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Ged 102 – Mathematics in the Modern World

Aizelle Kei D. Camilon
 LOGIC STATEMENTS AND QUANTIFIERS
One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely
philosophical subject to a formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely
achieved this goal; however, several mathematicians, such as Augustus de Morgan (1806-
1871) and George Boole (1815-1864), contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as
a mathematical discipline.
Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848. In 1854 he
published the more extensive work, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. Concerning
this document, the mathematician Bertrand Rusell stated, “Pure mathematics was
discovered by Boole in a work which is called The Laws of Thought.”

LOGIC STATEMENTS
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions and
commands. For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Manila is the capital of the Philippines” is a statement of fact.
The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to
sentences that are statement as defined below.
A Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and
false.

It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true to determine whether it

is a statement. For instance, consider the following sentence:
Yosemite National Park is located in California.
You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either
true or it is false, and that is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is
a statement.

Example 1: Identify Statements

Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States. (Florida is one of the 50 states in the US, so
this sentence is true and it is a statement)
b. How are you? (This is a question, thus it is not a statement)
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number. (You may not know if the answer is a prime number;
however, you do know that it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime
or not a prime number. The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both
true and false, so it is a statement.
d. x + 1 = 5 (It is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x=4, and it
is false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, I is true or false, but not
both.
SIMPLE STATEMENT AND COMPUND STATEMENTS
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a
statement that conveys two or more ideas.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if…then, and if and
only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I will
go to school.” is a compound statement. It is composed of two simple statements, “I will
attend the meeting” and “I will go to school”. The word or is a connective for the two
simple statements.
George Boole used symbols such as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 to represent simple statements
and the symbols ∧,∨, ~, →, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ↔ to represent connectives. See Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1
Logic Connectives and Symbols
Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement
not 𝑝 not ~𝑝 Negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 and 𝑝∧𝑞 Conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 or 𝑝∨𝑞 Disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If … then 𝑝→𝑞 Conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 Biconditional
Question: What connective is used in a conjunction?

TRUTH VALUE AND TRUTH TABLES

The truth value of a simple statement is either True or False.
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth value of its simple
statements and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple statements.

The negation of the statement “Today is Friday” is the statement “Today is not Friday.” In
symbolic logic, the tilde symbol ~ is used to denote the negation of a statement. If a
statement p is true, its negation ~p is false, and if a statement p is false, its negation ~p
is true. The negation of the negation of a statement is the original statement. Thus ~(~p)
can be replaced by p in any statement.
TRUTH TABLE FOR ~𝐩
p ~p
T F
F T
Example 2: Write the Negation of a Statement
a. Ellie Goulding is an opera singer. → Ellie Goulding is not an opera singer.
b. The dog does not need to be fed. → The dog needs to be fed.
Your Turn! Write the negation of each statement:
a. The Queen Mary 2 is world’s largest cruise ship.
b. The fire engine is not red.

Example 3: Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to a basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining. → 𝑝∧𝑞
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie. → ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟
c. I am going to a basketball game or I am going to a movie. → ~𝑠 ∨ 𝑟
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game. → 𝑞→𝑠
Your Turn! Write the given statements in Example 3 to write the following compound
statements in symbolic form:
a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.
b. I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
c. I am going to the movie if and only if it is raining.
d. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.

Example 4: Translate Symbolic Statements

Consider the following simple statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 b. ~r ∧ 𝑠 c. 𝑠 ↔ ~𝑝
Solution:
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Mets are favored to win.
c. The Mets are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Atlanta.
COMPOUND STATEMENTS AND GROUPING SYMBOLS
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are
used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together. Table 1.2
illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for some
statements in symbolic form.
TABLE 1.2

Symbolic Form The parentheses indicate that:

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟) q and ~𝑟 are grouped together

(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 p and q are grouped together

𝑝 and ~𝑞 are grouped together
(𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠)
𝑟 and 𝑠 are grouped together
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a
comma is used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together.
Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together. See
Table 1.3.
TABLE 1.3

English Sentence The comma indicates that:

q and ~𝑟 are grouped together because they

p, and q or not r.
are both on the same side of the comma.

p and q are grouped together because they are

p and q, or r.
both on the same side of the comma.

p and ~𝑞 are grouped together because they

are both to the left of the comma.
If p and not q, then r or
s.
r and s are grouped together because they are
both to the right of the comma.

If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English sentence,

then the simple statements that appear together in parentheses in the
symbolic form will all be on the same side of the comma that appears in
the English sentence.
Example 5: Translate Compound Statements
Let p, q and r represent the following:
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 as an English sentence.
b. Write “if you do not complete the training, then you will not get a
promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a. If you get a promotion and you complete the training, then you will
receive a bonus.
b. ~q → (~p ∧ ~r)

The use of parentheses in a symbolic statement may affect the

meaning of the statement. For instance, ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) indicates the negation of
the compound statement 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞. However, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 indicates that only the p
statement is negated.
The statement ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is read as, “It is not true that, p or q.”
the statement ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is read as, “Not p or q.”

If you order cake and ice cream in a restaurant, the waiter will
bring both cake and ice cream. In general, the conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true if
both p and q are true, and the conjunction is false if either p or q is false.
TABLE 1.4
p TRUTH TABLEq FOR 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 𝑝∧𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

TRUTH VALUE OF A CONJUNCTION

The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true if and only if both p and q are true.
 Sometimes the word but is used in place of the connective and.
For instance, “I ride my bike to school, but I ride the bus to work,” is
equivalent to the conjunction, “I ride my bike to school and I ride the bus
to work.”
Any disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true if p is true or q is true or both p and
q are true. The truth table below shows that the disjunction p or q is false
if both p and q are false; however it is true in all other cases.
TABLE 1.5
TRUTH TABLE FOR 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
p q 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

TRUTH VALUE OF A DISJUNCTION

The conjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both p
and q are true.

Example 6: Determine the Truth Value of a Statement.

Determine whether each statement is True or False.
a. 7 ≥ 5. → True
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number. → False
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number. → True
Your Turn! Determine whether each statement is True or False.
a. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.
b. 4 ≤ 9.
c. −7 ≥ −3
QUANTIFIERS AND NEGATION
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and
at least one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are
used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called
universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none and no deny the
existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every
are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some
condition.
Recall that the negation of a false statement is a true statement
and vice versa. It is important to remember this fact when forming the
negation of a quantified statement. For instance, what is the negation of
the false statement, “All dogs are mean”? You may think that the negation
is “No dogs are mean”, but this is also a false statement. Thus the
statement, “No dogs are mean” is not the negation of “All dogs are
mean”. The negation of “All dogs are mean”, which is a false statement is
in fact “Some dogs are not mean”, which is a true statement. The
statement “Some dogs are not mean” can also be stated as “At least one
dog is not mean” or “There exists a dog that is not mean.”
Table 1.6 illustrates how to write the negation of some quantified
statements.
Table 1.6A
Quantified Statements and their Negations
Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.
Table 1.6B
Quantified Statements and their Negations Displayed
in a Compact Format

All X are Y. Some X are not Y.

No X are Y. Some X are Y.

Example 7: Write the Negation of a Quantified Statement
a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Solution:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Your Turn! Write the negation of the following quantified statements.
a. All bears are brown.
b. No smart phones are expensive.
c. Some vegetables are not green.

Reference:
Mathematics in the Modern World
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