RESISTANCE

The resistance of a ship is the force that resists

the motion of the ship.

Study of Ship Resistance is important because :

 It is necessary to determine the effective power

at the design speed so that an appropriate
propulsion system may be fitted to the ship .

 It is desirable to design the hull form of the ship

so as to minimize its resistance subject to the
various design constraints
 Components of Hull Resistance
The total resistance of a ship may be divided into two main
sections:

(a) Frictional Resistance Rf,

(b) Residuary Resistances Rr,

(c) Air Resistance ,Ra

Rt = Rf + Rr+Ra
Frictional Resistance Rf
As a ship moves through the water, the friction of the
water acting over the entire wetted surface of the hull
causes a net force opposing the ship’s motion.

This frictional/Viscous resistance is a function of the

hull’s wetted surface area, surface roughness, and
water viscosity
 Residuary Resistances- Rr
The Residuary Resistances of a ship may be divided
into:
Resistance caused by the formation of streamlines
round the ship, i.e. due to the change in the direction
of the water.
-Eddy Resistance (reduction - By streamlining )
-Wave making resistance
• The creation of waves requires energy. As ship speed
increases, the height of the waves produced by the
ship increases and therefore the energy required to
produce these waves also increases. This lost energy
is referred to as wave making resistance
• One method to reduce the wave making , resistance
of ships which has proved to be successful is the use
of the bulbous bow.

• The wave produced by the bulb interferes with the

wave produced by the stem, resulting in a reduced
height of bow wave and consequent reduction in the
energy required to produce the wave.
Residuary Resistances follow Froude's Law of
Comparison:
The residuary resistances of similar ships are in the ratio
of the cube of their linear dimensions if their speeds are
in the ratio of the square root of their linear dimensions.

VI and V2 are termed corresponding speeds.

Example. The residuary resistance of a model 7 m long is
20 N when towed at 3.5 knots.
Calculate the power required to overcome the residuary
resistance of a similar ship 140 m long at its
corresponding speed.
 Calculation of the Residuary Resistance from
model Test of the Vessels

The calculation of residuary resistance is usually based

on the results of model experiments.

A wax model of the ship is towed at its corresponding

speed in a towing tank and the total resistance of the
model measured.
 The frictional resistance of the model is calculated
and subtracted from the total resistance, leaving the
residuary resistance.

 The residuary resistance of the model is then used to

determine the residuary resistance of the ship.
In model experiments on ship resistance the Froude
numbers of the model and the ship are made equal.
The Froude law is used to determine the resistance of a
ship from the measured resistance of a model.

Measure model total resistance Rtm at speed V

Determine model Frictional Resistance Rfm
Model Residual Resistance Rrm = Rtm – Rfm

Obtain the ship Residual Resistance Rr at the

corresponding speed V by the Froude law, as
shown below

Rr = Rrm x
Air Resistance

A ship travelling in still air experiences air

resistance on its above-water hull and
superstructure. The level of air resistance will
depend on the size and shape of the superstructure
and on ship speed.
Effective Power of the Ship
• The power required to overcome the total resistance
of the ship is known as the effective power (ep) of the
ship.
• The model is tested without appendages such as
rudder and bilge keels. An allowance must therefore
be made for these appendages and also the general
disturbance of the water at sea compared with tank
conditions. This allowance is known as the ship
correlation factor (SCF)
• Example. A 6 m model of a ship has a wetted surface
area of 8 m2. When towed at a speed of 3 knots in fresh
water the total resistance is found to be 38 N. If the ship
is 130 m long, calculate the effective power at the
corresponding speed.

• Take n = 1.825 and calculate f from the formula. SCF 1

.15 Model Ship R, = 38 N in fresh water
= 38 X 1.025
= 38.95 N in sea water
PITCH OF A PROPELLER
• Pitch is the displacement a propeller makes in a
complete rotation ,measured in inches.
 Apparent and Real Slip
• Pitch ratio p, or face pitch ratio is the face pitch divided by the diameter.
p = P/D

• Theoretical Speed V
T

Is the distance the propeller would advance in unit time if working

in an unyielding fluid. Thus if the propeller turns at N rev/min,

V
T = P x N X60/1852 Knots
• Apparent Slip
Since the propeller works in water, the ship speed
V will normally be less than the theoretical speed. The
difference between the two speeds is known as the
apparent slip and is usually expressed as a ratio or
percentage of the theoretical Speed
Apparent slip speed = VT - V knots
Apparent slip =( VT - V / VT) X 100%.
• Wake
In its passage through the water the ship sets in
motion particles of water In its neighbourhood
(caused, as mentioned earlier, by friction between the
hull and the water). This moving water is known as the
wake. The speed of the ship relative to the wake is
termed the Speed of advance, Va.
 The wake speed is often expressed as a fraction of the
ship speed

Wake Fraction ,w= V- Va /V

• The wake fraction may be obtained approximately from the

expression

W = 0.5 Cb - 0.05

where Cb is the block coefficient.

SEA TRIAL
 Endurance Trial
• The following are the measurements recorded during
endurance trial(6-8 hours as per Class/Owner’s
requirement)

1.Noise levels are recorded at various places on the ship

2.Similarly, vibration levels are recorded at different
places
3.Fuel Oil Consumption in litres/hour is recorded
4.Engine RPM and Load on Diesel Generator Sets are
recorded
5.All systems are checked for any leakages
6.The temperatures and pressures of all systems are
measured and recorded
Crash Stop Tests

1.When the vessel is moving at full ahead speed, the

engine is reversed to full astern to commence
stopping of the vessel
2.The time taken by the vessel to come to a complete
halt is recorded.
3.The distance travelled by ship starting from the
moment the lever was put to full astern until the
ship stopped is noted.
 Turning Circle Test
• This test is carried out to measure the diameter of the
circular path which the vessel starts to traverse as soon
as the rudder is put hard to port or hard to starboard.
The vessel is run to complete one circle. The diameter
of the completed circle is measured using GPS.
 Anchor Test
1.The anchor chain is dropped freely .During this ,brake
is applied 2-3 times to test its capacity.
2.Finally, the anchor is heaved and heaving speed is
measured by noting downtime on the stopwatch for
heaving each chain length. As per rule, the hoisting
speed should not be less than 9m/min
Fuel Coefficient & Fuel Consumption
• The fuel consumption of a ship depends upon the
power developed, indeed the overall efficiency of
power plant is often measured In terms of the specific
fuel consumption which is the consumption per unit
of power, expressed in kg/h.
• The specific fuel consumption of a ship a: different
speeds follows the form shown in Fig. 72
• Between 1 and 2 the specific consumption may be
regarded as constant for practical purposes, and if the
ship speed varies only between these limits,
Fuel consumption/unit time power developed
sp 2/3 V3
Fuel consumption/unit time 2/3V3
Fuel consumption/unit time = ( 2/3 V3 ) /

Fuel coefficient
• Values of fuel coefficient vary between about 40000 and
120000, the higher values indicating more efficient
ships.

Example. The fuel coefficient of a ship of 14000 tonne

displacement is 75000. Calculate the fuel consumption
per day if the vessel travels at 12 ½ knots.
Fuel consumption/unit time = ( 2/3 V3 ) /
Fuel coefficient

Fuel consumption per day =( 2/3 x12.53 ) / 75000

= 15.12 tonne
• If the displacement and fuel coefficient remain
constant, i.e. between 1 and 2 Fig. 7.2:
Fuel consumption/unit time speed3
Cons1 / Cons2 = 1 / 2 )

Example: A ship uses 20 tonne of fuel per day at

13 knots. Calculate the daily consumption at 11
knots.
New daily consumption = 20 X (11/13)
= 12.1 1 tonne.
• The total fuel consumption for any voyage may
be found by multiplying the daily consumption
by the number of days required to complete
the voyage
If D is the distance travelled at V knots, then:
Number of Days D/V
Daily Consumption V3
Total voyage consumption V3 D/V
V2 D
Voy. Cons1/ Voy. Cons2 =
2X D1/D2
• Hence for any given distance travelled the voyage
consumption varies as the speed squared.
Example: A vessel uses 125 tonne of fuel on a voyage
when travelling at 16 knots. Calculate the mass of fuel
saved if, on the return voyage, the speed is reduced to 15
knots, the displacement of the ship remaining constant.
New voyage consumption = 125 (15/16) 2
= 110 tonne
Saving in fuel = 125 – 110 = 15 tonne.