Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 5
Introduction to Differential
Analysis of Fluid Motion

1
 Integral V.S. Differential
 Integration equations are usefull when we are interested
in the gross behavior of a flow field and its effect on
various device. However, the integral approach does not
enable us to obtain detailed point-by-point knoledge of the
flow field.
 For example, the integral approach could provide
information on the lift generated by a wing; it could not be
used to determine the pressure distribution that produced
the lift in the wing.
 To see what is happing in a flow field in detail, we need
differential forms of the equation of motion.

2
Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion
Main Topics
1. Conservation of Mass
2. Stream Function for Two-Dimensional
Incompressible Flow
3. Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics)
4. Momentum Equation
5. Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics

3
 5.1 Conservation of Mass
Basic Law for a System

4
 Conservation of Mass
Rectangular Coordinate System

5
 Conservation of Mass
Rectangular Coordinate System

(5.1a)

“Del” Operator

(5.1b) “Continuity Equation”

6
 Conservation of Mass
Rectangular Coordinate System

(5.1b)

Incompressible Fluid:

(5.1c)

Steady Flow:

(5.1d)
7
 Example 5.1
INTEGRATION OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL
DIFFERENTIAL CONTINUITY EQUATION

For a two-dimensional flow in the xy plane, the x component

of velocity is given by u = Ax.
Determine a possible y component for incompressible flow.
How many y components are possible ?
Given: Two-dimensional flow in the xy plane for which
u =Ax.
Find: (a) Possible y component for incompressible flow.
(b) Number of possible y components.
8


u =Ax 9
which gives an expression for the rate of change of v holding x
constant. This equation can be integrated to obtain an
expression for v. The result is

{The function of x and t appears because we had a partial

derivative of v with respect to y. }
Any function f (x, t) is allowable, since
Thus any number of expressions for v could satisfy the
differential continuity equation under the given
conditions. The simplest expression for v would be obtained
by setting f (x, t) = 0. Then v = -Ay, and
10
 Example 5.2
UNSTEADY DIFFERENTIAL
CONTINUITY EQUATION
A gas-filled pneumatic strut in an automobile suspension
system behaves like a piston-cylinder apparatus. At one instant
when the piston is L = 0.15 m away from the closed end of the
cylinder, the gas density is uniform at ρ = 18 kg/m3 and the
piston begins to move away from the closed end at V = 12 m/s.
Assume as a simple model that the gas
velocity is one-dimensional and
proportional to distance from the closed
end; it varies linearly from zero at the
end to u = V at the piston. Find the rate
of change of gas density at this instant.
Obtain an expression for the average
density as a function of time.
11
12


13
 





14
 Conservation of Mass
Cylindrical Coordinate System

(5.2a)
15
 Conservation of Mass
Cylindrical Coordinate System

(3.19)

“Del” Operator

(5.1b)

16
 Conservation of Mass
Cylindrical Coordinate System

(5.1b)

Incompressible Fluid:

(5.2b)

Steady Flow:

(5.2c) 17
 Example 5.3
DIFFERENTIAL CONTINUITY EQUATION
IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

Consider a one-dimensional radial flow in the rθ plane, given

by Vr = f(r) and Vθ = 0. Do the conditions on f(r) required for
the flow to be incompressible.
Given: One-dimensional radial flow in the rθ plane: Vr = f(r)
and Vθ = 0
Find: Requirements on f(r) for incompressible flow.

18
19
 Thus the continuity equation shows that the radial velocity
must be Vr = f(r) = C/r for one-dimensional radial flow of an
incompressible fluid.
This is not a surprising result: As the fluid moves outward
from the center, the volume flow rate (per unit depth in the z
direction) Q = 2π rV at any radius r is constant.

20
 Home Works
5.2
5.5
5.11
5.15

21
5.2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional
Incompressible Flow
Two-Dimensional Flow

Stream Function ψ

Let

 Conservation of mass is automatically satisfied

22
Stream Function for Two-Dimensional
Incompressible Flow
Cylindrical Coordinates

Stream Function ψ(r,θ)

Let

 Conservation of mass is automatically satisfied

23
 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional
Incompressible Flow
Along a streamline Stream Function ψ (x, y) = constant

The volume flow rate (per unit depth) between two streamline is
given by the difference between the two streame function values.
The velocity will be relatively high wherever the streamlines are
close together, and relatively low wherever the streamlines are
far apart. 24
 Example 5.4
STREAM FUNCTION FOR FLOW IN A CORNER

Given the velocity field for steady, incompressible flow in a

comer (Example 2. l), with A = 0.3 s-l,
determine the stream function that will yield this velocity
field. Plot and interpret the streamline pattern in the first and
second quadrants of the xy plane.

25
(1)

26
27
Lines of constant ψ represent streamlines in the flow field.
The constant c may be chosen as any convenient value for
plotting purposes. The constant is chosen as zero in order that
the streamline through the origin be designated as ψ = ψ 1 =
0. Then the value for any other streamline represents the flow
between the origin and that streamline. With c = 0 and A = 0.3
s-l, then

This equation of a streamline is identical to the result (xy =

constant) obtained in Example 2.1.

28
Separate plots of the streamlines in the first and second
quadrants are presented below. Note that in quadrant 1, u > 0,
so ψ values are positive. In quadrant 2, u < 0, so ψ values
are negative.
29
In the first quadrant, since u > 0 and v < 0, the flow is from
left to right and down. The volume flow rate between the
streamline ψ = ψ1 through the origin and the streamline ψ =
ψ2 is

In the second quadrant, since u < 0 and v < 0, the flow is from
right to left and down. The volume flow rate between
streamlines ψ7 and ψ9 is

The negative sign is consistent with flow having u < 0.

NOTE: As both streamline spacing in the graphs and the

equation for V indicate, the velocity is smallest near the origin
(a “cornen”).
30
 Home Works
5.22
5.26

31
 5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)

• Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle

in a Velocity Field
• Fluid Rotation
• Fluid Deformation
Angular Deformation
Linear Deformation

32
Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)

33
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in
a Velocity Field
Material Derivaive

(5.9)

(particles are convected

toward the low-velocity
region in steady flow) 34
Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
(5.10)

(5.11)

35
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a
Velocity Field (Cylindrical)

(5.12)

36
 Example 5.5
PARTICLE ACCELERATION IN EULERIAN AND
LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTIONS

Consider two-dimensional, steady, incompressible flow

through the plane converging channel shown. The velocity on
the horizontal centerline (x axis) is given by

Find an expression for the acceleration of

a particle moving along the centerline
using (a) the Eulerian approach and (b)
the Lagrangian approach. Evaluate the
acceleration when the particle is at the
beginning and at the end of the channel.

37
Given: Steady, two-dimensional, incompressible flow through
the converging channel shown.
on x axis

Find: (a) The acceleration of a particle moving along the

centerline using the Eulerian approach.
(b) The acceleration of a particle moving along the
centerline using the Lagrangian approach.
(c) Evaluate the acceleration when the particle is at the
beginning and at the end of the channel.

38
39
40
(b) The Lagrangian approach (See Text p160)

In this approach we need to obtain the motion of a fluid particle as

we would in particle mechanics; that is, we need the position
and then we can obtain the velocity and
acceleration
Actually, we are considering motion along the x axis, so we want
xp(t), and . We are not given xp(t),
but we do have

Separating variables, and using limits x0 (t =0) =0 and xp(t = t) = xp,

 (1)
41
(2)

42
 (c) We wish to evaluate the acceleration when the particle is
at x = 0 and x = L. For the Eulerian approach this is
straightforward:

Then, from Eq. 1,

For the Lagrangian approach, we need to find the times at which

x = 0 and x = L. Using Eq. 2, these are

Note that both approaches yield the same results for particle
acceleration, as they should. 43
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Rotation
A fluid particle moving in a general three-dimensional flow
field may rotate about all three coordinate axes.

44
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Rotation
(5.13)

(5.14)

(5.15)

(5.17)

Stokes
Theorem (5.18)
in 2D 45
 Example 5.6
FREE AND FORCED VORTEX FLOWS
Consider flow fields with purely tangential motion (circular
streamlines): Vr = 0 and Vθ = f(r).
Evaluate the rotation, vorticity, and circulation for rigid-
body rotation, a forced vortex. Show that it is possible to
choose f(r) so that flow is irrotational, i.e., to produce a free
vortex.
Given: Flow fields with tangential motion, Vr = 0 and
Find: (a) Rotation, vorticity, and circulation for rigid-body
motion (a forced vortex).
(b) Vθ = f(r) for irrotational motion (a free vortex)
46
47
Since ωz = ω = constant, the circulation about any closed
contour is given by Γ = 2ω A, where A is the area enclosed by
the contour. Thus for rigid-body motion (a forced vortex), the
rotation and vorticity are constants; the circulation depends on
the area enclosed by the contour.

48


49
• It turns out that the circulation around any contour not
enclosing the singular point at the origin is zero. Streamlines
for the two vortex flows are shown below, along with the
location and orientation at different instants of a cross
marked in the fluid that was initially at the 12 o'clock
position.

50
• For the rigid-body motion (which occurs, for example, at the
eye of a tornado, creating the "dead” region at the very
center), the cross rotates as it moves in a circular motion;
also, the streamlines are closer together as we move away
from the origin.
• For the irrotational motion (which occurs, for example,
outside the eye of a tornado--in such a large region viscous
effects are negligible), the cross does not rotate as it moves
in a circular motion; also, the streamlines are farther apart as
we move away from the origin.
51
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Deformation:
Angular Deformation

(5.19a)

(5.19b)

(5.19c)

52
 Motion of a Fluid Particle
(Kinematics)
Fluid Deformation:
Linear Deformation

53
 Example 5.7

A viscometric flow in the narrow gap between large parallel

plates is shown. The velocity field in the narrow gap is given
by where U =4 mm/s and h =4 mm. At t = 0 line
segments ac and bd are marked in the fluid to form a cross as
shown. Evaluate the positions of the marked points at t = 1.5 s
and sketch for comparison. Calculate the rate of angular
deformation and the rate of rotation of a fluid particle in this
velocity field. Comment on your results.

54
55
(5.19a)

(5.14)
56
 Example 5.8

The velocity field represents flow in a "comer,"

as shown in Example 5.4, where A = 0.3 s-1 and the coordinates
are measured in meters. A square is marked in the fluid as
shown at t = 0. Evaluate the new positions of the four comer
points when point a has moved to x = 3/2 m after τ seconds.
Evaluate the rates of linear deformation in the x and y
directions. Compare area at t = τ with area abcd at t =
0. Comment on the significance of this result.
Given: ; A =0.3 s-l, x and y in meters.
Find: (a) Position of square at t = τ when a is at a' at x = 3/2 m.
(b) Rates of linear deformation.
(c) Area compared with area abcd.
57
(d) Significance of the results.
Given: ; A =0.3 s-l, x and y in meters.
Find: (a) Position of square at t = τ when a is at a' at x = 3/2 m.
(b) Rates of linear deformation.
(c) Area compared with area abcd.
(d) Significance of the results.

58
 First we must find τ, so we must follow a fluid particle
using a Lagrangian description. Thus

 
59


60
61
Notes:
1. Parallel planes remains parallel; there is linear deformation
but no angular deformation.

2. The flow is irrotational.

3. Volume is conserved because the two rates of linear

deformation are equal and opposite.

62
 Home Works
5.30
5.38
5.46
5.49
5.57
5.59
5.66
5.68
5.70

63
 5.4 Momentum Equation
Newton’s Second Law

(5.22)

Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle

Stresses in the x
direction on an
(5.23)
element of fluid
64
Substitute Eqs(5.23) for the force components into the x, y,
and z components of Eq (5.22), obtain the differential
equations of motion:

(5.24a)

(5.24b)

(5.24c)

65
Stresses may be expressed in terms of velocity gradients

(5.25a)

where p is the local thermdynamic pressure.

66
Newtonian Fluid: Navier–Stokes Equations

Substitute Eqs(5.25) into Eqs (5.24), we obtain:

(5.26a)

(5.26b)

(5.26c)
67
 Momentum Equation
Newtonian Fluid: Navier–Stokes Equations
For incompressible flow with constant viscosity：

(5.27a)

(5.27b)

(5.27c)

68
 Momentum Equation

Special Case: Euler’s Equation

For inviscid and incompressible flow ：

(6.1)

69
 Example 5.9
ANALYSIS OF FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR
FLOW DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE SURFACE
A liquid flows down an inclined plane surface in a steady,
fully developed laminar film of thickness h. Simplify the
continuity and Navier-Stokes equations to model this flow
field. Obtain expressions for the liquid velocity profile, the
shear stress distribution, the volume flow rate, and the average
velocity. Relate the liquid film thickness to the volume flow
rate per unit depth of surface normal to the flow. Calculate the
volume flow rate in a film of water h = 1 mm thick, flowing
on a surface b = 1 m wide, inclined at θ = 15o to the
horizontal.

70
Given: Liquid flow down an inclined plane surface in a
steady, fully developed laminar film of thickness h.
Find: (a) Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations simplified
to model this flow field.
(b) Velocity profile.
(c) Shear stress distribution.
(d) Volume flow rate per unit depth of surface normal
to diagram.
(e) Average flow velocity.
71
Find: (f) Film thickness in terms of volume flow rate per
unit depth of surface normal to diagram.
(g) Volume flow rate in a film of water 1 mm thick on a
surface 1 m wide, inclined at 15o to the horizontal.
Solution: The geometry and coordinate system used to model
the flow field are shown. (It is convenient to align one
coordinate with the flow down the plane surface.)

72
The governing equations written for incompressible flow with
constant viscosity are:

73
The terms canceled to simplify the basic equations are keyed by
number to the assumptions listed below. The assumptions are
discussed in the order in which they are applied to simplify the
equations.
Assumptions:
1 Steady flow (given).
2 Incompressible flow; ρ = constant.
3 No flow or variation of properties in the z direction;

4 Fully developed flow, so no properties vary in the x

direction;
Assumption 1 eliminates time variations in any fluid property.
Assumption 2 eliminates space variations in density.

74
Assumption 3 states that there is no z component of velocity
and no property variations in the z direction. All terms in the z
component of the Navier-Stokes equation cancel.
After assumption 4 is applied, the continuity equation reduces
to
Assumptions 3 and 4 also indicate that
Therefore v must be constant. Since v is zero at the solid
surface, then v must be zero everywhere.
The fact that v = 0 reduces the Navier-Stokes equations
further, as indicated by (5) in Eqs. 5.27a and 5.27b. The final
simplified equations are:
Fully developed

75
 (3)

(4)

u(y=0) = 0 into Eq(4)

 c2=0
76
From Eq.3 at y = h

77
The shear stress in the fluid reaches its maximum value at the
wall (y = 0); as we expect, it is zero at the free surface (y = h).
At the wall the shear stress τyx is positive but the surface
normal for the fluid is in the negative y direction; hence the
shear force acts in the negative x direction, and just balances
the x component of the body force acting on the fluid.

78
 The volume flow rate is

where b is the surface width in the z direction.

Substituting,

79
80
 Example 5.10
ANALYSIS OF LAMINAR VISCOMETRIC FLOW
BETWEEN COAXIAL CYLINDERS
A viscous liquid fills the annular gap
between vertical concentric cylinders. The
inner cylinder is stationary, and the outer
cylinder rotates at constant speed. The flow
is laminar. Simplify the continuity, Navier-
Stokes, and tangential shear stress equations
to model this flow field. Obtain expressions
for the liquid velocity profile and the shear
stress distribution.
Compare the shear stress at the surface of the inner cylinder
with that computed from a planar approximation obtained by
"unwrapping" the annulus into a plane and assuming a linear
velocity profile across the gap. 81
Determine the ratio of cylinder radii for which the planar
approximation predicts the correct shear stress at the surface
of the inner cylinder within 1 percent.
Given: Laminar viscometric flow of liquid in annular gap
between vertical concentric cylinders. The inner cylinder is
stationary, and the outer cylinder rotates at constant speed.
Find:
(a) Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations
simplified to model this flow field.
(b) Velocity profile in the annular gap.
(c) Shear stress distribution in the annular
gap.
(d) Shear stress at the surface of the inner
cylinder
82
 (e) Comparison with “planar” approximation for constant
shear stress in the narrow gap between cylinders.
(f) Ratio of cylinder radii for which the planar approximation
predicts shear stress within 1 percent of the correct value.
Solution: The geometry and coordinate system used to model
the flow field are shown.
(The z coordinate is directed vertically upward; as a
consequence, gr = gθ = 0 and gz= -g.)
The continuity, Navier-Stokes, and tangential shear stress
equations written in cylindrical coordinates for incompressible
flow with constant viscosity are:

(continuity)

83
84
shear stress

85
The terms canceled to simplify the basic equations are keyed
by number to the assumptions listed below. The assumptions
are discussed in the order in which they are applied to simplify
the equations.
Assumptions:
1 Steady flow; angular speed of outer cylinder is constant.
2 Incompressible flow; ρ = constant.
3 No flow or variation of properties in the z direction;

4 Circumferentially symmetric flow, so properties do not

vary with θ, so
Assumption 1 eliminates time variations in fluid properties.
Assumption 2 eliminates space variations in density.
86
Assumption 3 causes all terms in the z component of the
Navier-Stokes equation to cancel, except for the hydrostatic
pressure distribution.

87
&


88
(1)
(2)

&

&

89

90
91
92


The accuracy criterion is met when the gap width is less than
2 percent of the cylinder radius. 93
5.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics
Some Applications

94