DAV INSTITUTIONS, W.

B ZONE

ONE SHOT REVISION

PHYSICS
 CONTENTS

SL CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NO. NO.
1 LIGHT-REFLECTION &REFRACTION 1-6
THE HUMAN EYE & THE
2 COLOURFUL 7-15
WORLD
3 ELECTRICITY 16-18
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC
4 19-24
CURRENT
 LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Refraction of light
Definition
Bending of light ray when it travels from one medium to another of different optical density.
Cause of Refraction
Change in speed of light as it travels from one medium to another of different optical density.
Snell’s Law:
Sin i Values to remember
= Constant = 𝑛21 = 𝑛𝑛21
Sin r
𝟏
𝑛1 = absolute refractive index of medium-1 from where light ray is incident. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎° =
𝟐
𝑛2 = absolute refractive index of medium-2 where light ray is refracted. 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓° =
𝑛21 = refractive index of medium-2 w.r.t medium-1. √𝟐
√𝟑
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎° =
𝟐
Refractive Index in terms of speed of light
Refractive index of any medium w.r.t air or vacuum,
𝑐 Speed of light in air or vacuum Refractive index of glass,
𝑛𝑚 = =
𝑣𝑚 Speed of light in that medium
ng = 1.5
8
Here, c = 3 x 10 m/s
Speed of light in glass,
For air or vacuum 𝑣𝑚 = c
𝒄 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑐
Hence Refractive index of air, n = 𝑐 = 1 vg = =
𝒏𝒈 𝟏.𝟓

For any other medium, 𝑣𝑚 < c = 2 x 108 m/s

Hence Refractive index of any other medium 𝑛𝑚 < 1
refractive index of medium-2 w.r.t medium-1.
𝑛2 Speed of light in medium 1 𝑣1
𝑛21 = = =
𝑛1 Speed of light in medium 2 𝑣2

Relation between refractive index and optical density of a medium

Greater the value of refractive index more is the optical density. For example, refractive indices
of few media are given below,
According to the table,
Medium Refractive index
Water(w) 1.33 In terms of refractive index, d > g > w
Glass(g) 1.52 in terms of optical density, d > g > w
Diamond(d) 2.42 In terms of speed of light, d < g < v

1
Factors on which Refractive index depends Red colour having maximum wavelength
1. Nature of the pair of media has minimum refractive index.
2. Colour or wavelength of incident light Violet colour having minimum wavelength
3. Temperature has maximum refractive index.

Refraction of light through glass slab

Facts to remember
Here,
angle of incidence = angle of
emergence, i = e
and also r1 = r2
There is no angular deviation
only lateral deviation

Comparative Study of Reflection and Refraction at Spherical surfaces

Rules of drawing ray diagrams for spherical mirrors

i) ii) iii)

i) ii) iii)

2
Rules of drawing ray diagrams for spherical lenses
i) ii) iii)

i) ii) iii)

Formula table
Mirror Lens
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Mirror Formula: + = 1. Lens Formula: ‒ =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
ℎ𝐼 𝑣 ℎ𝐼 𝑣
2. Magnification: m = =‒ 2. Magnification: m = =
ℎ𝑜 𝑢 ℎ𝑜 𝑢
1 1
3. Power: 𝑃 = 3. Power: 𝑃 =
𝑓 𝑓

Power of a lens
1
Power =
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
1
P = 𝑓 ; if f is in metre

100
P= ; if f is in cm
𝑓

S.I unit, Dioptre(D)

1 D is the power of a lens of focal length 1 m.
For Convex lens, Power, P is +Ve and for Concave lens, Power, P is -Ve

3
 Sign convention table
Concave mirror Convex Concave Convex lens
mirror lens
Focal length(f) ‒‒ + ‒‒ +
Object distance(u) ‒‒ ‒‒ ‒‒ ‒‒
Types of image Real Virtual Only virtual Only virtual Real Virtual
Image distance(v) ‒‒ + + ‒‒ + ‒‒
Magnification(m) ‒‒ + + + ‒‒ +

Easy way of remembering sign convention

NOTE: This sign convention is only applicable when the object is at the left side of the
mirror or lens.

4
 Magnification table(mirror)

Magnification Type of Object Image Nature of Ray diagram

𝒗
(m = - 𝒖) mirror position position the image
m = ‒1 Concave At C At C Real,
inverted
and same
size

m < 1 and Concave Beyond In Real,

negative C between inverted
3 C and F and
( e.g : m = -4 )
diminished

m > 1 and Concave In Beyond Real,

negative between C inverted
( e.g : m = -3 ) C and F and
magnified

m > 1 and Concave In Behind Virtual

positive between the erect and
( e.g : m = +3) F and P mirror magnified

m < 1 and Convex In front Behind Virtual

positive of the the erect and
1 mirror mirror diminished
( e.g : m = +4 )
between
F and P

5
 Magnification table(Lens)
Magnification Type of Object Image Nature of Ray diagram
𝒗
(m = +𝒖) lens position position the image
m = ‒1 Convex At 2F At 2F Real,
inverted
and same
size

m < 1 and Convex Beyond In Real,

negative 2F between inverted
3 F and and
( e.g : m = -4 )
2F diminished

m > 1 and Convex In Beyond Real,

negative between 2F inverted
( e.g : m = -3 ) F and and
2F magnified

m > 1 and Convex In In front Virtual

positive between of the erect and
( e.g : m = +3) F and O lens magnified

m < 1 and Concave In front In front Virtual

positive of the of the erect and
1 lens lens diminished
( e.g : m = +4 )
between
F and O

6
 Human Eye and The colourful world

Structure of human eye practice of labelling

Parts of eye
➢Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters the eye
through the cornea. Here most of the refraction occurs.
➢Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring like structure behind the cornea is known as the iris. The
colour of the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris also helps to regulate or
adjust exposure by adjusting the iris.
➢Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is controlled with the help of
iris. It controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
➢Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of numerous nerve cells. It converts images
formed by the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical impulses are then
transmitted to the brain through optic nerves. These include cones and rods.

▪ Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. They help in
detailed central and colour vision.
▪ Rods: Rods are the optic nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. They help
in peripheral vision.
Optic nerves: Optic nerves carry the electrical impulse to the brain.

➢Ciliary muscle: The ciliary muscle in the eye holds the lens in proper position and performs
an important mechanism i.e. power of accommodation.
➢Lens: The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material. The role of the lens is to
create an image on the retina of the objects we see.

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 Power of Accommodation
“The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.’’

When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin. Thus, its focal length increases. This
enables us to see distant objects clearly.
When you are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract. This increases the
curvature of the eye lens. The eye lens then becomes thicker. Consequently, the focal length of the
eye lens decreases. This enables us to see nearby objects clearly.

Near point: The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly without
strain , is called the least distance of distinct vision.
The near point is about 25 cm from the eye.

Far point: The farthest point upto which the eye can see objects clearly .It is infinity for a
normal eye.

➢ You may note here a normal eye can see objects clearly those are within 25 cm and
infinity.

Defects of Vision and Their Corrections

There are many types of defects of vision. Here we discuss two types refractive defect and cataract.

Cataract:
A cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye. The lens is normally clear. When clouding occurs, it
keeps light rays from passing through the lens and focusing on the retina. It is corrected by medical
surgery.

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 (i) Myopia or near-sightedness

➢A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
➢ Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.

The cause of this defect is--

(i) excessive curvature of the eye lens,
(ii) elongation of the eyeball.
Note:
(i)In this defect the far point moves towards the eye but the near point remains un affected
(ii) The image of far objects are formed before retina, resulting a blur image.
(iii) Images of nearby objects are formed on retina
Correction: A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus
the defect is corrected.

Calculation of foacl length of the corrective lens for myopia:

Key point: Here the distance of defective far point will be the focal length of the corrective
lens.
Example:
If the distance of defective far point is 80 cm for a myopic eye, the focal length of the
corrective concave lens will be f = - 80 cm and the power of the lens will be
P = 100/( - 80) Dioptre
or, P = - 1.25 Dioptre.

Similar questions:
1. A student can not see the writings on the blackboard from the last bench. State the nature of
eye defect he is suffering from.
2. Show with ray diagram how myopia is corrected by concave lens.
3. State the cause of myopia.
4. The power of the corrective lens for an eye is -2 Dioptre. State the nature of defect and
distance of the far point and near point of the eye.

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 (ii) Hypermetropia or farsightedness

➢A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects clearly.

The cause of this defect is--

(i) The focal length of the eye lens is too long
(ii) The eyeball has become too small.
Note:
(i)In this defect the far point remains same but near point moves away from the eye.
(ii) The image of nearby objects is formed behind the retina resulting a blur image.
(iii) Images of far objects are formed on retina
Correction: A convex lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the
defect is corrected.

Calculation of foacl length of the corrective lens for hypermetropia:

Key point: Here the focal length of corrective convex lens is calculated using the lens formula.
➢The distance of defective near point will be the image distance
➢The object distance will be the 25 cm.
Example:
If the distance of defective near point is 50 cm from the eye, the focal length of the corrective
convex lens will be calculated as follows-
Here , Object distance u = - 25 cm, Image distance v = - 50 cm
Using the lens formula,

The power of the lens will be P = 100/f, or, P = 100/50 , or, P = 2 Dioptre.

Similar questions:
1. A student can not read book kept on his desk but can read writings on the black board. State
the nature of eye defect he is suffering from.
2. Show with ray diagram how hypermetropia is corrected by concave lens.
3. State the cause of myopia.
4. The power of the corrective lens for an eye is +1.5 Dioptre. State the nature of defect and
distance of the far point and near point of the eye.

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 (iii) Presbyopia

The defect of vision arises due to weakening of ciliary muscle is called presbyopia. In this
defect-
➢ A person may find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly without
corrective eye-glasses.
➢A person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
Such people often require bi-focal lenses containing of both concave and convex lenses.

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 Refraction of light through a prism
When a ray of light falls on a prism, it is refracted two times by two refracting surfaces ( surface
AB and AC) as shown in the figure.

The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction
of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation. In this case D is the angle of
deviation.

Show the path of ray through the prism

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 Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

When white light passes trough a prism, it gets split into seven colours. This is called dispersion
of white light.
The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red, as shown in the
figure. The acronym VIBGYOR will help to remember the colours.

Cause:
Different colours of light have different refractive indices
in glass medium so they bend through different angles
with respect to the incident ray as they pass through a
prism.
The red light bends the least while violet bends the most.
Thus the rays of each colour emerge along different paths
and thus become distinct. It is the band of distinct
colours that we see in a spectrum.

Note: If a second prism is placed in inverted position

then all the colours pass through the prism and form
white light again.

The example of dispersion is rainbow which we see in nature after heavy rain. Here white sun
light is dispersed by the water droplets present in the air.

➢Note:
The order of rainbow formation is refraction, dispersion, total internal reflection.

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 Atmospheric Refraction

1. Apparent position of the stars at night:

The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction
continuously before it reaches the earth. The atmospheric refraction
occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index. Since the
atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position
of the star is slightly different from its actual position. The star appears
slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the
horizon.

2. Twinkling of stars:
The stars are very distant, they are approximately point-sized sources of light. As the physical
conditions of the earth’s atmosphere are not stationary the path of rays of light coming from the
star goes on varying slightly, so the apparent position of the star keeps on changing slightly and
the star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.

➢Note:
Why don’t the planets twinkle?
The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as extended sources or collection of a
large number of point-sized sources of light. So the total variation in the amount of light entering
our eye from all the individual point-sized sources will average out to zero, thereby there is no
twinkling effect.

3. Advance sunrise and delayed sunset:

Due to the atmosphere the light from the sun bends towards the normal and reaches our eyes. So
the apparent position of the sun appears slightly above than actual position. So the sun is seen
about 2 min earlier than the actual sunrise and about 2 min after the actual sunset.

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 Scattering of light and its applications

“It is the phenomenon in which light rays deviate from their straight path
when it hits an obstacle such as molecules of gas or dust, water vapors,
etc.”

Note:
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles.
➢Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light ( blue colour of the sky).
➢ Particles of larger size scatter light of longer wavelengths (reddish colour).
➢If the size of the scattering particles is large enough, then, the scattered light may even
appear white ( clouds appear white).

Examples of scattering in daily life:

1. Blue colour of the sky:
When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air (mainly nitrogen gas)
scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red. The scattered blue light
enters our eyes. So the sky looks blue.
➢Note:
If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would
have looked dark. Example: The sky of moon is dark or sky appears dark to an astronaut, the sky
appears dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such
heights.

2. The ‘danger’ signal lights are red in colour:

The red is least scattered by fog or smoke. Therefore, it can be seen from very long distance. So
red colour is used as danger signal. (Video: https://www.youtube.com/shorts/2tGt2u4p33A)

3. Tyndall Effect:
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect.

Example:
➢Tyndall effect can also be
observed when sunlight
passes through a canopy of
a dense forest .
➢Fine beam of sunlight
enters a smoke-filled room.
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 ELECTRICITY
Electric current: Electric current = Electric + current
electric charge ordered flow
Electric current can be measured as the rate of flow of charge i.e. the quantity of charge flowing through
a conductor per second.
𝑸 Q ‘t’ seconds Q
So, mathematically electric current is, I = 𝒕

• SI unit: SI unit of electric current is ‘C/s’ unit is popularly known as ampere which is denoted by ‘A’.

If 1 C of charge is flowing through a conductor in 1 second, then the current will be said to be 1 A.

• Measuring device: Electric current is measured by an ammeter.

It is connected in series in a circuit.
Electric potential: Electric potential at a point in the nearby region of an
electric charge (electric field) is the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
𝑾 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
to that point. So, mathematically electric potential is, V = 𝒒 = .
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑱
Electric potential is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is or J/C or JC-1. This ‘J/C’ unit is popularly known
𝑪
𝟏𝑱
as volt which is denoted by ‘V’. Thus, 1 V = .
𝟏𝑪

• Potential Difference: If ‘W’ amount of work is done in bringing ‘q’ charge from one point to the
other point in an electric field, then the potential difference between the two points is
𝑾
VA-VB = 𝒒

1 V is the potential difference between two points when 1 joule of work is done to move 1 C of charge
between the two points.

• Measuring device: Electric current is measured by a voltmeter.

Ohm’s Law: This law was given by George Simon Ohm which gives the relationship between
current and potential difference in a conductor.

The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential

difference across the two ends of the conductor when temperature and other physical
parameters remains same.

• Mathematically, I ∝ V or, V ∝ I or, V = RI , where, ‘R’ gives the electrical

resistance or simply resistance of the wire.
∆𝑽
• Slope of V-I graph = =R
∆𝑰
• The slope of the V-I graph gives the resistance. If the angle made by the graph
with current axis (I-axis) is more, then the resistance will be more. (Always
check the angle made by the graph with the I-axis to compare resistance). For
example, the resistance R3 is maximum and R1 is minimum according to the given
alongside.
Resistance: Resistance of a conductor is its natural property because of which the motion of the electrons is
slowed down. It is given by the ratio of potential difference to the current passing through the conductor.

16
 • SI unit: The SI unit of resistance is ‘V/A’ which is popularly known as ohm which is
𝟏𝑽
denoted by ′Ω’. Thus, 1Ω = .
𝟏𝑨

The resistance of a conductor will be said to be 1Ω if 1A current passes through it when the potential
difference across its two ends is 1 V.
Resistivity: The resistance of a conductor depends on:
(i) Length of the conductor: Resistance increases if the length of the conductor increases i.e. R ∝ L
(ii) Area of cross-section of the conductor: Resistance decreases if the area of the cross-section of
𝟏
the conductor increases i.e. R ∝ 𝑨
𝑳 𝝆𝑳
Combining the above two dependences we get, R ∝ or, R = , where 𝜌 is called resistivity
𝑨 𝑨
or specific resistance of the material which depends on the nature of material. Thus,
𝑹𝑨
𝜌= 𝑳
(iii) Nature of the material: From the above equation it is clear that resistance depends on the nature
of the material of the conductor.
𝑹𝑨 Ω−m2
• SI unit: 𝜌= , so, SI unit of resistivity will be =Ω−m
𝑳 𝒎
• Resistivity is an unique or fundamental property of a material.
• Resistivity doesn’t depend on the length and area of cross-section of a conductor.
• Materials with low resistivity are used as conducting wires while materials with high
resistivity is used as heating elements of many electrical devices.
Combination of resistors ( or resistances): Resistors can be joined either in series or in parallel. Practically
in most of the circuits a mixed combination of series and parallel combinations is used
Series Combination:
• Here the resistors are connected end to
end and same current flows through
each resistor.
Here, V = V1+ V2+ V3, Now, from Ohm’s
law V1= IR1, V2= IR2 and V3= IR3
But from the equivalent circuit, V= IReq.
So, IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or, Req = R1 + R2 + R3
If, ‘n’ numbers of equal resistors each of resistance ‘R’ are connected in series, then the equivalent
resistance will be ‘nR’
Parallel Combination:
• Here the resistors are connected between
two common ends and same potential
difference acts across each resistor.
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
Here, I = I1+ I2+ I3, Now, from Ohm’s law I1= , I2= 𝑹 and I3=
𝑹𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑽
But from the equivalent circuit, I= .
𝑹𝒆𝒒
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
So, =𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹 or, 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹
𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

If, ‘n’ numbers of equal resistors each of resistance ‘R’ are connected in series, then the equivalent
𝑹
resistance will be 𝒏 .

17
Heating effect of electric current:
The heating effect of electric current is the process of converting some of the electrical energy into
heat energy when an electric current passes through a conductor. This is also known as Joule’s
heating effect. The heating effect of an electric current depends on three factors:
Resistance: The higher the resistance of the conductor, the more heat is produced.
Time: The longer the current flows, the more heat is produced.
Current: The higher the current, the more heat is produced
Joule experimentally proved that if ‘H’ heat is produced when ‘I’ current is flowing through a
resistance ‘R’ in time ‘t’, then , H ∝ I2, H ∝ R and H ∝ t
Combining this we get H ∝ I2Rt or H = I2Rt (Proportionality constant is 1, when H is expressed in
joule).
Applications:
• Electric heater, electric iron, electric toaster, electric fuses electric furnace, filament of electric lamp, geyser
etc.
Electric Power: The rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electric circuit is called electric
power which is given by P = VI ( use this formula when both current and voltage is changing).
Or, P = I2R (use this formula when current ‘I’ is constant)
𝑽𝟐
= (use this formula when voltage ‘V’ is constant)
𝑹
S.I. Unit of power: SI unit of power is Watt (W) ⇒ 1 Watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere
Bigger unit of power is kilowatt (kW); 1 kW = 1000 W
→ Commercial unit of electric energy = Kilo Watt hour (KWh) ( Energy = power x time)
⇒ 1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 J
⇒1 KWh = 1 unit of electric energy= electrical energy consumed by a device of 1 kW in 1 hour.

*************

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 Topic: Magnetic effect of electric current

Magnetic effect of electric current:

Magnetic field is produced around a conductor when an electric current passing through that
conductor.

Oersted Experiment:
Hans Christian Oersted observed that a magnetic compass needle was deflected when a nearby
current-carrying conductor produced a magnetic field around the compass. He found that the needle got
deflected as if it was acted upon by a magnet.

Conclusion: A current carrying conductor produces magnetic field or a current carrying conductor behaves
like a magnet

Magnetic field: The region surrounding a magnet or a current carrying conductor, in which the influence
of that magnet is felt, is called the magnetic field. It is a vector quantity.

Magnetic field lines or lines of force: Magnetic field lines are imaginary curved lines in a magnetic
field, the direction of that field at any point is given by the tangent drawn at that point on the line of force
passing through that point.

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Properties of magnetic field lines:
(i) Magnetic field lines form closed loop.
(ii) It starts from North Pole of a magnet and ends at South Pole.
(iii) The degree of closeness of field lines gives the strength of the magnetic field.
(iv) No two field lines intersect each other, if so the field would have two directions at the point of
intersection which is impossible.

Magnetic field produced by

Straight current carrying Current carrying circular loop Solenoid

conductor
Factors on which magnetic field Factors on which magnetic field Factors on which magnetic field
produced by straight conductor produced by loop depend on produced by solenoid depend on
depend on i) Magnetic field i) Magnetic field
i) Magnetic field increases with increase increases with increase
increases with increase in magnitude of in magnitude of
in magnitude of electric current.
electric current and
electric current and ii) Magnetic field
vice versa . vice versa . increases with increase
ii) Magnetic field ii) Magnetic field in no. of turns per unit
increases with increases with length but
decrease in distance of decrease in radius of independent of total
the loop and vice no. of turns.
field point and vice
versa . iii) Magnetic field
versa . produced by a
iii) Magnetic field
solenoid with iron as
increases with increase core is more than that
in number of turns of of filled with air as
the loop and vice versa permeability of iron is
more than that of air.

Nature of the magnetic field lines

Field lines are concentric circles

around the conductor.
Nature of the magnetic field lines
Nature of the magnetic field lines
The direction of magnetic field is
Magnetic field is uniform or
given by Right Hand Thumb Rule Near the coil field lines are constant inside the solenoid ie
or Maxwell's cork screw rule. concentric circles and near the field lines are parallel.
centre field lines are straight.
The direction of magnetic field is
The direction of magnetic field is given by Right Hand Thumb Rule
given by Right Hand Thumb Rule or Clock rule.
or Clock rule.

20
Right Hand Thumb Rule: This rule states that if a current-carrying conductor is supposed to be held in
the right hand such that the thumb points towards the direction of current, then the direction of curl of
fingers around the conductor will give the direction of the magnetic field.

Maxwell's cork screw rule: Suppose the forward motion of a right-handed cork screw is in the
direction of the current flowing in a conductor, then the direction of rotation of the handle gives the
direction of the magnetic field lines around the conductor.

Clock rule: This rule gives the polarity of any face of the circular current loop. If the current round any
face of the coil is in anticlockwise direction, it behaves like a north pole. If the current flows in the
clockwise direction, it behaves like a south pole.

Force on a current carrying conductor or a moving charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.
Force on a current carrying conductor Force on a charged particle
Force ‘F’ on a conductor of length ‘L’ carrying Force ‘F’ on a charged particle ‘q’ moving with
current I in a uniform magnetic field B is directly velocity ‘v’ in a uniform magnetic field B is directly
proportional to proportional to
i) Strength of the magnetic field i) Magnitude of charge
ii) Magnitude of current ii) Velocity of the charged particle
iii) Length of the conductor iii) Strength of the magnetic field
F=BIL F=qvB

F is maximum (F = B I L) when conductor is placed F is maximum (F = q v B ) when charged particle

perpendicular to the field. moving perpendicular to the field.
F is minimum (F = 0) when conductor is placed F is minimum (F = 0) when charged particle moving
parallel to the field. parallel to the field.
The direction of force is given by Fleming’s Left The direction of force is given by Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule. Hand Rule.

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The direction of force experienced by a current carrying conductor or a moving charged particle in a
uniform magnetic field is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: It states that stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of left
hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other, If the forefinger points towards the
direction of magnetic field and the middle finger towards the direction of current, then the thumb gives
the direction of the force (deflection of the conductor) acting on the conductor.

Similarities and dissimilarities between Bar magnet and Solenoid

Similarities
Bar Magnet Solenoid
Bar magnet have attractive and directive properties, Solenoid have attractive and directive properties, ie
ie it (compass) aligns along north and south pole of a freely suspended solenoid aligns along north and
the earth. south pole of the earth.
Nature of the field lines are similar like a Bar
Nature of the field lines is similar like a solenoid. magnet.

Dissimilarities
Bar Magnet Solenoid
The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. A solenoid is an electromagnet (Coil of wire wound
on a rod-shaped form made of solid iron, solid steel)
The poles of the bar magnet are fixed. It acts as a magnet only when an electric current is
passed through it.
The strength of the magnetic field of a bar magnet is The strength of the magnetic field depends on the
fixed. electric current that is passed through it.
The poles a solenoid can be altered.

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Domestic circuit:
We receive alternating electric power supply of frequency 50 Hz through overhead lines or
underground cables called mains.
For small loads we require two wires from mains called phase wire and neutral wire which are connected
to the electric meter.
The electric meter measures the energy consumed in kilowatt-hour called unit.
Wire with red insulation is used as phase (or live wire). If we touch the naked live wire accidentally, we
may get an electric shock.
Another wire with black insulation cover is used for neutral wire. The potential difference (voltage)
between the live and neutral wires is 220 volt in India. The wire with green insulation is used as earth
wire.

Differences between Alternating current and Direct current:

Alternating current(AC) Direct current(DC)
It is the electric current which reverses its direction It is the electric current which flows in the same
after every fixed interval of time. direction.

The positive (+) and negative (-) polarities of an The positive (+) and negative (-) of a direct current
alternating current keep on interchanging source remains throughout same.
periodically.
It is produced by generator. It is produced by a chemical cell or a battery.

Advantages of AC Disadvantages of AC
(i) AC can be easily converted to D.C. (i) It can be dangerous to work on AC system of
(ii) AC of any voltage can be obtained by using same voltage as compared to DC because there are
stepping up or stepping down transformers. higher peak values in A.C. system for the same value
(iii) Alternating current can be transmitted at very of the voltage. For example, a 220 V ac. has a peak
high voltage and lesser current over long distances of 311 V.
with negligible loss of energy.
(iv) AC cannot be used for electrolytic processes
like electroplating, electrotyping, electrolysis etc.
5

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Two main faults of electric circuit:
Short circuiting Overloading
A sudden flow of a very large current due to direct When too many electric appliances of high power
contact of s live wire and a neutral wire is called rating are connected to a single socket and turn on
short circuiting. simultaneously then extremely large current is
drawn, are called overloading.

Safety Measures:
To avoid probable electric shock, mainly two safety measures are installed in electric circuits.

(i) Fuse or circuit breakers: An electric fuse is a safety device which is used to limit the current in an
electric circuit. The purpose of the 'fuse' is to safeguard the circuit and appliances connected to it from
getting damaged due to excessive heating caused by the flow of a large amount of current.
• It works on heating effect of electric current.
• It has high resistivity and low melting point.

(ii) Earthing: The process of connecting the appliances to the ground with a conductor is called earthing.
It saves the appliances from short circuiting and overloading.
If the insulation of a live wire gets damaged, then the live wire may touch the metallic body of the
appliance say electric iron. If somehow we touch any part of this appliance, a high current flows through
our body into the earth and we get an electric shock. In case the leaky appliance is grounded, then an easy
path is connecting earth to flow the electric charges while overloading and short circuiting. This can save
the further damage to the appliance.

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