processing models are DOM (Document Object Model) and SAX (Simple API for XML).
Both have different approaches for reading, processing, and manipulating XML data.
1. Document Object Model (DOM) Processor
The DOM processor parses the entire XML document and loads it into memory, creating a hierarchical tree
structure. This allows developers to manipulate XML documents programmatically, offering random access to
any node.
How DOM Processing Works:
 Parse and Load: The DOM processor reads the XML file and creates a tree-like structure where each node
represents an XML element, attribute, or text.
 In-Memory Representation: The entire document is loaded into memory as a DOM tree. Each node in the

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tree can be accessed, traversed, added, or modified.

 Manipulation: Once loaded, you can manipulate the document by accessing specific nodes, changing
values, adding or removing nodes, etc.
DOM Processing Example:
Consider the following XML document:
xml
Copy code
<library>
<book>
<title>XML for Beginners</title>
<author>John Doe</author>
</book>
<book>
<title>Advanced XML</title>
<author>Jane Smith</author>
</book>
</library>
Using the DOM processor in Java:
java
Copy code
import org.w3c.dom.*;
import javax.xml.parsers.*;

public class DOMExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
// Parse the XML file and build the DOM tree
DocumentBuilderFactory factory = DocumentBuilderFactory.newInstance();
DocumentBuilder builder = factory.newDocumentBuilder();
Document document = builder.parse("library.xml");

// Get the list of all <book> elements

NodeList books = document.getElementsByTagName("book");
for (int i = 0; i < books.getLength(); i++) {
Element book = (Element) books.item(i);
String title = book.getElementsByTagName("title").item(0).getTextContent();
String author = book.getElementsByTagName("author").item(0).getTextContent();
System.out.println("Title: " + title + ", Author: " + author);
}

// Modify the first book's title

books.item(0).getChildNodes().item(1).setTextContent("XML for Dummies");

// Add a new book

Element newBook = document.createElement("book");
Element newTitle = document.createElement("title");
newTitle.appendChild(document.createTextNode("Learning DOM"));
newBook.appendChild(newTitle);
document.getDocumentElement().appendChild(newBook);
}
}
Pros of DOM:

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 Random Access: You can access any node or element in the document without reading the entire XML
sequentially.
 Tree Structure: The hierarchical tree structure makes it easy to visualize and navigate XML elements.
 Full Control: DOM allows you to create, read, update, and delete nodes within the XML document.
Cons of DOM:
 Memory Intensive: Since the entire document is loaded into memory, DOM is inefficient when dealing
with very large XML documents.
 Slower for Large Files: For large files, DOM parsing can be slower due to memory and performance
overhead.

2. Simple API for XML (SAX) Processor

The SAX processor follows an event-driven approach for parsing XML. Instead of loading the entire document
into memory, SAX reads the XML document sequentially and triggers events (like startElement, endElement, etc.)
as it encounters different components of the document.
How SAX Processing Works:
 Stream-Based Processing: SAX reads the XML document from start to finish in a stream. It doesn’t store
the document in memory but instead triggers events as it reads the document.
 Event-Driven: When SAX encounters a start tag, end tag, or text node, it calls predefined handler methods.
These handlers define what to do with each piece of data.
 Read-Only: SAX is ideal for reading XML but does not support easy modification of the document.
SAX Processing Example:
Consider the same XML document:
xml
Copy code
<library>
<book>
<title>XML for Beginners</title>
<author>John Doe</author>
</book>
<book>
<title>Advanced XML</title>
<author>Jane Smith</author>
</book>
</library>
Using SAX in Java:
java
Copy code
import org.xml.sax.*;
import org.xml.sax.helpers.DefaultHandler;
import javax.xml.parsers.SAXParser;
import javax.xml.parsers.SAXParserFactory;

public class SAXExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
// Create a SAX parser factory and a SAX parser
SAXParserFactory factory = SAXParserFactory.newInstance();
SAXParser saxParser = factory.newSAXParser();

// Define the SAX event handler

DefaultHandler handler = new DefaultHandler() {
boolean isTitle = false;

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boolean isAuthor = false;

@Override
public void startElement(String uri, String localName, String qName, Attributes attributes) throws
SAXException {
if (qName.equalsIgnoreCase("title")) {
isTitle = true;
} else if (qName.equalsIgnoreCase("author")) {
isAuthor = true;
}
}

@Override
public void characters(char[] ch, int start, int length) throws SAXException {
if (isTitle) {
System.out.println("Title: " + new String(ch, start, length));
isTitle = false;
}
if (isAuthor) {
System.out.println("Author: " + new String(ch, start, length));
isAuthor = false;
}
}
};

// Parse the XML file

saxParser.parse("library.xml", handler);
}
}
Pros of SAX:
 Efficient for Large Files: SAX doesn’t load the whole document into memory, making it suitable for very
large XML documents.
 Low Memory Usage: Since SAX processes the document sequentially, it requires much less memory
compared to DOM.
 Fast Parsing: SAX is generally faster than DOM for large XML files because it doesn’t need to load and
hold the entire document.
Cons of SAX:
 No Random Access: SAX can’t access nodes randomly. Once a part of the document is processed, it is not
kept in memory, so you can’t revisit it.
 Event-Driven Complexity: Working with SAX can be complex because the processing logic is split into
event handlers, making it harder to work with in some scenarios.
 Read-Only: SAX is mainly for reading and cannot modify XML content easily.

When to Use DOM vs SAX

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Conclusion:
 DOM is ideal for small to medium XML documents where you need random access and the ability to
modify data.
 SAX is preferred for large XML documents and when memory efficiency is crucial, but it is typically used
for read-only tasks due to its sequential nature.

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HTTP Request Methods

What is HTTP?
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is designed to enable communications between clients and servers.
HTTP works as a request-response protocol between a client and server.
Example: A client (browser) sends an HTTP request to the server; then the server returns a response to the client.
The response contains status information about the request and may also contain the requested content.

HTTP Methods
 GET
 POST
 PUT
 HEAD
 DELETE
 PATCH
 OPTIONS
 CONNECT
 TRACE
The two most common HTTP methods are: GET and POST.

The GET Method

GET is used to request data from a specified resource.
Note that the query string (name/value pairs) is sent in the URL of a GET request:
/test/demo_form.php?name1=value1&name2=value2
Some notes on GET requests:
 GET requests can be cached
 GET requests remain in the browser history
 GET requests can be bookmarked
 GET requests should never be used when dealing with sensitive data
 GET requests have length restrictions
 GET requests are only used to request data (not modify)

The POST Method

POST is used to send data to a server to create/update a resource.
The data sent to the server with POST is stored in the request body of the HTTP request:
POST /test/demo_form.php HTTP/1.1
Host: w3schools.com

name1=value1&name2=value2
Some notes on POST requests:
 POST requests are never cached
 POST requests do not remain in the browser history
 POST requests cannot be bookmarked
 POST requests have no restrictions on data length

Compare GET vs. POST

The following table compares the two HTTP methods: GET and POST.

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The PUT Method

PUT is used to send data to a server to create/update a resource.
The difference between POST and PUT is that PUT requests are idempotent. That is, calling the same PUT request
multiple times will always produce the same result. In contrast, calling a POST request repeatedly have side effects
of creating the same resource multiple times.

The HEAD Method

HEAD is almost identical to GET, but without the response body.
In other words, if GET /users returns a list of users, then HEAD /users will make the same request but will not
return the list of users.
A HEAD request is useful for checking what a GET request will return before actually making a GET request - a
HEAD request can read the Content-Length header to check the size of the file, without actually downloading the
file.

The DELETE Method

The DELETE method deletes the specified resource.

The PATCH Method

The PATCH method is used to apply partial modifications to a resource.

The OPTIONS Method

The OPTIONS method describes the communication options for the target resource.

The CONNECT Method

The CONNECT method is used to start a two-way communications (a tunnel) with the requested resource.

The TRACE Method

The TRACE method is used to perform a message loop-back test that tests the path for the target resource (useful
for debugging purposes).

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What is Internet?
The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the Internet, it's possible
to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more. electronic
devices. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the
world, and do much more. Internet is global communication accessed through the Web. The Internet is a global
system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions
of users worldwide.
What is Interanet?
Intranet is shared content accessed by members within a single organization. An intranet is a private computer
network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or
operational systems within that organization.
What is Extranet?
Extranet is shared content accessed by groups through cross-enterprise boundaries. An extranet is a private network
that uses Internet protocols, network connectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is
extended to users outside the company, usually via the Internet.
Comparative Study
The Internet, extranets, and intranets all rely on the same TCP/IP technologies. However, they are different in terms
of the levels of access they allow to various users inside and outside the organization and the size of the network.
An intranet allows for restricted access to only members of an organization.
An extranet expands that access by allowing non-members such as suppliers and customers to use company
resources. The difference between the Internet and extranets is that while the extranet allows limited access to non-
members of an organization, the Internet generally allows everyone to access all network resources.
How does internet works?
Internet is a global network of physical cables, which can include copper telephone wires, TV cables, and fiber optic
cables. Even wireless connections like Wi-Fi and 3G/4G rely on these physical cables to access the Internet. When
you visit a website, your computer sends a request over these wires to a server. A server is where websites are
stored, and it works a lot like your computer's hard drive. Once the request arrives, the server retrieves the website
and sends the correct data back to your computer.

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