This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

information in books and make it universally accessible.

https://books.google.com
 BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD TARGET
Graduate Library
University of Michigan
Preservation Office

Storage Number:
ABN7298
UL FMT B RT a BLm T/C DT 09/12/88 R/DT 04/28/94 CC STAT mm E/L 1
035/1: : | a (RLIN)MIUG86-B46729
035/2: : | a (CaOTULAS)160036474
040: : | a RPB | c RPB | d MiU
100:1 : | a Loney,Sidney Luxton, | d 1860-
245:00: | a Plane trigonometry, ❘c byS.L. Loney.
260:: | a Cambridge [Eng.] | b University press, | c 1893.
300/1: : | a xvi, p., 1 L., 480, xxvi p. | b diagrs. | c 19 cm.
505/1: 0 : | a pt. 1. [An elementary course, excluding the useofimaginary
quantities]--pt. 2. Analytical trigonometry.
650/1: 0: | a Plane trigonometry.
998:: | cRAS | s 9124

Scanned by Imagenes Digitales

Nogales, AZ
On behalf of
Preservation Division
The University ofMichiganLibraries
Date work Began: -

Camera Operator:
 1837

ARTES

E R
TINIV OF
LIBRARY
S I T Y M I C
VERITAS
H I G A N SCIENTIA

OF THE

SE PLURIBUS UNUM

TUEBOR

SI -QUÆRIS-PENINSULAM-ΑΜΟΣΝΑΜ

CIRCUNSPICE

FROM THE LIBRARYOF

PROFESSOR W.W.BEMAN
AB.1870; AM,1873
TEACHEROF MATHEMATICS
1871-1922
 By the same Author.
A TREATISE ON ELEMENTARY DYNAMICS.
Crown 8vo. Second Edition, Reprinted. 7s. 6d.
The Athenæum says :-This is one of the best and most complete
treatises
long time.on The
elementary dynamics
principles of the which have
subject are comewith
stated beforegreat
us clear-
for a
ness, particularly
and the illustrative examples are very appropriate. We com-
have
been struck with the manner in which the author
bines perspicuity
dimensions," a with brevity
subject which, in his short
though chapterveryonsimple,
apparently " unitsoften
and
presents
due to hisconsiderable
chapter on difficulties to a beginner.
the " hodograph" Specialaccelerations.”
and " normal praise is also
the The Cambridge
production
plete. of a Review says :-text-book,
most valuable Mr Loney atmaybe
once congratulated
simple and com-on
laws ofThe
wrought-out
earlierarechapters
motionexamples treated
clears
onwithuniformly
up extreme
many
accelerated motionchapter
simplicity....A
difficulties which the
and theof
beginner
experiences
inusedtheintext. inWe
tackling
are problems,but
glad to see that which
the could scarcely
method of the be explainedis
hodograph
considered treating of normal
as a case of simpleacceleration, and that cycloidal motion is
harmonic motion.
SOLUTIONS TO THE EXAMPLES IN THE
ELEMENTARY DYNAMICS. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
THE ELEMENTS OF STATICS AND DYNA-
MICS. PART I. STATICS. Third Edition, Revised.
Ex. Fcap. 8vo. 4s. 6d. PART II. ELEMENTS OF
DYNAMICS.
3s. 6d. TheSecond Edition,
two parts boundRevised
in one and
volumeEnlarged.
7s. 6d.
SOLUTIONS TO THE EXAMPLES IN THE
ELEMENTS OF STATICS AND DYNAMICS.
Ex. Fcap. 8vo. 7s. 6d.
MECHANICS AND HYDROSTATICS FOR
BEGINNERS. Ex. Fcap. 8vo. 4s. 6d.
Nature
tained saysauthor
and the :--Themust
sameagain
highbestandard of excellence
congratulated is main-to
on his efforts
place
ideas inof the
thehands
laws of a principles
and beginner awhich
book which
are will giveinhim
included a correctof
study
mechanics....If the reader should fail to understand the chapter on
thethelawsnature
orimprove of motion,
of the hesubject,
must for
attribute
we ittoeither
fail see to histhewant
how of ability
author could
his remarks on this part of the subject.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. Part I. An elementary
course, 8vo.
Crown excluding
5s. the use of imaginary quantities.
London : C. J. CLAY AND SONS,
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.
 PLANE
TRIGONOMETRY.
 London : C. J. CLAY AND SONS,
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.

Cambridge : DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO.

Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
New York : MACMILLAN AND CO.
 w.w.Beman

PLANE
TRIGONOMETRY

BY

S. L. LONEY, M.A.
LATE FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE .

CAMBRIDGE :
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
1893
[All Rights reserved.]
 Cambridge :
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS .
 PREFACE.

THEfairlyfollowing work will, I hope, be found to be a

complete elementary text-book on Plane Trigo-
nometry, suitable for Schools and the Pass and Junior
Honour classes of Universities. In the higher portion of
the book I have endeavoured to present to the student,
as simply as possible, the modern treatment of complex
quantities, and I hope it will be found that he will have
little to unlearn when he commences to read treatises of
a more difficult character.
As Trigonometry consists largely of formulæ and the
applications thereof, I have prefixed (on pages xto xvi) a
list of the principal formulæ which the student should
commit to memory. These more important formulæ
are distinguished in the text by the use of thick type.
Other formulæ are subsidiary and ofless importance.
The number of examples is very large. A selection
only should be solvedby the student on a first reading.
b2
vi PREFACE.
On a first reading also the articles marked with an
asterisk should be omitted.
Considerable attention has been paid to the printing
of the book and I am under great obligation to the
Syndics of the Press for their liberality in this matter,
and to the officers and workmen of the Press for the
trouble they have taken.
I am indebted to Mr W. J. Dobbs, B.A., late Scholar
of St John's College, for his kindness in reading and
correcting the proof-sheets and for many valuable sug-
gestions.
For any corrections and suggestions for improvement
I shall be thankful.
S. L. LONEY.

ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE,

EGHAM, SURREY.
September 12, 1893.
 CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAP . PAGE
I. Measurement ofangles. Sexagesimal and Centesimal
Measure • 1
Circular, or Radian, Measure . • 5
II. Trigonometrical Ratios for angles less than a right
angle • • • • 19
Values for angles of45°, 30°, 60°, 90° and 0° 32
III. Simple problems in Heights and Distances 40
IV. Applications of algebraic signs to Trigonometry • 47
Tracing the changes in the ratios • 52
V. Trigonometrical ratios of angles of any size. Ratios
for – 0, 90° – 0, 90° + θ...
- -
• • • 64
VI. General expressions for all angles having a given
trigonometrical ratio • • 76
VII. Ratios of the sum and difference of two angles 87
Product Formulæ • 93
VIII. Ratios of multiple and submultiple angles 105
Explanation of ambiguities 117
Angles of 18°, 36°, and 9° • 126
IX. Identities and trigonometrical equations 131
X. Logarithms • 146
Tables of logarithms 152
viii CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
XI. Principle of Proportional Parts 159
XII. Sides and Angles ofa triangle • 173
XIII. Solution of triangles 188
Given two sides and the included angle 194
Ambiguous Case • 201
XIV. Heights and Distances 209
XV. Properties ofa triangle • 226
The circles connected with a triangle 228
Orthocentre and Pedal triangle • 236
Centroid and Medians • 239
XVI. Quadrilaterals • 249
Regular Polygons 255
XVII. Trigonometrical ratios ofsmall angles.
P
sin 0<0<tan O • 260
Area of a Circle 266
Dip of the horizon. • 268
XVIII. Inverse circular functions . 271
XIX. Some simple trigonometrical Series 280
XX. Elimination • • 288

PART II.
ANALYTICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
XXI. Exponential and Logarithmic Series 295
Logarithms to base e 301
Two important limits 305
XXII. Complex quantities • 309
De Moivre's Theorem • 312
Binomial Theorem for complex quantities • 322
 CONTENTS. ix
CHAP . PAGE
XXIII. Expansions ofsin ne, cos ne, and tan ne 323
Expansions of sina and cosa in a series of ascending
powers of a • • • • 328
Sines and Cosines ofsmall angles . 331
Approximation to the root of an equation 332
Evaluation of indeterminate quantities 334
XXIV. Expansions of cos" O and sin" e in cosines or sines of
multiples of e • • • • • • • 340
Expansions of sin ne and cos ne in series ofdescend-
ing and ascending powers of sine and cos e • 346
XXV. Exponential Series for Complex Quantities 363
Circular functions ofcomplex angles • 366
Euler's exponential values 367
Hyperbolic Functions • 369
Inverse Circular and Hyperbolic Functions 377
XXVI. Logarithms of complex quantities. 382
Value of ax when a and x are complex 389
XXVII. Gregory's Series • • 395
Calculation of the value of π 399
XXVIII. Summation of Series 404
Expansions in Series •
416
XXIX. Factors of x2 – 2xn cos ne + 1
-
423
Factors of xn - 1 and xn + 1 • 429
Resolution of sine and cos e into factors 437
sinh 6 and cosh e in products • 442
XXX. Principle ofProportional Parts • 452
XXXI. Errors of observation 461
XXXII. Miscellaneous Propositions 468
Solution of a Cubic Equation 468
Maximum and Minimum Values 470
Geometrical representation ofcomplex quantities • 472
Miscellaneous Examples • 477
 THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN
TRIGONOMETRY.

I. Circumference of a circle = 2πγ. (Art. 12.)

22 and 355
r
π=
3.14159. . [Approximationsare
A Radian = 57° 17′ 44.8" nearly.
7 113 •
(Art. 13.)
(Art. 16.)
Two right angles = 180° = 200º = π radians.
arc
(Art. 19.)
Angle = radius × Radian. (Art. 21.)
II. sin² 0 + cos² 0 = 1 ;
sec² 0 = 1 + tan² 0 ;
cosec² 0 = 1 + cot² 0. (Art. 27.)
III. sin 0° = 0 ; cos 0° = 1. (Art. 36.)
sin 30° = 1 ; cos 30° 2=√3.
/3
(Art. 34.)
sin 45° = cos 45° = 1 (Art. 33.)
√2/2
sin 60° = √√3
2 ; cos 60° = 1 (Art. 35.)
sin 90° = 1 ; cos 90° = 0. (Art. 37.)
sin 18° = √5-1
2722./2 ; cos15°=√3+1
sin 15°=√3-1
√5 + 1
2/2 (Art.106.)
4 ; cos 36° = 4 . (Arts. 120, 121.)
 THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY. xi
IV. sin (- 0) = − sin 0 ; cos (-6)= cos θ.
-
(Art. 68.)
sin (90° - 0) = cos 0 ; cos (90° − 0) = sin 0.
-
(Art. 69.)
sin (90° + 0)=cos 0 ; cos (90° + 0) = − sin 0. (Art. 70.)
sin (180° – 0) = sin 0 ; cos (180° – 0)=− cos θ. (Art. 72.)
- -

sin (180° + 0) = − sin 0 ; cos (180° + 0) = −cos θ. (Art. 73.)

-

V. If sin 0 = sin a, then 0 = ηπ + (-1)"α.

A
(Art. 82.)
If cos b = cos a, then 0 = 2ηπ = α. (Art. 83.)
If tan 0 = tana, then 0 = ηπ + α. (Art. 84.)
VI . sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sinB.
cos (A+ B) = cosA cosB- sinA sinB. (Art. 88.)
sin (A - B) sin A cos B- cos A sinB.
=

cos (A-B) = cos A cos B+ sin A sinB. (Art. 90.)

sin C + sin D = 2 sin C 2+ D COS C-D
2
sin C - sin D = 2 cos C +2 D sin C-2D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos C +2 D COS C-2D •

cos D- cos C = 2 sin C + D sin C-D

2 2 (Art. 94.)
2 sinA cos B= sin (A + B) + sin(A -B).
2 cosA sinB= sin(A + B)– sin(A - B).
2 cosA cosB= cos (A+B) + cos(A-B).
2 sinA sinB= cos (A-B)-cos(A +B). (Art. 97.)
xii THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY.

tan (A + B) = 1tan A + tanB

- tan A tanB
tan(A - B) = 1tanA - tanB
+ tanA tanB (Art. 98.)
sin 2A = 2 sinA cosA.
cos 2A = cos² A -sin² A = 1 - 2 sin² A = 2 cos²A - 1.
sin 2A 12+tanA
-
1 - tan² A
tan² A ; cos 2A = 1 + tan² A (Art. 109.)
•

tan 2A 1 2-tanA
=
tan² A (Art. 105.)
sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4 sin³ A.
cos 3A = 4 cos³A - 3 cosA.
tan 3A = 3 tan A - tan³ A
1 - 3 tan² A •
(Art. 107.)
A ==
sin 2- 1 cosA
-
A 1 + cos A
2 ; cos 2 +
2 •
(Art. 110.)
2 sin A = = 1 ++sinA
2==√1
-

sin A + √1 - sin A.
2 cos A
2 = = √1 + sin A = √1 - sin A. (Art. 113.)
tan (A1 + A2 + ... + An) = 1$1 - S2+
$3 + 85- …
-

84 -...
•
(Art. 125.)
VII. loga mn =loga m + loga n.
m
logan logam loga n
= -

logam" = n loga m. (Art. 136.)

loga m = logi m × loga b. (Art. 147.)
 THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY. xiii
sin A sin B sin C
VIII. a b C
•
(Art. 163.)
cos A = 6² +2bc
c² - a² 2
‫ و‬... (Art. 164.)
sin A2
-
=
(s-b)bc(s- c) ‫ و‬...... (Art. 165.)
COS 2
A = s (sbc- a) ....... (Art. 166.)
tan =
A (s- b) (s-c)
2-1 s (s -a) ....... (Art. 167.)
sinA= 2 s (s -a)(s -b)(s-c),... (Art. 169.)
a = b cos C + c cosB,...... (Art. 170.)
tan B- C b - с cot A
2 b+c ....... (Art. 171.)
S= √s(s-a)(8-6)(s-c)=
S (s 1
A 21 casinB= 21 ab sinC.
2 be sin4=
C

a abc (Art. 198.)

C
IX . R = 2 sinA 2 sin sin C 4S (Arts. 200, 201.)
sinB2sin •

r=-=
S
S
=(s-a) tanA2 -
= ... = ... (Arts. 202, 203.)
S A
'1 = s - a = s tan 2 (Arts. 205, 206.)
Area of a quadrilateral inscribable in a circle
=√(s-a) (s -b)(s - c) (s - d).
S (Art. 219.)
sin
θ = 1, when 0 is very small. (Art. 228.)
Area of a circle πν². (Art. 233.)
xiv THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY.
Χ. sin a +sin (a + β) + sin (a + 2β) + ... to n terms
sin {a+ 1 B}sin ηβ"2B
n-
2
(Art. 241.)
sinB2
cosa+ cos (α + β) + cos (a + 2β) + ... to n terms
COS
{a+ sinBB} sin ηβ2
n -

2
1
•
(Art. 242.)
2

n
ΧΙ. Lt (1 +
n=8 n
-

= e = 2.71828 ......
2
(Arts. 250, 251.)
+ + ......ad inf.
ex = 1 + x + 23

a® = 1 + x loge a + x²2 (logea) + ...ad inf. (Art. 253.)

1 1 1
=
2x ++ 3x - 4 x²4 + ......ad inf.
loge(1 + x) = x - =x² 2

when x > -1 and 1. (Art. 257.)

n
sin αn
Lt
n=8 (cosa)
COS
α n
-

n
= Lt
n=8 α = 1. (Arts. 262, 263.)

ΧΙΙ . (cos 0 + isin 0)" = cos nθ + i sin θ. (Art. 268.)

 THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY. XV
ΧΙΙΙ . sin nθ = n cosn-1 O sin 0
n(n 1.2.3
- 1) (n-2) cosn-3 0 sin³ 0 + ......

cos nθ = cos"θ -
n (n1.2- 1) cosn-20sin²0
+ n(n
n (n-- 1)(п–
11.2.3.4
2) (n − 3) cosn-40 sin40
-

sin40--...... (Art. 274.)

tan nθ = S11 - S3 + 85 - 87...... (Art. 277.)
S2 + 84 - 86......
-

α³3 α5
XIV. sin a =
α
3+5 ad inf. (Art. 280.)
54

-
......

α2
COSa = 1 -

2+4 ad inf. (Art. 279.)

exi
sin x = -2ie-xi ; cos x exit e-xi
2 •
(Art. 308.)
XV. Log (a + ẞi)= loge √a² + B² + i (2ηπ + θ), 2

where cos θ =
α
and sin β •

+ √a² + B²
2 2
+ √a²α + B² 02

(Art. 329.)
tan-1 X = X- 31 1 1
XVI. 7 x7 + ad inf.,
- --
......

where x is numerically not greater than unity. (Art. 344.)

0 - ρπ= tan θ 3 -
tan³ 0 + 1 tan50- ...... ad inf.
1 tan30

where e lies between pπ – 4π and pㅠ+ 1.

-
π
•
(Art. 343.)
xvi THE PRINCIPAL FORMULÆ IN TRIGONOMETRY.
XVII. 2n -

2anxn cos ηθ + α2n

r=n-1
Π
r=0 (0. 2 )+a} (Art. 362.)
x²2 2ax cos 0+
-

n
r=2-1
2ηπ
x −1=(x2−1) п ( 2x cos +1),(neven)
-

r=1
-

r=n-1
and =(x -1) Πп (x²-2xcos 2 +1), (n odd)(Art.
r=1
2
. 366.)
n
=--1
(x2 –2xcos22r7 + 1 π+1), (n even)
xn + 1 = Π
2
r=0
x² -

r=n-3
and =(x +1) Π (2x²- 2x cos 2r + 1 π+ 1),(nodd).
2
r= 0 n
(Art. 367.)
02
sin0=0(11- π202 -
02
1 22π2
-
1 32π2
-

......ad inf. (Art. 369.)

402
cos (1-4402)(1-3322)
0= 2 )(1-152 2).....adinf. 402
(Art. 370.)
 PART I.
GEOMETRICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
 CHAPTER I.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES, SEXAGESIMAL, CENTESIMAL,
AND CIRCULAR MEASURE.
:

1. IN geometry angles are measured in terms of a

right angle. This, however, is an inconvenient unit of
measurement on account of its size.
2. In the Sexagesimal system of measurement a
right angle is divided into 90 equal parts called Degrees.
Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called
Minutes, and each minute into 60 equal parts called
Seconds.
The symbols 1°, 1', and 1" are used to denote a degree,
a minute, and a second respectively.
Thus 60 Seconds (60") make One Minute (1'),
60 Minutes (60') ‫وو‬ ‫دو‬ Degree (1°),
and 90 Degrees (90°) " ‫دو‬ Right Angle.
This system is well established and is always used in
the practical applications of Trigonometry. It is not
however very convenient on account of the multipliers 60
and 90.
L. T. 1
2 TRIGONOMETRY.
- 3. On this account another system of measurement
called the Centesimal, or French, system has been
proposed. In this system the right angle is divided into
100 equal parts, called Grades; each grade is subdivided
into 100 Minutes, and each minute into 100 Seconds.
The symbols 18, 1`, and ` are used to denote a Grade,
a Minute, and a Second respectively.
Thus 100 Seconds (100") make One Minute (1') ,
100 Minutes (100') " Grade, (1%),
‫دو‬

100 Grades (100%) ‫دو‬ Right angle.

‫دو‬

- 4. This system would be much more convenient to

use than the ordinary Sexagesimal System.
As a preliminary, however, to its practical adoption, a
large number of tables would have to be recalculated.
Forthis reason the systemhas in practice neverbeen used.
- 5. To convert Sexagesimal into Centesimal Measure,
and vice versa.
have
Since a right angle is equal to 90° and also to 100%, we
90° = 100%.
... 1° 10g 9°
=
9 and 18 = 10°
,

Hence, to change degrees into grades, add on one-

ninth; to change grades into degrees, subtract one-tenth.
Ex.
36°=(36+ ×36)*=405,
1 g

Ο
and 645=(64-10×64) =(64-6-4)°=57-6°.
If the angle do not contain an integral number of
degrees, we may reduce it to a fraction of a degree and
then change to grades.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES. 3
In practice it is generally found more convenient to
reduce any angle to a fraction of a right angle. The
method will be seen in the following examples ;
Ex. 1. Reduce 63° 14' 51" to Centesimal Measure.
We have 51"= 17' =·85',
20
and 14' 51"= 14.85′ = 14.85°
60 = 2475°,
.:. 63° 14′51″=63.2475°= 63-2475
90 rt. angle
= 70275 rt. angle
=70-2755=70g 27.5' =70g 27' 50'
Ex. 2. Reduce 94%23' 87" to Sexagesimal Measure.
94% 23' 87`` = 942387 right angle
90
84-81483 degrees
60
48-8898 minutes
60
53-3880 seconds
... 94g23' 87" =84° 48′53-388″.
6. Angles of any size.
Suppose AOA' and BOB' to be two fixed lines meeting
at right angles in O, and suppose B
arevolvingline OP(turning about P2 P1
aOAfixedandpoint at 0) to start from
revolve in a direction P

opposite to that ofthe hands of a A' A

watch.
For any position of the re- P3 P4
volving line between OA and OB, B
such as OP₁, it will have turned
through an angle AOP₁, which is less than a right angle.
1-2
4 TRIGONOMETRY.
For anyposition between OB and OA', such as OP2,
the angle AOP, through which it has turned is greater
than a right angle.
For any position OP3, between OA' and OB', the
angle traced out is AOP3, i.e. AOB + BOA' + A'OP₃, і.е.
2 right angles +A'OP3, so that the angle described is
greater than two right angles.
For any position OP4, between OB' and OA, the angle
turned through is similarlygreaterthanthree right angles.
When the revolving line has made a complete revo-
lution, so that it coincides once more with OA, the angle
through which it has turned is 4 right angles.
If the line OP still continue to revolve, the angle
through which it has turned, when it is for the second
time in the position OP₁, is not AOP, but 4 right angles
+AOP1.
Similarly when the revolving line, having made two
complete revolutions, is once more in the position OP2,
the angle it has traced out is 8 right angles +AOP2.
7. If the revolving line OP be between OA and OB
it is said to be in the first quadrant; if it be between OB
and OA' it is in the second quadrant; if between OA' and
OB' it is in the third quadrant; if it is between OB' and
OA it is in the fourth quadrant.
8. Ex. What is the position of the revolving line when it has turned
through (1) 225°, (2) 480°, and (3) 1050° ?
(1) Since 225°=180° +45°, the revolving line has turned through
45° more than two right angles and is therefore halfway between OA'
and OB'.
(2) Since 480°=360°+ 120°, the revolving line has turned through
120° more than one complete revolution, and is therefore between OB
and OA', and makes an angle of 30° with OB.
 CIRCULAR MEASURE. 5
(3) Since 1050° =11 × 90°+60°, the revolvingline has turned through
60° more than eleven right angles and is therefore between OB' and OA
and makes 60° with ОΒ'.
EXAMPLES. I.
Express in terms of a right angle the angles
1. 60°. 2. 75° 15′. 3. 63° 17′ 25″.
4. 130° 30′. 5. 210°30′30″. 6. 370°20′48″.
Express in grades, minutes, and seconds the angles
7. 30°. -8. 81°. 9. 138° 30′. 10. 35° 47′15″.
11. 235° 12′ 36″. 12. 475°13′ 48″.
Express in terms of right angles and also in degrees, minutes, and
seconds the angles
13. 120g. 14. 45%35' 24'``. 15. 39€45' 36``.
16. 255g48` 81“. 17. 759%45' 60``.
Mark the position of the revolving line when it has traced out the
following angles :
18. 43 right angle. 19. 3 right angles. 20. 134right angles.
21. 120°. 22. 315°. 23. 745°. 24. 1185°. 25. 150g.
26. 420g. 27. 875g.
28. How many degrees, minutes andseconds are respectively passed
over in 11 minutes by thehour and minute hands of a watch ?
29. The number of degrees in one acute angle of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the number of grades in the other; express both the
angles in degrees.
30. Prove that the number of Sexagesimal minutes in any angle is
to the number of Centesimal minutes in the same angle as 27 : 50.
31. Divide 44°8' into two parts such that the numberof Sexagesimal
seconds in one part maybe equal to the number of Centesimal seconds in
the other part.
Circular Measure.
9. A third system of measurement of angles has
been devised, and it is this system which is used in all
the higher branches of Mathematics.
6 TRIGONOMETRY.
The unit used is obtained thus;
Take any circle APBB', whose centre is O, and from
any point A measure off an arc
AP whose length is equal to the B

radi
P
radius of the circle. Join OA and

us
OP.
The angle AOP is the angle
which is taken as the unit of cir-
radian
A

cular measurement, i.e. it is the

angle in terms of which in this B'
system we measure all others.
This angle is called A Radian and is often denoted
by 1º.
10. It is clearly essential to the proper choice of a
unit that it should be a constant quantity ; hence we must
shew that the Radian is a constant angle. This we shall
do in the following articles.
11. Theorem. The length of the circumference of a
circle always bears a constant ratio to its diameter.
Take any two circles whose common centre is O. In
the large circle inscribe a regular E
polygon of n sides, ABCD.... D
Let OA, OB, OC,... meet the e
d
C

smaller circle in the points a, b, C B

c, d... and join ab, bc, cd,.... b

a A
Then, by Euc. VI. 2, abcd... is
a regular polygon of n sides in-
scribed in the smaller circle.
Since Oa = Ob, and OA = OB,
 THE RADIAN. 7
the lines ab and AB mustABbe parallel,
OA
and hence
ab Oa (Euc. VI. 4).
Also the polygonABCD... being regular,its perimeter,
i.e. the sum of its sides, is equal to n. AB. Similarly for
the Hence
inner polygon.
we have
Perimeter of the outer polygon n.AB_AB_OA =

Perimeter of the inner polygon n.ab ............(1).

ab Oa
This relation exists whatever be the number of sides
in the polygons.
Let then the number of sides be indefinitely increased
(i.e. let n become inconceivably great) so that finally the
perimeter of the outer polygon will be the same as the
circumference of the outer circle, and the perimeter of the
inner polygon the same as the circumference of the inner
circle.
The relation (1) will then become
Circumference of outer circle OA
Circumference of inner circle Oa
Radius of outer circle
-

Radius of inner circle˙

Circumference of outer circle
Hence Radius of outer circle
-
=
Circumference of inner circle
Radius of inner circle •

Since there was no restriction whatever as to the sizes

of the two circles,Circumference
it follows thatofathecircle
quantity
Radius of the circle
is the same for all circles.
8 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
radius, and therefore also to its diameter, is a constant
quantity.
12.Circumference
In the previous article we have shewn that the
ratio Diameter is the same for all circles. The value
of this constant ratio is always denoted by the Greek
letter ㅠ (pronounced Pi), so that is a number.
Hence Circumference
Diameter = the constant number π.
We have therefore the following theorem ; The cir-
cumference of a circle is always equal to w times
its diameter or 2 times its radius.
13. Unfortunately the value of is not a whole
number, nor can it be expressed in the form of a vulgar
fraction, and hence not in the form of a decimal fraction,
terminating or recurring.
The number is an incommensurable magnitude, i.e. a
magnitude whose value cannot be exactly expressed as the
ratio of two whole numbers.
Its value, correct to 8 places ofdecimals, is
3.14159265....
The fraction 7gives the value of correctly for the
22

first two decimal places; for 227 = 3.14285....

The fraction 355
113 is a more accurate value of being
correct to 6 places of decimals ; for 355
113-= 3.14159203....
 THE RADIAN. 9
[N.B. The fraction 355
113 may be remembered thus; write down the
first three odd numbers repeating each twice, thus 113355; divide the
number thus obtained into portions and let the first part be divided into
the second, thus 113)355(.
The quotient is the value of w to 6 places of decimals.]
To sum up. An approximate value of22π, correct
to 2 places of decimals, is the fraction 7 ; a more
accurate value is 3.14159....
By division we can shew that
1 = 3183098862....
π

14. Ex. 1. The diameter of a tricycle wheel is 28 inches ; through

what distance does its centre move during one revolution of the wheel?
The radius r is here 14 inches.
The circumference therefore = 2.π. 14=28 inches.
22
Taking π= 22
7' the circumference = 28 × 7 inches=7 ft. 4 inches ap-
proximately.
Giving the more accurate value 3.14159265... the circumference
= 28 x 3.14159265... inches =7 ft. 3·96459... inches.
Ex. 2. What must be the radius of a circular running path, round
which an athlete must run 5 times in order to describe one mile ?
The circumference must be 51 × 1760, i.e. 352, yards.
Hence, if r be the radius of the path inyards, we have 2πι =352,
176
i.e. r=- π
yards.
Taking ㅠ= 227, we have r =17622x 7 =56 yards nearly.
1
Taking the more accurate value ==
π 31831, we have
r= 176 × 31831= 56 02256 yards.
10 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. II.
1. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, what is the length of its
circumference?
2. The wheel of a railway carriage is 3 feet in diameter and makes
3 revolutions in a second ; how fast is the train going?
3. A mill sail whose length is 18 feet makes 10 revolutions per
minute. What distance does its end travel in an hour?
4. The diameter of a halfpenny is an inch; what is the length of a
piece of string which wouldjust surround its curved edge?
5. Assuming that the earth describes in one year a circle, of
92500000 miles radius, whose centre is the sun, how many miles does the
earth travel in a year?
6. The radius of a carriage wheel is 1 ft. 9 ins., and it turns
through 80° in 19th ofa second; howmanymiles does thewheeltravel in
one hour ?
15. Theorem. The radian is a constant angle.
Take the figure of Art. 9. Let the arc AB be a
quadrant
ference.
of the circle, i.e. one quarter of the circum-
πι
By Art. 12, the length of AB is therefore ,where r
is the radius of the circle.
By Euc. VI. 33, we know that angles at the centre of
any circle are to one another as the arcs on which they
stand.
Hence LAOP arc AP
=
r 2
∠AOBarc AB π
r
π
,

2
2
i.e. ∠AOP = π" . ∠AOB.
But we defined the angle AOP to be a Radian.
 THE RADIAN. 11
Hence a Radian = 2π ∠AOB
-

2
= -

π
× a right angle.
Since a right angle is a constant angle and since we
have shewn (Art. 12) that is a constant quantity, it
follows that a Radian is a constant angle, and is therefore
the same whatever be the circle from which it is derived.
16. Magnitude of a Radian
By the previous article a radian
2x a right angle = 180°
π π
180°
3.14159265... = 57-2957795°
= 57° 17′44.8" nearly.
17. Since a Radian = 2= × a right angle,
π
therefore a right angle = 25. radians,
•

so that 360°
and 180° == 42 right
right angles
angles == 27
" radians,
radians.
Hence when the revolving line (Art. 6) has made a
complete revolution it has described an angle equal to
2 radians ; when it has made three complete revolutions
it has described an angle of 67 radians; when it has made
n revolutions it has described an angle of 2nㅠ radians.
18. In practice the symbol " c" is generally omitted
and instead of " an angle π " we find written " an
angle π."
12 TRIGONOMETRY.
The student must notice this point carefully. If the
unit, in terms of which the angle is measured, be not
mentioned, he must mentally supply the word " radians."
Otherwise he will easily fall into the mistake ofsupposing
that stands for 180°. It is true that radians (π°) is
the same as 180°, but itself is a number, and a number
only.
19. To convert circular measure into sexagesimal
measure or centesimal measure and vice versa.
The student should remember the relations,
Two right angles = 180° = 200 g = ㅠ radians.
The conversion is then merely Arithmetic.
Εχ. (1) 45 °= •45 × 180° =81°= 90g.
(2) 3ºº× º= 3 × 180°= ×200
=
π
C
π π

(3) 40° 15′ 36″ =40° 15 ′ = 40·26°

‫مال‬
=40-26 × 180= 2236 radians.
(4) 40g15' 36"=40.1536g= 40.1536× 200 radians π

= ·200768 radians.
20. Ex. 1. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of
grades in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 40 : π ;
find the angles in degrees.
Let the angles be (x-y)°, x°, and (x +y)°.
Since the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°, we have
180=x - y + x +x +y =3x,
so that x=60.
The required angles are therefore
(60 -y)°, 60°, and (60 +y)°.
Now (60- y) = 10 x (60- у) ,
X

π
and (60+y)°= 180×(60+y) radians.
 THE RADIAN. 13
10 π
Hence 9 (60-y) : 180(60+y) : 40 : π,
: 200 60
60+- у = 40
π 60+y π
,

i.e. 5 (60- y)= 60 +y,

i.e. y=40.
The angles are therefore 20°, 60°, and 100°.
Ex. 2. Express in the 3 systems of angular measurement the magni-
tude of the angle ofa regular decagon.
The corollary to Euc. I. 32 states that all the interior angles of any
rectilinear figure together with four right angles are equal to twice as
many right angles as the figure has sides.
Let the angle of a decagon contain a right angles, so that all the
angles are together equal to 10x right angles.
The corollary therefore states that
10x +4=20,
so that x==58 right angles.
But one right angle
= 90°= 100%= π2 radians.
Hence the required angle
=144°=160g= 4π
5 radians.

EXAMPLES. III.
Express in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angles,
1. πο
3 2.44πο3 . 3. 10πο. 4. 1c. 5. 8°.
Express in grades, minutes, and seconds the angles,
6. 4πο
에.
5 7. 7πο
6 •
8. 10πο.
Express in radians the following angles :
9. 60°. 10. 110° 30′. 11. 175° 45'. 12. 47° 25′36″.
13. 395°. 14. 60g. 15. 110g30'. 16. 345525 36` .
14 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. III.]
17. The2 difference between the two acute angles of a right-angled
triangle is radians; express the angles in degrees.
18. One angle of a triangleis 23a grades and anotheris 235x degrees,
whilst the third is πα
75radians; express themallindegrees.
1
19. 1 The circular measure of two angles of a triangle are respectively
2 and ; what is the number of degrees in the third angle?
20. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of degrees
in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 60 to ; find
the angles in degrees.
21. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of radians
in theleast angle is to the number of degrees inthe mean angle as 1: 120.
Find the angles in radians.
22. Find the magnitude, in radians and degrees, of the interior
angle of (1) a regular pentagon, (2) a regular heptagon, (3) a regular
octagon, (4) a regular duodecagon, and (5) a regular polygon of 17 sides.
23. The angle in one regular polygon is to that in another as 3 : 2 ;
also the number of sides in the first is twice that in the second; how
many sides have the polygons?
24. The number of sides in two regular polygons are as 5 : 4, and
the difference between their angles is 9°; find the number of sides in
the polygons.
25. Find two regular polygons such that the number of their sides
may be as 3 to 4 and the number of degrees in an angle of the first to the
number of grades in an angle of the second as 4 to 5.
26. The angles of a quadrilateral are in A. P. and the greatest s
double the least; express the least angle in radians.
27. Find in radians, degrees, and grades the angle between the
hour-hand and the minute-hand of a clock at (1) half-past three,
(2) twenty minutes to six, (3) a quarterpast eleven.
21. Theorem. The number of radians in any angle
whatever is equal to a fraction, whose numerator is the arc
which the angle subtends at the centre of any circle, and
whose denominator is the radius ofthat circle.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 15
Let AOP be the angle which has been described by a
line starting from OA and revolv-
ing into the position OP. P B

With centre O and any radius

describe a circle cutting OA and A
OP in the points A and P.
Let the angle AOB be a radian,
soradius
thatOA.
the arc AB is equal to the
By Euc. VI. 33, we have
LAOP ∠AOP arc AP arc AP
= =
A Radian∠AOB arc AB Radius '
so that arc AP × A Radian.
∠AOP = Radius
Hence the theorem is proved.
22. Ex. 1. Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of
radius 3 feet by an arc of length 1 foot. arc 1
The number of radians in the angle = radius3
Hence the angle
60°
=31 radian= 12 2
3΄π- right angle= 3π × 90° == 19 π
°,
taking equal to 22 •

Ex. 2. In a circle of 5 feet radius what is the length of the arc which
subtends an angle of 33° 15' at the centre ?
Ifx feet be the required
X
length, we have
5=number of radians in 33° 15′
334 π (Art. 19).
=
180
-
=
133
720π.
133 133 ×X 22 feet nearly
..x=
144 πfeet = 1447
=2 feet nearly.
16 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Assuming the average distance of the earth from the sun to be
92500000 miles, and the angle subtended by the sun at the eye of a person
on the earth to be 32', find the sun's diameter.
Let D be the diameter of the sun in miles.
The angle subtended by the sun being very small, its diameter is very
approximately equal to a smallarc of a circle whose centre is the eye of
the observer. Also the sun subtends an angle of 32' at the centre of this
circle.
Hence, by Art. 21, we have
D
92500000 =the number of radians in 32'
=the number of radians in 8° 15
8 Π 2π
=
15 X^ 180675 •

.. D = 185000000
675 πmiles
185000000 X 22
675 × 7 miles approximately
= about 862000 miles.
Ex. 4. Assuming that a person ofnormal sight can readprint at such
a distance that the letters subtend an angle of 5' at his eye, find what is
the height of the letters that he can read at a distance (1) of 12 feet, and
(2) of a quarter of a mile.
Let x be the required height in feet.
In the first case, x is very nearly equalto the arc of a circle, of radius
12 feet, which subtends an angle of 5' at its centre.
X
Hence 12=number of radians in 5'
= 1 X
× π
12180 •

π 1 X 22
..x = 180 feet = 1807 feet nearly
=
1 X 22 inches = about 1 inch.
157 5
 MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 17
In the second case the height y is given by
Y
440 x 3 =number of radians in 5'
1 π
=
12^X 180 '
so that 11 π= 11 X 22
Y= 18 18 7 feet nearly
=about 23 inches.
EXAMPLES. IV.
1. Find the number of degrees subtended at the centre of a circle by
an arc whose length is 357 times the radius, taking =3·1416.
2. Express in radians and degrees the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc whose length is 15 feet, the radius of the circle
being 25 feet.
3. The value of the divisions on the outer rim of a graduated circle
is 5' and the distance between successive graduations is 1 inch. Find
the radius of the circle.
4. The diameter of a graduated circle is 6 feet and the graduations
on its rim are 5' apart; find the distance from one graduation to
another.
5. Find the radius of aglobewhich is such that thedistancebetween
two places on the same meridian whose latitude differs by 1° 10' may be
half-an-inch.
6. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles find the difference
in latitude of two places, one of which is 100 miles north of the other.
7. Assuming the earth to be a sphere and the distance between
two parallels of latitude, which subtends an angle of 1º at the earth's
centre, to be 694miles, find the radius ofthe earth.
8. The radius of a certain circle is 3 feet; find approximately the
length of an arc of this circle, if the length of the chord of the arc be
3 feet also.
9. What is the ratio of the radii of two circles at the centre of which
two arcs of the same length subtend angles of60° and 75°?
10. If an arc, of length 10 feet, on a circle of 8 feet diameter
subtend at the centre an angle of 143° 14′22″ ; find the value of π
to 4 places of decimals.
L. T. 2
18 TRIGONOMETRY
ETRY.. [Exs. IV.]
11. Ifthe circumference of a circle be dividedinto 5partswhich are
in A. P., and if the greatest part be 6 times the least, find in radians
the magnitudes ofthe angles that the parts subtend at the centre of the
circle.
12. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle isequal tothe length
of the arc of a semicircle having the same radius; express the angle of
the sector in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
13. At what distance does a man, whose height is 6 feet, subtend an
angle of 10'?
14. Find the length which at a distance of one mile will subtend
an angle of 1' at the eye.
15. Find approximately the distance at which a globe, 5½ inches in
diameter, will subtend an angle of 6'.
16. Find approximately the distance of a tower whose height is
51 feet and which subtends at the eye an angle of 511'.
17. A church spire, whose height is known to be 45 feet, subtends
an angle of 9' at the eye; find approximately its distance.
18. Find approximately in minutes the inclination to the horizon of
an incline which rises 3 feet in 210 yards.
19. The radius of the earth being taken to be 3960 miles, and the
distance of the moon from the earth being 60 times the radius of the
earth, find approximately the radius of the moon which subtends at the
earth an angle of 16'.
20. When the moon is setting at any given place the angle that is
subtendedat its centrebythe radius of the earth passing through the given
place is 57'. If the earth's radius be 3960 miles, find approximately the
distance of the moon.
21. Prove that the distance of the sun is about 81 million geo-
graphical miles, assuming that the angle which the earth's radius
subtends at the distance of the sun is 8.76", and that a geographical
mile subtends 1' at the earth's centre. Find also the circumference and
diameter of the earth in geographical miles.
22. The radius of the earth's orbit, which is about 92700000 miles,
subtends at the star Sirius an angle of about 4"; find roughly the
distance of Sirius.
 CHAPTER II.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS FOR ANGLES LESS THAN
A RIGHT ANGLE.

23. In the present chapter we shall only consider

angles which are less than a right angle.
Let a revolving line OP start from OA and revolve
into the position OP,thus tracing out
the angle AOP. P
In the revolving line take any
point P and draw PM perpendicular
to the initial line OA. M
In the triangle MOP, OP is the
hypothenuse,PMisthe perpendicular, and OMis thebase.
The trigonometrical ratios, or functions, of the angle
AOP are defined as follows ;
OP ' i.e. Perp.,is
Нур. calledthe Sine of the angleAOP;
MP
OM Base
OP' i.e. Нур. , Cosine
‫وو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫ور‬ ‫دو‬

MP
OM' ie. Perp.
Base' ‫دو‬ ‫در‬ Tangent ‫ود‬ ‫دو‬

OM Base
MP, i . e . Perp. '
OP i.e..е. Нур.
‫دو‬ ‫وو‬ Cotangent ‫د‬ "

MP' Perp. , ‫دو‬ " Cosecant ‫در‬ ‫دو‬

OM' i.e..е. Нур.

OP Secant
Base ' ‫در‬ ‫دو‬ ‫در‬

2-2
20 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quantity by which the cosine falls short of unity,
i.e. 1 -cosAOP, is called the Versed Sine ofAOP; also
the quantity 1- sin AOP, by which the sine falls short of
unity, is called the Coversed Sine ofAOP.
24. It will be noted that the trigonometrical ratios
are all numbers.
The names of these eight ratios are written, for
brevity,
sin AOP, cos AOP, tan AOP, cot AOP, cosec AOP,
sec AOP, vers AOP, and covers AOP respectively.
The two latter ratios are seldom used.
25. It will be noticed, from the definitions, that the
cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine, so that
1
cosec AOP = sin AOP •

So the secant is the reciprocal ofthe cosine, i.e.

sec AOP cos A1 OP'
and the cotangent is the reciprocal ofthe tangent, i.e.
cot AOP = tan 1AOP

26. To shewthat the trigonometrical ratios are always

the same for the same angle.
We have to shew that if in P
the revolving line OP any other P
point P' be taken and P'M' be M"
drawn perpendicular to OA, the M M'
ratios derived from the triangle P"
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 21
OP'M' are the same as those derived from the triangle
ОРМ.
In the two triangles the angle at O is common, and
the angles at Mand M' are both right angles and there-
fore equal.
Hence the two triangles
MP M'P'
are equiangular and therefore,
byEuc. VI. 4, we have OP =
OP', i.e. the sine of the angle
AOPis
line.
the same whatever point we take on the revolving
Since, by the same proposition, we have
OM OM' and MP M'P'
-

OPOP' OMOM' '

it follows that the cosine and tangent are the same
whatever point be taken on the revolving line. Similarly
for the other ratios.
If OA be considered as the revolving line and in it be taken any
point P" and P"M" be drawn perpendicular to OP, the functions as
derived from the triangle OP"M" will have the same values as before.
For, since in the two triangles OPM and OP"M", the two angles
P"OM" and OM"P" are respectively equal to POM and OMP, these
two triangles are equiangular and therefore similar, and we have
M"P" = MP and OM" OM
OP" OP ' OP" OP
27. Fundamental relations between the trigonometrical
ratios of an angle.
We shall find that if one of the trigonometrical ratios
oftheanothers
angleisbeknown
known,also.the numerical magnitude ofeach of
Let the angle AOP (Fig., Art. 23) be denoted by 0.
In the triangle AOP we have, by Euc. 1. 47,
MP2+ OM² = OP2.....................(1).
2
22 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, dividing by OP2, we have
MP\2 + OM\2 1, =
OP OP)
i.e. (sin 0)² +(cos 0)² = 1.
The quantity (sin ) is always written sin and so for
the other ratios.
Hence this relation is
sin20 + cos20 = 1..................(2).
Again, dividing both sides of equation (1) by OM2, we
have
MP2 +1 =
OP\2
OM OM) ,

i.e. (tan 0)² + 1 = (sec 0)², 2

so that sec²0 = 1 + tan² 0 •

(3).
Again, dividing equations (1) by MP3 we have 2

OM2
1+ MP --
= OP 2
MP
i.e. 1 + (cot 0)² = (cosec )², 2

so that cosec² = 1 + cot²θ ............(4).

OM
Also, since sin 0 = MP
OP and cos e = OP'
sin 0 MP OM MP tan θ.
we have cos =
=

COSO OPOPOM
sin
tan 0 = cos
Hence ..
(5).
Similarly cot = cos-
-
(6).
sin θ
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 23
28. Ex. 1. Prove that 1- cos A
1+ cosA =cosec A - cotA.
We have 1- cosA =
(1- cos A)2 ,
1+cosA 1- cos²A
1 - cos A 1- cos A
√1- cos² A sinA ,

by relation (1) ofthe last article,

1 cosA
sinA sinA =cosec A- cotA.
-

Ex. 2. Prove that

√sec²A + cosec A= tanA +cotA.
We have seen that sec² A= 1 + tan²A,
and cosec²A = 1 + cot²A.
.. sec²A + cosec² A = tan² A + 2 + cot²A
=tan² A + 2 tanA cotA + cot²A
=(tan A + cot A)2,
so that √sec²A + cosec²A==tanA+cotA.
Ex. 3. Prove that
(cosecA -sinA) (secA- cosA) (tanA+cotA4)= 1.
The given expression
=(sin -sin4)A4) (;
1
A
1
4)
cosA COS A
cosAsinA
sinA + cosA

1 - sin² A 1- cos²A sin² A + cos²A

sinA cosA sinA cos A
cos²A sin²A 1
sinA cosA sinA cos A
• •

=1.
24 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. V.
Prove the following statements.
1. cos4A - sin4A + 1 = 2 cos²A.
2. (sinA +cosA) (1–sinA cos A) =sin³ A+ cos³A.
3. 1 +sinA 1+ cos A
cos A + sinA 2 cosecA.
4. cos6A +sinA= 1-3 sin²A cos²А.
5. 1 - sin A
1+ sin A = sec A - tan A.
cosecA + cosecA 2 sec² A.
6. cosecA - 1 cosecA + 1
cosecA =cos A.
7. cotA +tanA
8. (secA+cosA) (sec A - cosA)=tan²A+sin²A.
9. cotA +1 tan A = sin A cosA.
1
10. secA -tanA =sec A + tanA.
11. 11 +- tan
tan A cotA - 1
=
A cotA+1°
1+ tan²A sin²A
12. 1+ =
cot²A cos²A •

13. secA - tan A

sec A + tanA = 1-2 sec A tanA + 2 tan² A.
14. 1-tanA + cotA
cot A1 - tanA = secA cosecA +1.
15. 1 cosA sinA
- tan A + 1 - cotA = sin A + cosA.
16. (sinA+cosA) (cotA+tanA)=secA+cosecA.
17. sec A - sec²A= tan4 A + tan²A.
[Exs. V.] TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 25
18. cot A + cot²A= cosec A- cosec²А.
19. √cosec²A-1=cosAcosecA.
20. sec²A cosec² A=tan² A +cot²A +2.
21. tan²A - sin²A=sin A sec²A.
22. (1+cotA -cosecA) (1+tanA+ secA)=2.
1
23. cosecA1- cotA sinA1 1
sinA cosecA + cotA
cot A cos A cotA -- cosA
24. cotA + cos A cotA cosA •

cot A +
25. cotB+tantanB =cot A tan B.
A
1 1 1-cos² a sin2 a
26. sec² a - cos² a + cosec² a -sin² a cos² a sin2 a = 2+cos² a sin² a
27. sin A-cossA= (sin² A-cos²A) (1-2 sin²A cos²A).
28. cosA cosecA - sin A secA cosecA secA.
cos A + sin A
-

29. tanA + secA - 1 1+ sinA

=
tan A - sec A +1 cosA •

30. (tan a +cosecẞ)²-(cotβ- seca)2=2=2 tan a cotẞ(coseca+secβ).

2

31. 2 sec² a- sec a -2cosec² a + cosec a=cot a – tan a.

32. 11+- sinA
sin A
=1 + 2 tanA (tanA – secA).
33. (cosecA+ cotA) coversA - (secA+tanA) versA
=(cosecA sec A) (2- versA coversA).
-

secA cosecA
34. (1 +cotA+tanA) (sinA cosA)=cosec²A
- -

sec²A
35. 2 versinA+ cos²A=1+versin²A.
29. Limits to the values ofthe trigonometrical ratios.
From equation (2) ofArt. 27 we have
sin² + cos² 0 = 1.
26 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now sine and cose, being both squares, are both
necessarily positive. Hence, since their sum is unity,
neither of them can be greater than unity.
[For if one of them, say sin² 0, were greater than unity, the other,
cos² 0, would have to be negative, which is impossible.]
Hence neither the sine nor the cosine can be numeri-
cally greater than unity.
Since sin e cannot be1 greater than unity therefore
cosec 8, which equals sind, carcannot be numerically less
thanunity.
So sec 0, which equals cos1 θ' cannot be numerically
less than unity.
30. The foregoing results follow easilyfrom the figure
ofArt. 23.
For, whatever be the value of the angle AOP,
neither
than OP.
the side OM nor the side MP is ever greater
Since MP is never greater than OP the ratio MP OP is
never greater than unity, so that the sine of an angle is
never greater than unity.
Also since OMis never greater than OP, the ratio OM
OP
-

is never greater than unity, i.e. the cosine is never greater

than unity.
31. We can express the trigonometrical ratios of an
angle in terms ofany one ofthem.
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 27
The simplest method of procedure is best shewn by
examples.
Ex. 1. To express all the trigono- I
P

metrical ratios in terms ofthe sine. S

Let AOP be any angle θ. θ

1-S2 M
Let the length OP be unity and let
the corresponding length ofMP be s.
By Euc. 1. 47, OM=√OP2 - MP2 = √1 $2. -

Hence sin 0 = MP
OP== S
1 8,s,
cos θ = OM
OP = √1 - s² = 1- sin² 0,
sin
tan 0 = MP =
S
OM √1 - S² √1 - sin²θ ' 2

OM √1 -S² √1 - sin20
cot θ MP-
=

S sin ,

cosec =
OP 1 1
MP S sin θ '
and sec 0 = OP = 1 1
OM 1-2√1 - sin20
The last five equations give what is required.
Ex. 2. To express all the trigonometrical relations in
terms ofthe cotangent.
Taking the usual figure let the
length MPbe unity, and let the corre- √1+x2
P

sponding value of OM be x.
By Euc. 1. 47, θ
x M

OP =√OM²+ MP2 = √1 + x².

28 TRIGONOMETRY.

Hence OM X
cot 0 = MP 1 = x,
sin 0 = MP 1 1
OP √1+x² √1+ cot20'
2

cos e = OM X cot e
OP √1+x² √1 + cot²θ'
2

tan 0 = MP 1 1
OM X cot θ'
sec 0=
OP √1+ x2 √1 + cot20
-

OM X
=
cot θ ,

and OP √1 + x² 2
cosec
MP 1 = √1 + cot² 0.
=
=

The last five equations give what is required.

It will be noticed that, in each case, the denominator
ofthe fraction which defines the trigonometrical MP
ratio was
taken equal to unity. For example, the sine is OP ' and
hence in Ex. 1 the denominator OP is taken equal to
unity. OM and hence in Ex. 2 the side MP
The cotangent is MP'
is taken equal to unity.
Similarly suppose we had to express the other ratios
in terms
OM
of the cosine, we should, since the cosine is equal
to Op,put OP equal to unity and OMequal to c. The
working would then be similar to that ofExs. 1 and 2.
In the following examples the sides have numerical
values.
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 29
Ex. 3. If cos e equal 3 , find the values of the other ratios.
Along the initial line OA take OM equal to 3, and erect a perpen-
dicular MP.
Let a line OP, of length 5, revolve round O until its other end meets
this perpendicular in the point P. Then AOP is the angle θ.
By Euc. 1. 47, MP= OP2- OM2=√52- 32=4.
Hence clearly
sine 5'4, tan
=
4
, cote 4'3, coseco
=
5
4 and sec = 53
Ex. 4. Supposing & to be an angle whose sine is 13' to find the numeri-
cal magnitude of the other trigonometrical ratios.
Here sin 0 = 13 ' so that the relation (2) ofArt. 27 gives
1-3

1\2 +cos20=
1,
i.e. cos² 0=1 18
‫دوو‬ - =

i.e. cos 0= 2/2

3

Hence tan 0 sin 1 /2

2/24 ,
cos 02/2
1
cot 0 = tan 0 = 2/2,
cosec 0 sin1 =3,
sec 0 1 3
cos 02/2 =
3/2 ,
4
vers 0 = 1- cos 0= 1 2/2
3. ,
and covers 0 = 1 – sin 0 = 1- 12
-

3-3
=
 ratio
terms
in
each
of
others
.the
trigonometrical
32.
each
ofexpressing
result
isgiven
table
following
Inthe
sin cos
θ 0
tan cot 0
sec cosec
0 30

sin sin -cos²

0√1 θ
tan 1 √sec20-1 1
+ctot²
0√1
an20 sec
0 cosec

cos
θ -sin²
0√1 θ
cos 1 cot
θ 1 cosec²
0-1
√
√20tan +cot²
0√1 sec
0 cosec
0
O
tan sin 0-os²
c√1 1 1-
√sec20 1
-in20
s√1 cos
θ tan
O cot
θ -
-1c0√osec²
cot
θ -sin²
0√1 θ
cos 1 1
θ
cot
TRIGONOMETRY.

sin √1
0-cos² 0
tan 0-1
√sec² -0c√os1ec²
0
sec 1 1 c+ot20
√1 cosec
-in²
s0√1 cos
θ √1+tan0 θ
cot sec
0 √cosec0-1
1 1 +tan²
0√1 √1
+cot² 0
sec
cosec cosec
0
sin c√1
-os²
θ 0
tan √sec²
0-1
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 31

EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Express allthe other trigonometricalratios interms ofthecosine.
2. Express all the ratios in terms of the tangent.
3. Express allthe ratios in terms ofthe cosecant.
4. Express all the ratios in terms ofthe secant.
5. The sine of a certain angle is 11; find the numericalvalues of the
other trigonometrical ratios of this angle.
6. If sin 0=1213 ' find tan 0 and versin 0.
11
7. If sinA=61' find tanA, cosA, and secA.
8. If cos 0= 4 , find sin e and cot θ.
99 find tanA and cosecA.
9. If cos A==41'
3
10. If tan 0 = 4' find the sine, cosine, versine and cosecant of 0.
1 find the value of cosec² - sec² 0
11. If tan θ =J7 ,
cosec² 0 + sec20 •

12. If cot 0 = 15
-8 , find cos e and cosec 0.
13. IfsecA=5,2'3 find tanA andcosecA.
14. If 2 sin 0 = 2 - cos e, find sin θ.
15. If 8 sin 0 =4 + cos 0, find sin 0.
16. If tan 0+ sec0= 1.5, find sin 0.
17. If cot + cosec0=5, find cos 0.
18. If 3 sec40 + 8 = 10 sec² 0, find the values of tan 0.
19. If tan20+sec0=5, find cos θ.
20. If tan + cot 0 = 2, find sin 0.
21. If sec² 0 =2 + 2 tan 0, find tan 0.
22. If tan 0 = 2x2x(x+1),
+ 1 find sine and cos0.
32 TRIGONOMETRY.

Values of the trigonometrical ratios in

some useful cases.
33. Angle of 45°. P
Let the angle AOP traced out
be 45°.
Then, since the three angles of
a triangle are together equal to 45°
two right angles, M A
∠OPM= 180°− ∠ POM- ∠PMO
= 180° - 45° - 90° = 45° =∠POM.
.. OM=MP=a(say),
and OP = √OM² + MP² = √2 . α.
2

... sin 45° = MP a

=

OP√2.a√2'
1 =

cos 45° = OM =
a
=
1
OP √2.a√2'
and tan 45° = 1.
34. Angle of 30°. P
Let the angle AOP traced
out be 30°.
Produce PM to P' making 30° M
MP' equal to PM.
The two triangles OMP and
OMP' have their sides OM and
MP' equal to OM and MP and P
also the contained angles equal.
Therefore OP' = OP, and∠0P'P = ∠0PP' = 60°, so
that the triangle P'OP is equilateral.
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 33
Hence OP2=PP'2= 4PM² = 40P2 – 4а²,
where OM equals a. ... 30P2 = 4α², 2

so that 2α and MP= 10P= a

OP = √3' √3
... sin 30° = MP 1
OP = 2'
cos 30° = OM
OP =
2α √3
√32 ' =

and tan 30° = sin 30° = 1

cos 30° √3 ' •

35. Angle of 60°.

Let the angle AOP traced P
out be 60°.
Take a point N on OA, so
that
MN= OM= a (say).
The twotriangles OMPand
NMP have now the sides OM 60° M N A
and MP equal to NM and MP
respectively, and the included
angles equal, so that the triangles are equal.
.. PN= OP, and ∠PNM=∠ POM= 60°.
The triangle OPNis therefore equilateral, and hence
OP= ON = 20M= 2a.
... MP = √OP2-
D2 . OM² = √4a²2 – a² = √3 . a.
-

L. T. 3
 34 TRIGONOMETRY.

Hence sin 60° = MP √3a √3

=
OP 2α 2' =

cos 60° = OM a
OP 2α 2 '
1=

and sin 60° = √3.

tan 60° = cos 60°
36. Angle of 0°.
Let the revolving line OP have turned through a very
small angle, so that the angle
MOP is very small. P
The magnitude of MP is Ο M A
then very small and initially,
before OP had turned through an angle big enough to be
perceived,the quantityMPwas smaller than any quantity
we could assign, i.e. was what we denote by 0.
Also, in this case, the two points Mand P very nearly
coincide, and the smaller the angle AOP the more nearly
do they coincide.
Hence, when the angle AOP is actually zero,the two
lengths OMand OP are equal and MP is zero.
Hence sin 0°= MP
OP = OP0 =0,
cos 0° = OM OP
OP= OP = 1,
and tan 0° == 0.
OM when M and P coincide
Also cot 0° = the value of MP
= thesmall
ratio of a finite quantity to something infinitely
= a quantity which is infinitely great.
Such a quantity is usually denoted by the symbol ∞ .
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 35
Hence cot 0° = 8 .
cosec 0° MPOP ∞also.
Similarly =

And OP 1.
sec 0° = OM
37. Angle of90°. P
Let the angle AOP be very nearly,but
not quite, a right angle.
When OP has actually described a
right angle the point M coincides with O,
so that then OM is zero and OP and MP OM A
are equal.
Hence sin 90° = MP
OP= OP
OP = 1,
cos 90° = OM 0
OP = OP=0,
tan 90° = MP a finite quantity
OM an infinitely small quantity
a number infinitely large = ∞ .
cot 90° = OM 0
MP=MP=0,
sec 90° = OP
OM = ∞ , as in the case ofthe tangent,
and OP OP = 1 .
cosec 90° = MP OP
38. Complementary Angles. Def. Two angles
are said to be complementary when their sum is equal
to a right angle. Thus any angle O and the angle
90° - are complementary.
3-2
36 TRIGONOMETRY.
39. To find the relations between the trigonometrical
ratios of two complementary angles.
Let the revolving line, starting from OA, trace out
any acute angle AOP, equal to
0. From any point Pon it P
draw PM perpendicular to OA. 90-0
Since the three angles of a
triangle are together equal to
two right angles,and since OMP θ
is a right angle, the sum of the M A
two angles MOP and OPM is a
right angle.
They are therefore complementary and
∠OPM = 90° – θ.
-

[When the angle OPM is considered, the line PM is

the We
"base" and MO is the "perpendicular."]
then have
sin (90° – 0) = sinMPO MO
-

PO = cosAOP cos θ,
- -
-

cos (90° – 0) = cosMPO= PM

-

PO = sinAOP
sin = sin 0,
MO
tan (90° - 0) = tanMPO = PM =cotAOP = cot 0,
PM
cot (90° - 0) = cot MPO = MO = tanAOP = tan 0,
PO
cosec (90° - 0) = cosecMPO MO=
=secAOP = sec 0,
PO = cosecAOP = cosec θ.
and sec (90° – 0)= secMPO= PM
-
 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 37
Hence we observe that
the Sine of any angle = the Cosine ofits complement,
the Tangent of any angle = the Cotangent of its comple-
ment,
and the Secant of an angle = the Cosecant of its comple-
ment.
From this is apparent what is the derivation of the
names Cosine, Cotangent, and Cosecant.
40. The student is advised before proceeding any
further to make himself quite familiar with the following
table. [For an extension of this table, see Art. 76.]
Angle 00 300 450 600 900
1
√2 √32
1
Sine 0 1
12

Cosine 1 √√3 1 1 0
J2
2

Tangent 0.1J3 1 √3 8
‫مس‬

1
Cotangent 8 √√3 1
√3 0

Cosecant 8 2 √22√3 1

2
Secant 1 J3 √2 2 8

If the student commits accurately to memory the

portion of the above table included between the thick
lines, he should be able to easily reproduce the rest.
38 TRIGONOMETRY.
For
(1) the sines of 60° and 90° are respectively the
cosines of 30° and 0°. (Art. 39.)
(2) the cosines
sines of 30° and 0°.
of 60° and 90° are respectively the
(Art. 39.)
Hence the second and third lines are known.
(3) The tangent ofany angle is the result ofdividing
the sine by the cosine.
Hence any quantity in the fourth line is obtained by
dividing the corresponding quantity in the second line by
the corresponding quantity in the third line.
(4) The cotangent of any angle is the reciprocal of
the tangent, so that the quantities in the fifth row are the
reciprocals of the quantities in the fourth row.
(5) Since cosec 0 = sin1 θ' the sixth row is obtained
by
row.
inverting the corresponding quantities in the second
(6) Since sec 0 = cos1 θ' the seventh row is similarly
obtained from the third row.
EXAMPLES. VII.
1. If A = 30°, verify that
(1) cos 2A=cos²A - sin²A =2 cos²A – 1,
-

(2) sin2A=2 sin A cosA,

(3) cos 3A=4 cos³A – 3 cosA,
-

(4) sin 3A= 3 sinA – 4 sin³ A,

-

and (5) tan 2A = 1-2 tanA

tan²A
[Exs. VII.] TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 39
2. If A = 45°, verify that
(1) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A,
(2) cos 2A=1-2 sin²A,
and (3) tan 2A = 12-tanA
tan² A •

Verify that
3. sin² 30°+ sin² 45°+sin² 60°=32
4. tan² 30°+tan² 45°+tan² 60°= 4+.
5. sin 30° cos 60°-+ cos 30° sin 60°= 1.
6. cos 45° cos 60° – sin 45° sin 60°
-
-
√3-1
2/2
 CHAPTER III.
SIMPLE PROBLEMS IN HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
41. ONE ofthe objects ofTrigonometry is to find the
distances between points, or the heights of objects,
without actually measuring these distances or these
heights.
42. Suppose O and P to be two points,Pbeing at a
higher level than 0.
Let OMbe a horizontal line P
N
drawn through O to meet in M
the vertical line drawn through
P.
The angle MOP is called M
the Angle of Elevation of
the point Pas seen from 0.
Draw PN parallel to MO, so that PN is the hori-
zontal line passing through P. The angle NPO is the
Angle of Depression of the point O as seen from P.
43. Two of the instruments used in practical work are the Theodo-
lite and the Sextant.
The Theodolite is used to measure angles in a verticalplane.
The Theodolite, in its simple form, consists of a telescope attached
to a flat piece of wood. This piece of wood is supported by three legs
and can be arranged so as to be accurately horizontal.
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 41
This table being at O and horizontal and the telescope being initially
pointing in the direction OM, the latter can be made to rotate in a
vertical plane until it points accurately towards P. A graduated scale
shews the angle through which it has been turned from the horizontal,
i.e. gives us the angle of elevation MOP.
Similarly, if the instrument were at P, the angle NPO through which
the telescope would have to be turned, downward from the horizontal,
would give us the angle NPO.
The instrument can also be used to measure angles in a horizontal
plane.
44. The Sextant is used to find the angle subtended by any two
points D and E at a third point F. It is an instrument much used on
board ships.
Its construction and application are too complicated to be here
considered.
45. We shall now solve a few simple examples in
heights and distances.
Ex. 1. A verticalflagstaff stands on a horizontal plane ; from a point
distant 150 feetfrom its foot the angle of elevation of its top is found to be
30°; find the height of the flagstaff.
Let MP (Fig. Art. 42) represent the flagstaff and O the point from
which the angle of elevation is taken.
Then OM= 150 feet, and ∠ MOP=30°.
Since PMO is a right angle, we have
MP =tanMOP= tan 30°= 1 (Art. 33).
OM
.:. MP= ОМ 150 150/3
73(Art.
√√3
√33 3 =50/3.
=

Now, by extraction of the square root, we have

/3=1.73205....
Hence MP=50 × 1.73205 ... feet =86-6025... feet.
Ex. 2. A man wishes to find the height of a church spire which stands
on a horizontal plane; at a point on this plane he finds the angle of
elevation of the top of the spire to be 45° on walking 100 feet toward the
tower he finds the corresponding angle of elevation to be 60°; deduce the
height of the tower and also his original distance from the foot of the
spire.
42 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let P be the top of the spire and A and B the two points at which
the angles of elevation are taken. Draw
PM perpendicular to AB produced and
let MP be x.

and

and
We are given AB=100 feet,

Hence
BM
X
ZMAP=45°,
∠MBP= 60°.
We then have
AM=cot45°,
Xx
1
=cot 60°=J3 •

.:. 100=AM - BM=x- X

X
AM=x, and BM=J3
A 45°
A 100 B

√3= √3--13
•
60°
P

..x = 1003_100√3(
x=√3-1 = 3-13+1)=50(3 + √3)
=50 [3 +1-73205...]= 236.6... feet.
Also AM=x, so that both of the required distances are equal to
236.6... feet.
Ex. 3. From the top of a cliff, 200 feet high, the angles of depression
of the top and bottom of a tower are observed to be 30° and 60° ; find the
height of the tower.
Let A be the point ofobservation and BA the height of the cliff and
let CD be the tower.
Draw AE horizontally, so that ∠EAC= 30° and E A
LEAD= 60°. 30
Let feet be the height of thetower and produce 60%
DC to meet AE in E, so that CE=AB - x=200 -
x. C
Since LADB= ∠DAE=60° (Euc. 1. 29), 200
200
... DB=AB cot ADB=200 cot 60°= √3 • X

200 - x CE =tan 30° = 1

Also DB EA =
√3 D B
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 43
.. 200 - x= DB 200
33'
=

so that X 200 200

3 =133 feet.
-

Ex. 4. A man observes that at a point due south of a certain tower its
angle of elevation is 60° ; he then walks 300feet due west on a horizontal
plane and finds that the angle of elevation is then 30° ; find the height of
the tower and his original distance from it.
P
P
x
B
B
A/60X M
√3
A M
P 300 √3.x

30°
B X/3 M AM
√3
Let Pbe the top, and PM the height, of the tower, A the point due
south of the tower and B the point due west of A.
The angles PMA, PMB, and MAB are therefore all right angles.
For simplicity, since the triangles PAM, PBM, and ABM are in
different planes, they are reproduced in the second, third, and fourth
figures and drawn to scale.
We are given AB= 300 feet, ∠PAM=60°, and PBM=30°.
Let the height of the tower be x feet.
From the second figure
AM= cot 60°= 1
X /3 '
X
so that
From the third figure BM
AM=J3√3
X =cot 30°=/3,
so that BM=√3.x,
44 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the last figure we have
BM2=AM2 +AB2,
i.e. 3x²==31 x² + 3002.
.. 8x2 = 3 × 3002.
::..x= 300√3
2/2
150.√62 =75 × /6
=

=75 × 2-44949 ... = 183.71... feet.

Also his original distance from the tower
=x cot 60°= x =75x /2
√√3
=75 × (1.4142...)=106.065... feet.
EXAMPLES. VIII.
1. A person standing on the bank of a river observes that the angle
subtended by a tree on the opposite bank is 60°; when he retires 40 feet
from the bank he finds the angle to be 30°; find the height of the tree
and the breadth of the river.
2. At a certain point 3the angle of elevation of a tower is found to be
such that its cotangent is ; on walking 32 feet directlytoward the tower
its angle ofelevation is an angle whose cotangent is 25. Find the height
of the tower.
3. At a pointA the angle ofelevation ofa tower is found to be such
thatitstangentis 12;5 onwalking240feetnearerthe
3
tower the tangent
of the angle of elevation is found to be 1; what is the height of the
tower ?
4. Find the height of a chimney when it is found that on walking
towards it 100 feet in a horizontal line through its base, the angular
elevation of its top changes from 30° to 45°.
5. An observer on the top of a cliff, 200 feet above the sea-level,
observes the angles of depression of two ships at anchor to be 45° and 30°
respectively ; find the distances between the ships if the line joining them
points to the base of the cliff.
[Exs. VIII.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 45
6. From the top of a cliff an observer finds that the angles of
depression of two buoys in the sea are 39° and 26° respectively; the
buoys are 300 yards apart and the line joining them points straight
at the foot of the cliff; find the height of the cliff and the distance of the
nearest buoy from the foot of the cliff, given that cot 26°=2·0503, and
cot 39°= 1·2349.
7. The upper part ofa tree broken over by the wind makes an angle
of 30° withthe ground, and the distance from the root to the point where
the top of the tree touches the ground is 50 feet ; what was the height of
the tree ?
8. The horizontal distance between two towers is 60 feet and the
angular depression of the top of the first as seen from the top of the
second which is 150 feet high is 30°; find the height of the first.
9. The angle of elevation of the top of an unfinished tower from a
point distant 120 feet from its base is 45° ; how much higher must the
tower be raised so that its angle of elevation at the same point may be
60°?
10. Two pillars of equal height stand on either side of a roadway
which is 100 feet wide ; at a point in the roadway between the pillars the
elevations of the tops ofthe pillars are 60° and 30° ; find theirheight and
the position of the point.
11. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower is observed to be
60° ; at a point 40 feet above the first point of observation the elevation
is found to be 45°; find the height of the tower and its horizontal
distance from the points of observation.
12. At the foot of a mountain the elevation of its summit is found
to be 45°; after ascending one mile up a slope of 30° inclination the
elevation is found to be 60°. Find the height of the mountain.
13. What is the angle ofelevation of the sun when the length of its
shadow is 3 times its height?
14. The shadow of a tower standing on a level plane is found to be
60 feet longer when the sun's altitude is 30° than when it is 45°. Prove
that the height ofthe tower is 30(1 +√3) feet.
15. On a straight coast there are three objects A, B, and C such
that AB=BC=2 miles. A vessel approaches B in a line perpendicular
to the coast and at a certain point AC is found to subtend an angle of
60° ; after sailing in the same direction for ten minutes ACis found to
subtend 120°; find the rate at which the ship is going.
46 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. VIII.]
16. Two flagstaffs stand on a horizontal plane. A and B are two
points on the line joining the bases of the flagstaffs and between them.
The angles of elevation of the tops of the flagstaffs as seen from A are
30° and 60° and, as seen from B, they are 60° and 45°. Ifthe length AB
be 30 feet, find the heights of the flagstaffs and the distance between
them.
17. Pis the top and the foot of a tower standing on a horizontal
plane. A and B are two, points on this plane such that 2
AB is
32feet and QAB is aright angle. It is found that cotPAQ= and
cot PBQ= 3 ;
find the height of the tower.
18. A square tower stands upon a horizontal plane. From a point
in this plane from which three of its upper corners are visible their
angular elevations are respectively 45°, 60°, and 45°. Shew that the
height of the tower is to the breadth of one of its sides as √6 ( 5 +1)
to 4.
19. A lighthouse, facing north, sends out a fan-shaped beam of
light extending from north-east to north-west. A steamer sailing due
west first sees the lighthouse when it is 5 miles away from the lighthouse
and continues to see it for 30/2 minutes. What is the speed of the
steamer ? 4

20. A man stands at a point X on the bank XY of a river with

straight and parallel banks and observes that the line joining X to a
point Z on the opposite bank makes an angle of 30° with XY. He then
goes along the bank a distance of 200 yards to Yand finds that the angle
ZYX is 60°. Find the breadth of the river.
21. A man, walking due north, observes that the elevation of a
balloon, which is dueeast of him and is sailing toward the north-west,
is then 60° ; after he has walked 400yards the balloon is vertically over
his head ; find its height supposing it to have always remained the same.
 CHAPTER IV.
APPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC SIGNS TO TRIGONOMETRY.

46. Positive and Negative Angles. In Art. 6 in

treating of angles of any size we spoke of the revolving
line as if it always revolved in a direction opposite to that
in which the hands of a watch revolve, when the watch is
heldThis
withdirection
its face uppermost.
is called counter-clockwise.
When the revolving line turns in this mannerit is said
to revolve in the positive direction and to trace out a
positive angle.
When the line OP revolves in the opposite direction,
i.e. in the same direction as the hands of the watch, it is
said to revolve in the negative direction and to trace out
a negative angle. This negative direction is clockwise.
47. Let the revolving line start from OA and revolve
until it reaches a position OP which
lies between OA' and OB' and which B

bisects the angle A'OB'.

If it has revolved in the positive A A

direction it has traced out the positive P

angle whose measure is + 225°. B'

48 TRIGONOMETRY.
If it has revolved in the negative direction it has
traced out the negative angle - 135°.
Again, suppose we onlyknow that the revolving line is
in the above position. It may have made one, two, three
...
complete revolutions and then have described the
positive angle + 225°. Or again it may have made
one, two, three... complete revolutions in the negative
direction
-
135°.
and then have described the negative angle
In the first case the angle it has described is either
225°, or 360° + 225°, or 2 × 360° + 225°, or 3 × 360° + 225°
.......... 225°, or 585°, or 945°, or 1305°....
In the second case the angle it has described is – 135°,
-

or - 360° – 135°, or - 2 × 360° - 135°, or - 3 × 360° - 135°

-

......i.e. - 135°, or - 495°, or - 855°, or - 1215°....

-

48. Positive and Negative Lines. Suppose that

a man is told to start from a given milestone on a straight
road and to walk 1000 yards along the road and then to
stop. Unless we are told the direction in which he
started we do not know his position when he stops. All
we know is that he is either at a distance 1000 yards on
one side of the milestone or at the same distance on the
other side.
In measuring distances along a straight line it is
therefore convenient to have a standard direction ; this
direction is called the positive direction and all distances
measured along it are said to be positive. The opposite
direction is the negative direction and all distances
measured along it are said to be negative.
The standard or positive directions for horizontal lines
is towards the right.
 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LINES. 49
The length OA is in the positive direction. The
length OA' is in the A'
negative direction. If B A
the magnitude of the
distance OA or OA' be a, the point A is at aa from distance
+ a from O and the point A' is at a distance -
O.
All lines measured to the right have then the positive
sign prefixed ; all lines to the left have the negative sign
prefixed.
If a point start from O anddescribe a positive distance
OA and then a distance AB back again toward O, equal
numerically to b, the total distance it has described
measured in the positive direction is OA +AB
i.e. + a + (- b), i.e. a -
b.
49. For lines at right angles to AA' the positive
direction is from O towards the top of the page, i.e. the
direction of OB (Fig. Art. 47). All lines measured from
O towards the foot of the page, i.e. in the direction OB',
are negative.
50. Trigonometrical ratios for an angle ofany magni-
tude.
Let OA be the initial line (drawn in the positive
direction) and let OA' be drawn in
the opposite direction to OA. B

Let BOB' be a line at right P2

P1

angles to OA, its positive direction M4

being OB. A M2
M3O M1 A
Let a revolving line OP start
from OA and revolving in either P4
direction, positive or negative, trace P3 B'
L. T. 4
50 TRIGONOMETRY.
out an angle of any magnitude whatever. From a
point Pin the revolving line draw PM perpendicular
to AOA'.
[Four positions of the revolving line are given in the figure, one in
each of the four quadrants, and the suffixes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are attached to
P for the purpose of distinction.]
We then have the following definitions, which are the
same as those given in Art. 23 for the simple case of an
acute angle :
MP
OP is called the Sine ofthe angle AOP,
OM Cosine
OP ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬

MP
OM ‫وو‬ ‫دو‬ Tangent ‫وو‬ ‫دو‬

OM Cotangent
MP ‫وو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫ود‬

OP " Secant
OM ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ "

OP Cosecant
‫دو‬ ‫وو‬ "
MP ‫وو‬

The quantities 1 - cos AOP, and 1 - sin AOP are

respectively called the Versed Sine and the Coversed
Sine of AOР.
51. In exactly the same manner as in Art. 27 it may
behaveshewn that, for all values of the angle AOP (= 0), we
 ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE. 51
sin20 + cos20 = 1,
sincos θ =tan 0,
sec² = 1 + tan²0,
and cosec² = 1 + cot²θ.
52. Signs of the trigonometrical ratios.
First quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the first
quadrant, as OP₁. This revolving line is always positive.
Here OM₁ and M₁P₁ are both positive, so that all the
1

trigonometrical ratios are then positive.

Second quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the
second quadrant, as OP2, Here M₂P₂ is positive and OM₂
is negative.
The sine, being equal to the ratio of a positive quantity
to a positive quantity, is therefore positive.
The cosine, being equal to the ratio of a negative
quantity to a positive quantity, is therefore negative.
The tangent, being equal to the ratio of a positive
quantity to a negative quantity, is therefore negative.
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is positive.
The secant is negative.
Third quadrant. If the revolving line be, as OP3, in
the third quadrant, we have both MP3 and OM, negative.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is negative.
The tangent is positive.
The cotangent is positive.
The cosecant is negative.
The secant is negative. 4-2
52 TRIGONOMETRY.
Fourth quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the
fourth quadrant, as OP4. Here M₁P4 is negative and
OM is positive.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is positive.
The tangent is negative.
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is negative.
The secant is positive.
The annexed table shews the signs of the trigono-
metrical ratios according to the quadrant in which lies
the revolving line, which bounds the angle considered.
B
sin + sin +
COS -

COS +
tan -

tan +
cot cot +
cosec + cosec +
sec -
sec +

A' A
sin -
sin -

COS -
COS +
tan + tan -

cot + cot -

cosec -

cosec -

sec -

sec +
B'

53. Tracing of the changes in the sign and magnitude

of the trigonometrical ratios of an angle, as the angle
increases from 0° to 360°.
Let the revolving line OP be ofconstant length a. :
 CHANGES IN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 53
When it coincides with OA the
length OM₁ is equal to a and, P2 BP1 P1
when it coincides with OB, the P2 P1
point M₁ coincides with O and OM₁ M3 M4
vanishes. Also, as the revolving A' M2 M2 M1 M1 M1 A

line turns from OA to OB, the dis-

tance OM₁ decreases from a to P3 P4
zero. Β'
Whilst the revolving line is in
the second quadrant and is revolving from OB to OA', the
distance OM, is negative and increases numerically from
2

O to a [i.e. it decreases algebraically from 0 to -a].

In the third quadrant the distance OM, increases 3
algebraically from -a to 0, and in the fourth quadrant
the distance OM4 increases from 0 to a.
In the first quadrant the length M₁P₁ increases from
0 to a; in the second quadrant M₂P₂ decreases from a to
2 2
0; in the third quadrant MP3 decreases algebraically
from 0 to - a ; whilst in the fourth quadrant M4P4
increases algebraically from - a to 0.
54. Sine. In the first quadrant as the angle in-0
creases from 0 to 90°, the sine, ie. M1P1
a
increases from a
,
-

to aa, i.e. from 0 to 1.

In the second quadrant as theaangle0 increases from
90° to 180°, the sine decreases from a to a, i.e. from 1 to 0.
In the third quadrant as the0angle aincreases from 180°
-

to 270°, the sine decreases from -a to a i.e. from 0 to - 1.

,
54 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the fourth quadrant as the angle increases
0 -
α
from
270° to 360°, the sine increases from a
to a , i.e. from
-1 to 0.
55. Cosine. In the first quadrant the cosine, which
OM decreases from a- to 0 i.e. from 1 to 0.
is equal to a ,
a a ‫د‬

In the second quadrant it decreases from 0a toa,a

i.e. -

from 0 to - 1.
a
to 0
0, v.e.
-

In the third quadrant it increases from a α΄

from 1 to 0.
-

In the fourth quadrant it increases from 0 to α

a
' i.e.
-

a
from 0 to 1.
56. Tangent. In the first quadrant M₁P₁ increases
from 0 to a and OM₁ decreases from a to 0, so that M₁P
OM
1 1
1
continually increases (for its numerator continually in-
creases and its numerator continually decreases).
When OP, coincides with OA, the tangent is 0; when
the revolving line has turned through an angle which is
slightly less than a right angle, so that OP₁ nearly
coincides with OB, then M₁P₁ is very nearly equal to
a and OM₁ is very small. The ratio M1P1
OM1 is therefore very
large, and the nearer OP₁ gets to OB the larger does the
ratio become, so that,by taking the revolving line near
enough to OB, we can make the tangent as large as we
please. This is expressed by saying that when the angle
is equal to 90° its tangent is infinite.
 CHANGES IN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 55
The symbol is used to denote an infinitely great
quantity.
Hence in the first quadrant the tangent increases from
0 to 8 .
In the second quadrant when the revolving line has
described an angle AOP₂ slightly greater than a right
angle, M₂P₂ is very nearly equal to a and OM, is very
2

small and negative, so that the corresponding tangent is

very large and negative.
Also, as the revolving line turns from OBto OA',M₁P₁ 1

decreases from a to 0 and OM₂ is negative and decreases

from 0 to - a, so that when the revolving line coincides
with OA' the tangent is zero.
Hence in the second quadrant the tangent increases
from ∞to 0.
-

In the third quadrant both MP3 and OM, are negative,

3
and hence their ratio ispositive. Also,whenthe revolving
line coincides with OB', the tangent is infinite.
Hence in the third quadrant the tangent increases
from 0 to 8 .
In the fourth quadrant M₁P4 is negative and OM4 is
positive, so that their ratio is negative. Also, as the
revolving line passes through OB' the tangent changes
from + ∞ to ∞ [just as in passing through OB].
-

Hence in the fourth quadrant the tangent increases

from ∞ to 0.
-

57. Cotangent. When the revolving line coincides

with OA, M₁P₁ is very small and OM₁ is very nearly
OM1 is
equal to a, so that the cotangent, i.e. the ratio M1P1 ,

infinite to start with. Also, as the revolving line rotates

56 TRIGONOMETRY,
from OA to OB, the quantity M₁P₁ increases from 0 to a
and OM, decreases from a to 0.
Hence in the first quadrant the cotangent decreases
from to 0.
In the second quadrant M₂P₂ is positive and OM₂
2

negative, so that the cotangent decreases from 0 to a, ---

i.e. from 0 to 18 .
In the third quadrant it is positive and decreases from
∞to 0 [for as the revolving line crosses OB' the cotangent
changes from ∞ to ∞ ].
-

In the fourth quadrant it is negative and decreases

from 0 to 8 .
-

58. Secant. Whenthe revolving line coincides with

OA the value of OM₁ is a, so that the value of the secant
is then unity.
As the revolving line turns from OA to ОВ, ОМ₁ 1
decreases from a to 0, and when the revolving line
coincides with OB the value of the secant is , i.e. ∞.
Hence in the first quadrant the secant increases from
1 to ∞ .
In the second
from 0 to -
quadrant OM, is negative and decreases
α. Hence in this quadrant the secant in-
creases from - ∞ to -1 [for as the revolving line crosses
OB the quantity OM, changes sign and therefore the
secant changes from + ∞ to ∞ ].
-

In the third quadrant OM, is always negative and

increases from -a to 0 ; therefore the secant decreases
from - 1 to 8 . In the fourth quadrant OM₁ is always
-

positive and increases from 0 to a. Hence in this quad-

rant the secant decreases from ∞ to + 1.
 CHANGES IN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 57
59. Cosecant. The change in the cosecant may be
traced in a similar manner to that in the secant.
In the first quadrant it decreases from∞ to +1.
InIn the secondquadrant
the third quadrantititincreases
increasesfrom
from-∞to
+ 1 to-1.
+∞.
In the fourth quadrant it decreases from 1 to 8 . -
-

60. The foregoing results are collected in the annexed

table.
B
In the second quadrant the In the first quadrant the
sine decreases from 1 to 0 sine increases from 0 to 1
cosine decreases from 0 to-1 cosine decreases from 1 to 0
tangent increases from -∞ to 0 tangent increases from 0 to 8
cotangentdecreases from 0 to-∞ cotangent decreases from ∞ to 0
secant increases from -∞ to-1 secant increases from 1 to 8
cosecant increases from 1 to 0 cosecant decreases from∞ to 1
A' Ο A
In the third quadrant the In the fourth quadrant the
sine decreases from 0 to -1 sine increases from 1 to 0
-

cosine increases from 1 to 0

-
cosine increases from 0 to 1
tangent increases from 0 to ∞ tangent increases from--∞ to 0
cotangentdecreases from ∞ to 0 cotangentdecreases from 0 to-∞
secant decreases from 1 to18
-
secant decreases from ∞ to 1
cosecant increases from - to-1 cosecant decreases from – 1to 8
- -

B'

61. Periods of the trigonometrical functions.

As an angle increases from 0 to 27radians i.e., whilst the
revolving line makes a complete revolution its sine first
increases from 0 to 1, then decreases from 1 to 1, and -

finally increases from -1 to 0, and thus the sine goes

through all its changes returning to its original value.
58 TRIGONOMETRY.
METRY.
Similarly as the angle increases from 27 radians to
4 radians, the sine goes through the same series of
changes.
Also the sines of any two angles which differ by four
right angles, i.e. 2 radians, are the same.
This is expressed by saying that the period of the
sine is 2π.
Similarly the cosine, secant, and cosecant go through
all their changes as the angle increases by 2π.
The tangent, however, goes through all its changes as
the angle increases from 0 to w radians, i.e. whilst the
revolving line turns through two right angles. Similarly
for the cotangent.
The period of the sine, cosine,secant and cosecant is
therefore 2 radians; the period of the tangent and
cotangent is radians.
Since the values of the trigonometrical functions
repeat over and over again as the angle increases, they
are called periodic functions.
*62. The variations in the values of the trigono-
metrical ratios may be graphically represented to the eye
by means ofcurves constructed in the following manner.
Y
Q B1
R₁' R3 R4
P R1 R2 R5 X
R2
B1 B3

Sine-Curve.
Let OX and OY be two straight lines at right angles
 SINE-CURVE. 59
and let the magnitudes of angles be represented by
lengths measured along OX.
Let R1, R2, R3,... be points such that the distances
OR1, R1R2, R2R3,... are equal. If then the distance OR₁
represent a right angle, the distances OR2, OR3, OR4,...
must represent two, three, four,... right angles.
Also if P be any point on the line OX, then OP
represents an angle which bears the same ratio to a right
angle that OP bears to OR₁.
[For example, if OP be equal to 1 OR, then OPwould represent one-
third of a right angle; if P bisected R3R4 then OP would represent 3
right angles.]
Let also OR₁ be so chosen that one unit of length
represents one radian; since OR₂ represents two right
angles, i.e. r radians, the length OR₂ must be units of
length, i.e. about 34 units of length.
In a similar manner negative angles are represented
by distances
direction.
OR₁', OR2', ... measured from O in a negative
At each point Perect a perpendicular PQ to represent
the sine of the angle which is represented by OP; if the
sine be positive the perpendicular is to be drawn parallel
to OY in the positive direction; if the sine be negative
the line is to be drawn in the negative direction.
[For example, since OR₁ represents a right angle, the sine of which is
1, we erect a perpendicularR₁B₁ equal to one unit of length; since OR2
represents an angle equal to two right angles,the sine ofwhich is zero,
we erect a perpendicular of length zero; since OR3 represents three right
angles, the sine of which is -1, we erect a perpendicular equal to - 1,
i.e. we draw R3B3 downward and equal to a unit
1
of length ; if OP were
equal to one-third of OR, it would represent of a right angle, i.e. 30°,
60 TRIGONOMETRY.
1
the sine of which is 2' and so we should erect a perpendicular PQ equal
to one-half the unit of length.]
The ends of all these lines, thus drawn, would be
found to lie on a curve similar to the one drawn above.
It would be found that the curve consisted of portions,
similar to OB₁R2B3R4, placed side by side. This corre-
sponds to the fact that each time the angle increases by
2π, the sine repeats the same value.
*63. Cosine-Curve.
Y
B Q
R3 R2' R1 R.2 R3
R OP R4 X

The Cosine-Curve is obtained in the same manner as

the Sine-Curve, except that in this case the perpendicular
PQ represents the cosine ofthe angle represented by OP.
The curve obtained is the same as that ofArt. 62 if in
that curve we move O to R₁ and let OY be drawn along
R1B1.
*64. Tangent-Curve.
In this case, since the tangent of a right angle is
infinite and since OR₁ represents a right angle, the per-
pendicular drawn at R₁ must be of infinite length and
the dotted curve will only meet the line R₁L at an infinite
distance.
 TANGENT-CURVE. 61
Since the tangent of an angle slightly greater than a
right angle is negative and almost infinitely great, the
Y L

Q
RRR P R1 R2 R3

dotted curve immediately beyond LR₁L' commences at an

infinite distance on the negative side, i.e. below, OX.
The Tangent-Curve will clearly consist of an infinite
number of similar but disconnected portions, all ranged
parallel to one another. Such a curve is called a Discon-
tinuous Curve. Both the Sine-Curve and the Cosine-
Curve are, on the other hand, Continuous Curves.
*65. Cotangent-Curve. If the curve to represent
the cotangent be drawn in a similar manner, it will be
found to meet OY at an infinite distance above 0 ; it will
pass through the point R₁ and touch the vertical line
through R₂ at an infinite distance on the negative side of
OX. Just beyond R₂ it will start at an infinite distance
aboveTheR2,curve
and proceed as before.
is therefore discontinuous and will consist
of an infinite number ofportions all ranged side by side.
62 TRIGONOMETRY.
*66. Cosecant-Curve.
Y

B1
R2' R1' R3
R1 R2 X
B B3

When the angle is zero the sine is zero, and the

cosecant is therefore infinite.
Hence the curve meets OY at infinity.
When the angle is a right angle the cosecant isunity,
and hence R₁B₁ is equal to the unit oflength.
When the angle is equal to two right angles its
cosecant is infinity, so that the curve meets the perpen-
dicular through R₂ at an infinite distance.
Again, as the angle increases from slightly less to
slightly greater than two right angles, the cosecant
changes from + 8to - 8 .
Hence just beyond R₂ the curve commences at an
infinite distance on the negative side of, i.e. below, OX.
*67. Secant-Curve. If, similarly, the Secant-Curve
be traced it will be found to be the same as the Cosecant-
Curve would be if we moved OY to R₁B1.
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE. 63

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. IX.

1. In a triangle one angle contains as manygrades as another con-
tains degrees, and the third contains as many centesimal seconds as
there are sexagesimal seconds in the sum of the other two find the
number of radians in each angle.
2. Find the number of degrees in the angle at the centre of a circle
whose radius is 5 feet which is subtended by an arc oflength 6 feet.
3. To turn radians into seconds prove that we must multiply by
206265 nearly, and to turn seconds into radians the multiplier must be
•0000048.
x2 -y2 find the values of cos e and cot 0.
4. If sin e equal x2+y2 '
5. If sin 0= m² m² + 2mn
+ 2mn +2n2 '
m²+ 2mn
prove that tan 0= 2mn+2n²
6. If cos e – sin 0 =√2 sin 0,
-

prove that cos 0 + sin 0 =√2 cos θ.

7. Prove that
cosec a cot a= 3 cosec² a cot2 a + 1.
8. Express 2 sec A - sec A - 2 cosec²A + cosec A
in terms of tan A.
9. Solve the equation 3cosec² 0=2 sec θ.
10. A man on a cliff observes a boat at an angle of depression of
30°, which is making for the shore immediately beneath him. Three
minutes later the angle of depression of the boat is 60°. How soon will
it reach the shore ?
11. Prove that the equation sin 0=x+X11 is impossible if x be real.
4xy is only possible when
12. Shew that the equation sec20= (x+y)² 2
x=y.
 CHAPTER V.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY
SIZE AND SIGN.
[On a first reading ofthe subject, the student is recommended
to confine his attention to the first of the four figures given in
Arts. 68, 69 and 72.]
68. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle
( −0) in terms of those of e,for all values of 0.
P
P

1
M A M A

P
P'
P'
-
P'

M Ο A θο A
M

P
P
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 65
Let the revolving line, starting from OA, revolve
through any angle & and stop in the position OP.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA (or OA produced) and
produce it to P', so that the lengths of PM and MP' are
equal.
In the geometrical triangles MOP andMOP' we have
the two sides OM and MP equal to the two OM and
MP', and the included angles OMP and OMP' are right
angles.
Hence (Euc. 1. 4), the magnitudes of the angles MOP
and MOP' are the same and OP is equal to OP'.
In each of the four figures, the magnitudes of the
angle AOP (measured counter-clockwise) and ofthe angle
AOP' (measured clockwise) are the same.
Hence the angle AOP' (measured clockwise) is
denoted by - Ө.
Also MP and MP' are equal in magnitude but are
opposite in sign. (Art. 49.) We have therefore
MP' MP
-

sin (-- )=OP = OP =− sin 0,

cos(-0)= OMop = OMOP cos θ,
tan ( -8)= MP'
OM -OMMP tan 0,
-

OM OM
cot (-6)= MP = MP cot θ,
= -

OP' OM
cosec(-0)= MP =-MP= cosec 0,
-

and sec(-0)= OP'

OM OPOM = sec θ.
L. T. 5
66 TRIGONOMETRY.

Exs. sin (-30°) = sin 30°= - 12 '

-

tan(-60°) = -tan 60°= - √3,

1
and cos ( -45°)=cos 45°=√2
69. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle
(90° – 0) in terms ofthose of 0,for all values of 0.
-

The relations have already been discussed in Art. 39,

for values of e less than a right angle.
B B
N' P

Μ'

B
P

M A
NP

P
MO
N

B
N'
M'

P'
A

мм M
A M A

P P
P' N'

Let the revolving line, starting from OA, trace out

any angle AOP denoted by 0.
To obtain the angle 90° -0, let the revolving line
rotate to Band then rotate from B in the opposite
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 67
direction through the angle θ, and let the position of the
revolving line be then OP'.
The angle AOP' is then 90° — Ө.
-

Take OP' equal to OP and draw P'M' and PM per-

pendicular to OA, produced ifnecessary. Also draw P'N'
perpendicular to OB, produced ifnecessary.
In each figure the angles AOP and BOP' are numeri-
cally equal, by construction.
Hence in each figure
∠MOP = ∠ N'ΌΡ' = ∠ ΟΡ'Μ' ,
since ON' and M'P' are parallel.
Hence the triangles MOP and M'P'O are equal in all
respects, and therefore OM= M'P' numerically,
and OM' = MP numerically.
Also in each figure OM and M'P' are of the same
sign, and so also are MP and OM',
i.e. OM = + M'P', and OM = +MP.
Hence
sin (90° – 0) = sin AOP' = M'P' OM
-

OP'OP = cos θ,
cos (90° − ) = cosAOP' = OM'
-
MP
OP'OP sin θ,
=

tan (90° - 0) =tan AOP' = M'P' OM

OM MP = cot θ,
=

OM' MP tan 0,
cot(90° - 0) = cotAOP' = M'P' =
OM
-

OP'
sec (90° - 0) = secAOP' = OM'MP -
OP
----

= cosec 0,
OP' OP
and cosec(90° - 0)= cosecAOP'=M'P ' = OM= sec 0.
5-2
68 TRIGONOMETRY.
70. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle
(90° + 0) in terms ofthose of 0, for all values of 0.

N
P

Μ'Ο
B

B
P

MA
M' M

P
P

P
B

M M' A
MM' A

P
P'
P

Let the revolving line, starting from OA, trace out

any angle e and let OP be the position of the revolving
line then, so that the angle AOP is 0.
Let the revolving line turn through a right angle from
OP in the positive direction to the position OP', so that
the angle AOP' is (90° + 0).
Take OP' equal to OP and draw. PM and P'M'
perpendicular to AOA'. In each figure, since POP' is a
right angle, the sum of the angles MOP and P'OM' is
always a right angle.
Hence ∠MOP = 90° − ∠ P'OM' = ∠OP'M'.
-
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 69
The two triangles MOP and MPO are therefore equal
in all respects.
Hence OM and M'P' are numerically equal, as also
MP and OM' are numerically equal.
In each figure OM and M'P' have the same sign,
whilst MP and OM' have the opposite, so that
M'P' = + OM, and OM' = - MP.
We therefore have
sin (90° + 0) = sin AOP' = M'P' OM
OPOP = COS θ,
=

cos (90° + 0) = cosAOP' = OM - MP =-sin 0,

OP' OP
M'P' OM
tan (90° + 0) = tan AOP' = OM -MP= -cot 0,
OM - MP tan 0,
cot (90° + 0) = cotAOP' = MP OM
- =

OP' OP
sec (90° + 0) = sec AOP' = OM -MP = cosec 0,
-

OP' OP = sec0.
and cosec(90° + 0) = cosecAOP'= M'P ' OM
-

Exs. sin 150°=sin (90° ++60°)=cos =1

60°)=cos 60° ==,
cos 135°=cos (90° + 45°)= sin 45° = 1/2'
-
-

and tan120°=tan (90° + 30°)= - cot 30°= - √3.

71. Supplementary Angles.
Two angles are said to be supplementary when their
sum is equal to two right angles, i.e. the supplement of
any angle A is 180° – θ.
-
70 TRIGONOMETRY.
Exs. The supplement of 30°=180° -30°=150°.
The supplement of 120°= 180° – 120°= 60°.
-

The supplement of 275°=180° - 275°= - 95°.

The supplement of - 126°=180° - ( - 126°)=306°.
72. To find the values of the trigonometrical ratios of
the angle (180° – 0) in terms ofthose ofthe angle 0, for all
values of 0.

MM
A-
M'

M
K
Μ΄ A
A MO
M
M' A

P P P' P

Let the revolving line start from OA and describe any

angle AOP (= 0).
To obtain the angle 180° -0, let the revolving line
start from OA and, after revolving through two right
angles (i.e. into the position OA'), then revolve back
through an angle o into the position OP', so thatthe angle
A'OP' is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the
angle AOP.
The angle AOP' is then 180° — Ө.
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 71
Take OP' equal to OP and draw P'M' and PM
perpendicular to AOA'.
The angles MOP and M'OP' are equal and hence the
triangles MOP and M'OP' are equal in all respects.
Hence OM and OM' are equal in magnitude and so
also are MP and M'P'.
In each figure OM and OM' are drawn in opposite
directions, whilst MP and M'P' are drawn in the same
direction, so that
OM' = - OM, and M'P' = + MP.
Hence we have
MP =sin 0,
sin (180° – 0) = sin AOP'= M'P
-

OP
'
OP
=

cos (180° – 0)= cosAOP' = OM

-
' - OM
OP' OP
= = -
cos θ,
tan (180° - 0)= tan AOP' = M'P'
OM'
MP
- OM
-- -
tan θ,
cot(180°–0)=cotAOP' =M'P
-
OM =-cot0,
OM' = -MP

sec (180° - 0) = secAOP' = OP' OP

OM' -- OM = - sec 0,
OP' OP
and cosec (180° - 0) = cosecAOP' = M'P' MP = cosec θ.
=

Exs. sin 120°=sin (180° –60°)=sin 60°= √3,2'

-

1
cos135°=cos(180° - 45°)= - cos 45°= -

/2'
and 1
tan 150°=tan(180° -30°) = -tan30°= √3 -
72 TRIGONOMETRY.
73. To find the trigonometrical ratios of (180° + 0) in
terms of those of 0, for all values of 0.
The required relations may be obtained geometrically,
as in the previous articles. The figures for this propo-
sition are easily obtained and are left as an example for
the student.
They may also be deduced from the results ofArt. 70,
which have been proved true for all angles. For putting
90° + 0 = B, we have
sin ( 180° + 0) = sin (90° + B) = cosB (Art. 70)
= cos (90° + 0) =–sin θ,
-

(Art. 70)
and cos (180° + 0) = cos (90° + B) = - sinB (Art. 70)
= sin (90° + 0) = – cos θ.
-

(Art. 70).
So tan (180° + 0) = tan (90° + B) = - cot B
= -
cot (90° + 0) = tan 0,
and similarly cot (180° + 0) = cot 0,
sec (180° + 0) = - sec 0,
and cosec (180° + 0) cosec θ.
= -

74. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle

(360° + 0) in terms of those of 0,for all values of 0.
In whatever position the revolving line may be when
it has described any angle 0, it will be in exactly the same
position when it has made one more complete revolution
in the positive direction, i.e. when it has described an
angle 360° + θ.
 ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 73
Hence the trigonometrical ratios for an angle 360° + 0
are the same as those for θ.
It follows that the addition or subtraction of 360°, or
any multiple of 360°, to or from any angle does not alter
its trigonometrical ratios.
75. From the theorems of this chapter it follows that
the trigonometrical ratios of any angle whatever can be
reduced to the determination of the trigonometrical ratios
of an angle which lies between 0° and 45°.
For example,
sin 1765° = sin [4 × 360° + 325°] = sin 325° (Art. 74)
= sin (180° + 145°) = - sin 145° (Art. 73)
= - sin (180° - 35°) = − sin 35° (Art. 72);
-

tan 1190° = tan (3 × 360° + 110°) = tan 110° (Art. 74)

=tan (90° + 20°) = - cot 20° (Art. 70);
and cosec ( -1465°) = - cosec 1465° (Art. 68)
- cosec (4 × 360° + 25°) = - cosec 25° (Art. 74).
Similarly any other such large angles may be treated.
First, multiples of 360° should be subtracted until the
angle lies between 0° and 360° ; ifit be then greater than
180° it should be reduced by 180° ; if then greater than
90° the formulae of Art. 70 should be used, and finally, if
necessary, the formulae of Art. 69 applied.
74 TRIGONOMETRY.
76. The table of Art. 40 may now be extended to
some important angles greater than a right angle.
Angle 0° | 30° | 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° !
Sine 0 1 1 √3 1 √32 1 1 0
2 √2 2 √2 2

Cosine 1 √3 1 1 1 1 √3
2 √22 0 2 √2 2 1
1 1
1 √√300-3 -10
Tangent 0 √3 √3
1 1
Cotangent 8 √3 1 /3 0 √√3 -
1 -3

8
2
Cosecant 8 2 √22√3 1
√3 √2 2
8
2 2
Secant 1
√3 √2 2 8 2 -/2
N
3 -1

EXAMPLES. X.
Prove that
1. sin420°cos 390°+cos (-300°)sin ( - 330°)=1.
2. cos 570° sin 510° – sin 330° cos 390°=0.
-

and 3. tan225° cot405°+tan765°cot675°=0.

What are the values of cos A - sinA and tanA +cot A when A has
the values
4. 3,3 ' 5.
π 2π
3' 6. 5π
4 , 7. 7π
4 and 8. 11π3"?
[Exs. X.] EXAMPLES. 75
What values between 0° and 360° may A have when
1 1
9. sin A= √2' 10. cos A = 2' 11. tan A = − 1,
2
12. cot A = √3, -

13. secA= √3 and 14. cosecA= -2 ?

-

Express in terms of the ratios of a positive angle, which is less than

45°, the quantities
15. sin ( - 65°). 16. cos ( - 84°). 17. tan 137°.
18. sin 168°. 19. cos 287°. 20. tan ( -246°).
21. sin 843°. 22. cos (-928°). 23. tan 1145°.
24. cos 1410°. 25. cot (-1054°). 26. sec 1327° and
27. cosec (-756°).
What sign has sin A+cosA for the following values ofA ?
28. 140°. 29. 278°. 30. 356° and 31. – 1125°.
- -

What sign has sinA- cosA for the following values ofA ?
32. 215°. 33. 825°. 34. - 634° and 35. 457°. -

36. Find the sines and cosines of all angles in thefirstfour quadrants
whose tangents are equal to cos135°.
Prove that
37. sin (270° +A) = - cos A, and tan(270°+A) = - cot A.
38. cos (270°- A)= - sinA, and cot (270°-A) =tanA.
 CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL EXPRESSIONS FOR ALL ANGLES HAVING A
GIVEN TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIO.

77. To construct the least positive angle whose sine is

equal to a, where a is a proper fraction.
Let OA be the initial line and let OB be drawn in the
positive direction perpendicular to OA.
Measure off along OB a distance B

ONwhich is equal to a units of length.

[If a be negative the point Nwill lie in
BO produced.]
and
AD a

Through N draw NP parallel to OA. With centre O

N
1

radius equal to the unit of length describe a circle

P

M A

and let it meet NP in P.

Then AOP will be the required angle.
Draw PMperpendicular to OA, so that
sin AOP = MP ON a
OP = OP = 1 = a.
The sine AOP is therefore equal to the givenquantity
and AOP is therefore the angle required.
 ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 77
78. To construct the least positive angle whose cosine
is equal to b where b is a properfraction.
Along the initial line measure off a distance OM equal
to b and draw MP perpendicular to OA.
[If b be negative Mwill lie on the other
side of O in the line AO produced.]
With centre O and radius equal to 0 α M A
unity, describe a circle and let it meet
MP in P.
J

Then AOP is the angle required. For P

COS AOP = OM b
OP 1 =b.
=

79. To construct the least positive angle whose tangent

is equal to c. P
Along the initial line measure off
OM equal to unity and erect a per- C
pendicular MP. Measure off MP
equal to c. 1 M A
Then
tan AOP = MP
OM =
C,
so that AOP is the required angle.
80. It is clear from the definition given in Art. 50,
that, when an angle is given, so also is its sine. The
converse statement is not correct ; there is more than one
angle having a given sine ; for example, the angles 30°,
150°, 390°, — 210°,... all have their sine equal to .
Hence, when the sine of an angle is given, we do not
definitely know the angle; all we know is that the angle
is one out of a large number ofangles.
78 TRIGONOMETRY.
Similar statements are true if the cosine, tangent, or
any other trigonometrical function ofthe angle be given.
Hence, simply to give one of the trigonometrical
functions of an angle does not determine it without
ambiguity.
81. Suppose we know that the revolving line OP
coincides with the initial line OA. All we know is that
the revolving line has made 0, or 1, or 2, or 3,... complete
revolutions, either positive or negative.
But when the revolving line has made one complete
revolution
2 radians.
the angle it has described is (Art. 17) equal to
Hence when the revolving line OP coincides with the
initial line OA, the angle that it has described is 0, or 1,
or 2, or 3... times 27 radians, in either the positive or
negative directions, i.e. either 0, or + 2ㅠ, or + 4π, or ± 6π...
radians.
This is expressed by saying that when the revolving
line coincides with the initial line the angle it has de-
scribed is 2nm, where n is some positive or negative
whole number.
82. Theorem. To find a general expression to in-
clude all angles which have the same sine.
Let AOP be the smallest positive angle having the
given sine and let it be denoted
bya.
Draw PMperpendicular to OA P P

and produce MO to M' making A M'

MO equal to OM' and draw M'P' M A
parallel and equal to MP.
As in Art. 72 the angle AOP' is equal to π– α.
 ANGLES HAVING THE SAME SINE. 79
When the revolving line is in either of the positions
OP or OP', and in no other position, the sine of the angle
traced out is equal to the given sine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP it has
made a whole number of complete revolutions and then
described an angle a, i.e. bythe last article it has described
an angle equal to 2ιπ + α......
..........(1)
where r is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP' it has,
similarly,
2rπ + π
described an angle 2rㅠ +AOP', i.e. an angle
-

α,
i.e. (2r + 1) π– α....
-
...(2)
where r is zero or some positive or negative integer.
All these angles will be found to be included in the
expression
ηπ + ( − 1) a..
-
n
.......(3),
where n is zero or apositive or negative integer.
For, when n = 2r, since (-1)² = + 1, the expression (3)
gives 2r + a, which is the same as the expression (1).
Also, when n = 2r + 1, since (-1)2 +1 = -1, the expres-
sion (3) gives (2r + 1) π - α, which is the same as the
expression (2).
Cor. Since all angles which have the same sine have
also the same cosecant, the expression (3) includes all
angles which have the same cosecant as a.
83. Theorem. To find a general expression to in-
clude all angles which have the same cosine.
Let AOP be the smallest angle having the given
cosine and let it be denoted by a.
80 TRIGONOMETRY.
Draw PMperpendicular to OA and pro- P

duce it to P', making PMequal to MP'. 1

When the revolving line is inthepositionas α M

A

OP or OP', and in no other position, then,

in Art. 78, the cosine of the angle traced out P
is equal to the given cosine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP it has
made a whole number of complete revolutions and then
described an angle a, i.e. it has described an angle 2nㅠ + α,
where n is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP' it has
made a whole number of complete revolutions and then
described an angle - a, i.e. it has described an angle 2ηπ-α.
All these angles are included in the expression
2ηπ + α........................(1)
where n is some positive or negative number.
Cor. The expression (1) includes all angles having
the same secant as a.
84. Theorem. To find a general expression for all
angles which have the same tangent.
Let AOP be the smallest angle having the given
tangent, and let it be denoted by a.
Produce PO to P' making OP'
equal to OP and draw P'M' per-
pendicular to OM'. P

As in Art. 73 the angles AOP M' α

MA
and AOP' have the same tangent ; P
also the angle AOP' = π + α.
When the revolving line is in
 ANGLES HAVING THE SAME TANGENT. 81
the position OP, it has described a whole number of
complete revolutions and then turned through an angle
a, i.e. it has described an angle
2rπ + α.... ..(1),
where r is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has
similarly described an angle 2rn + (π + α),
i.e. (2r + 1) π + α.. ........(2).
All these angles are included in the expression
ηπ + α...... ..............(3).
For, when n is even, (= 2r say), the expression (3)
gives the same angles as the expression (1).
Also, when n is odd, (= 2r+1 say), it gives the same
angles as the expression (2).
Cor. The expression (3) includes all angles which
have the same cotangent as a.
85. Ex. 1. Write down the general expression for all angles,
equal toto 2
(1) whose sine is equal √3 '
(2) whose cosine is equal to 2'1
-

and (3) whosetangent is equal to 18.

√3
-
•

(1) The smallest angle, whose sine is √√32 is 60°, i.e. 3

,
π
•

Hence, by Art. 82, the general expression for all the angles which
have this sine is
π
ηπ+ (−1)23 .
-

(2) The smallest positive angle,whosecosine is

2π
-1, is 120°, i.e..
L. T. 6
82 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by Art. 83, the general expression for all the angles which
have this cosine is
2ηπ ± 2π
3 •

(3) The smallest positive angle, whose tangent is

1 π
/3 ' is 30°, i.e. 6
Hence, by Art. 84, the general expression for all the angles which
have this tangent is
ηπ+ π6 •

Ex. 2. What is the most general value of o satisfying the equation

sin20=4 ?1,
1
Here we have sin 0 == 2
Taking the upper sign,
1-2

sin 0= =sin π
:: θ= ηπ + (−1) .
Taking the lower sign,
sin =- =sin(- )
1
2 6
:. θ0 =ηπ+(−1)
+ (-1) η ( 1) -
π
6
Putting both solutions together we have
nπ
0=ηπ = (− 1)
or, what is the same expression,
0 =ηπ ± 6π
Ex. 3. What is the most general value of e which satisfies both of the
equations sin 0 = 21 and tan 0= 1
/3 ?
-

Considering
1
only angles between 0° and 360° the only angles, whose
sine is 2 ' are 210° and 330°. Similarly the only angles, whose tan-
-

1
gent is √3 ' are 30° and 210°.
-
 EXAMPLES. 83
The only angle, 7πbetween 0° and 360°, satisfying both conditions is
therefore 210°, i.e. 6 •

The most general value is hence obtained by adding

7π
any multiple
of fourright angles to this angle,andhence is 2nㅠ+ 6 where n is any
positive or negative integer.

EXAMPLES. XI.
What are the most general values of a which satisfy the equations,
1. sin 0= 1 2. sin 0 = √3
2
-
D 3. sino=1.
sin 0=J2
4. cos0= -
1
2 5. cos 0=√3
2 •
1
6. cos 0= J2 •

7. tan0=√3. 8. tand= – 1.-

9. cot0= 1.
2
10. sec0= 2. 11. cosec 0= √3 12. sin20=1.
13. cos2014 =
14. tan20= 13΄ 15. 4 sin20= 3.
16. 2 cot20 = cosec² 0. 17. sec20= 34 ?
18. What is the most general value of 0 that satisfies both of the
equations 1
cosθ
√2 and tan0 = 1?
-

19. What is the most general value of 0 that satisfies both of the
equations cot0= -√3 and cosec -
2?
(A -B)= 15, and sin(A+B)=5,
20. If cos (4-B)= (A+B)= 2', find the smallest positive
values ofA andB and also their mostgeneral values.
2
21. Iftan (A-B) =1, and sec (A+B)=√3' find the smallest positive
values of A andB and also their most general values.
6-2
 84 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XI.]
22. Find the angles between 0° and 360° which 1have respectively (1)
their sines equal to √√32
✓,(2)theircosinesequal to -
and (3) their tan-
1
gents equal to √√3
23. Taking into consideration only angles less1 than 180°, how4many
5
values of2 a are there if (1) sinx=7,
x= (2) cosx=5, (3) cosx = - , (4)
‫و‬

tanx= 3, and (5) cotx= -7 ?

24. Given the angle x1construct the angle y if (1) siny=2sinx, (2)
tan y=3 tan x, (3) cosy = 2 cos x, and (4) secy=cosecx.
25. Shew that the same angles are indicated by the two following
π
formulae : (1) (2n-1) 2 +(-1) , and (2) 2ηπ
2nm ±7,6 n being any integer.
26. Prove that the two formulae
(1)(2n+1)ㅠπα and (2))ηπ+(−1)
+(-1)η ( -a)
denote the same angles, n being any integer.
Illustrate by a figure.
27. If θ- α=ηπ + ( −1)"β prove that 0=2mπ + α + β or else that
0=(2m+ 1)π + a -ẞ where m and n are any integers.
28. If cos pθ + cos q0 = 0, prove that the different values of e form two
arithmetical progressions in which the common differences are P+2πq and
-

2π
P-q respectively.
3
29. Construct the angle whose sine is 2+√5
86. An equation involving the trigonometrical ratios
of an unknown angle is called a trigonometrical equation.
The equation is not completely solved unless we
obtain an expression for all the angles which satisfy it.
Some elementary types of equations are solved in the
following article.
 EQUATIONS. 85
87. Ex. 1. Solve the equation 2 sin2x +√√3 cosx + 1=0.
The equation may be written
2-2 cos2x + 3cosx + 1 = 0,
i.e. 2 cos² x -√3 cos x - 3=0,
i.e. (cosx- 3) (2 cos x + √3)=0.
The equation is therefore satisfied by cosx=√3, or cosx = √3 2
-
•

There is no angle whose cosine is 3, so that the firstfactor gives no

solution.
The smallest positive angle, whose cosine is √√3
2 is 150°, i.e..
-

,
5π

Hence the most general value of the angle, whose cosine is √3 2

-

5π
is 2ηπ± 6 . (Art. 83.)
This is the general solution of the given equation.
Ex. 2. Solve the equation tan 50 =cot 20.
The equation may be written
tan50=tan(17-20).
Now the most generalvalue of the angle, that has the same tangent as
π
5-20, is, by Art. 84, ηπ+2−20,
where n is any positive or negative integer.
The most general solution of the equation is therefore
50 = ηπ+ 7-20
.. 0= 17 ηπ + π ,

where n is any integer.

EXAMPLES. XII.
Solve the equations
1
1. cos² - sin 0 --=0.
4 2. 2 sin20 + 3 cos 0 =0.
3. 2/3 cos² 0 =sin 0. 4. cos +cos2 0 = 1.
86 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XII.]
5. 4 cos 0-3 sec 0= 2 tan 0. 6. sin20-2 cos 0+1=0.
4
7. tan20 - (1 + √3) tan 0 + 3 = 0.
8. cot20 + (√3+ )cot0+1=0.
9. cot - ab tan 0= a - b. 10. tan20 + cot² 0 = 2.
1
11. sec0-1 =(√2-1)tanθ. 12. sin 50= /2
13. sin 90= sin 0. 14. sin30= sin 20.
15. cosme = cos ηθ. 16. sin 20= cos 30.
17. cos 50=cos 40. 18. cos me= sin ηθ.
19. cot0= tan 80. 20. cot =tannθ.
21. tan20=tan 2. 22. tan 20 tan 0 = 1 .
23. tan230 =cot2 a. 24. tan 30 = cot 0.
25. tan230=tan² a. 26. 3 tan20 = 1.
27. tanmx+ cot nx=0. 28. tan ( cot 0)= cot ( tan 0).
29. sin(0-4)=3,2' and cos(0+4)= 21
1

30. cos(2x+3y)= 1, cos(3x+2y)=√3.

31. Find all the angles between 0° and 90° which satisfy the equation
sec² 0 cosec² 0+ 2 cosec² 0 = 8.
32. tan20 = 54 ' find versin e and explain the double result.
If tan20=
33. If the coversin of an angle be 13 ' find its cosine and cotangent.
 CHAPTER VII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE
OF TWO ANGLES.

88. Theorem. To prove that

sin (A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB,
and cos (A +B) = cos A cosB- sinA sin B.
P C B

B P
R N R N
B B
A A
M Q AM OQ

Let the revolving line start from OA and trace out

the angle AOB (= A), and then trace out the further
angle BOC (= B).
In the final position of the revolving line take any
point P, and draw PM and PNperpendicular to OA and
OB respectively; through Ndraw NR parallel to AO to
meet MP in R and draw NQ perpendicular to OA.
88 TRIGONOMETRY.
The angle
RPN= 90° - ∠PNR =∠RNO = ∠ NOQ = A.
MP MR + RP
Hence sin(A+ B)=sinAOP=OP OP
QNRP QN ON RP NP
=
OP+ OP ON OP + NP OP
=

sinA cos B + cosRPNsin B.

... sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
Again cos (A +B) = cosAOP= OM OQ - MQ
OP = OP
= OQ RN OQ ON RN NP
-
= -

OPOP ON OPNP OP
= cos A cos B - sinRPNsinB.
... cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B.
-

89. The figures in the last articlehave been drawn only for the case
in which A and B are acute angles.
The same proof will be found to apply to angles of any size, due
attention being paid to the signs of the quantities involved.
The results may however be shewn to be true of all angles, without
drawing any more figures, as follows.
Let A and B be acute angles, so that, by Art. 88, we know that the
theorem is true for A and B.
Let A₁= 90° +A, so that, by Art. 70, we have
sin A₁ =cos A, and cosA₁ = sinA.
-

Then sin (A₁+B)= sin {90° +(A +B)} =cos (A+B), by Art. 70,
=cosA cosB–sinA sinB=sinA₁ cosB +cosA₁ sinB.
-

Also cos (A1+B)=cos [90° + (A +B)] = − sin (A +B)

-

sinA cos B- cos A sinB=cosA₁ cos B - sin A₁ sinB.

Similarly, we may proceed if B be increased by 90°.
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULÆ, 89
Hence the formulae of Art. 88 are true if either A or B be increased
by 90°, i.e. they are true if the component angles lie between 0° and
180°.
Similarly, by putting A2= 90° +A1 , we can prove the truth of the
theorems when either or both of the component angles have values
between 0° and 270°.
By proceeding in this way we see that the theorems are true uni-
versally.
90. Theorem. To prove that
sin (A - B) = sinA cosB cosA sinB,
-

and cos (A -B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.

Let the revolving line starting from the initial line
OA trace out the angle B
AOB (= A) and then re-
volving in the opposite di-
rection, trace out the angle N R
BOC, whose magnitude is C
B. The angleAOCis there- P
fore A -B. A
B
Take a point Pin the Q M
final position of the revolv-
ing line, and draw PM and PNperpendicular to OA and
OB respectively; from Ndraw NQ and NR perpendicular
to OA and MP respectively.
The angleRPN= 90°-∠PNR= ∠ RNB= ∠ QON=A.
Hence
sin (A- B)= sinAOC= MP
OP MR - PR QN PR
OP OP OP = -

QN ON PRPN
- -

ON OP PN OP
= sin A cosB cosRPNsin B,
-

so that sin (A - B) = sin

sinAA cos B -cosA sin B.
90 TRIGONOMETRY.
OM OQ + QM OQNR
Also cos(A-B)= OP OP + =
OP ' OP
OQ ONNR NP = cosA cosB+sin NPRsin B,
=
ON OP+NP OP
so that cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin Asin B.
91. The proofs of the previous article will be found to apply to
angles of any size, provided that due attention be paid to the signs of
the quantities involved.
Assuming the truth of the formulae for acute angles, we can shew
them to be true universally without drawing any more figures.
For, putting A₁=90°+A, we have,
(since sinA₁ =cosA, and cos A₁= - sin A),
sin (A₁ -B) =sin [90° + (A - B)]=cos (A-B) (Art. 70)
= cos A cos B+ sin A sinB
= sin A₁ cos B- cosA₁ sinB.
Also cos (A₁ -B)=cos [90° + (A-B)]= − sin(A- B)
-
(Art. 70)
= -

sin A cos B + cos A sin B

cosA₁1 cosB+sinA₁ sinB.
Similarly we may proceed ifBbe increased by 90°.
Hence the theorem is true for all angles which are not greater than
two right angles.
So, by putting A₂= 90°+A₁ , we may shew the theorems to be true for
all angles less than three right angles, and so on.
Hence, by proceeding in this manner, we may shew that the theorems
are true for all angles whatever.
92. The theorems of Arts. 88 and 90 which give
respectively the trigonometrical functions of the sum and
differences of two angles in terms of the functions of the
angles themselves are often called the Addition and Sub-
traction Theorems.
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULE. 91
93. Ex. 1. Find the values ofsin75° and cos/15°.
sin 75°=sin (45° + 30°) =sin45° cos30°+cos45° sin 30°
1122/2
/3+1
= 12 √3+
N
2+J2
+ √22 12 ,

and cos 75°=cos (45°+ 30°)=cos 45° cos 30°--sin45° sin 30°
=
13 113-1
222222 •

Ex. 2. Assuming the formulae for sin (x+y) and cos (x+y), deduce
the formulaefor sin(x-y) and cos (x-y).
We have
sin x= sin {(x -y) +y}=sin (x -y) cosy+ cos (x-y) siny......(1),
and cos x=cos {(x- y) +y} = cos (x -y) cosy sin (x -y) siny......(2).
-

Multiplying (1) by cosy and (2)by siny and subtracting, we have

sinxcosy cos x sin y=sin (x-y) {cos²y+ sin² y}= sin (x -y).
-

Multiplying (1) by siny and (2) bycosy and adding, we have

sin x sin y+cos x cos y=cos (x-y) {cos²y +sin² y}=cos (x-y).
Hence the two formulae required are proved.
These two formulae are true for all values of the angles since the
formulae from which they are derived are true for allvalues.
EXAMPLES. XIII.
9
1. If sin a=53 and cosβ=41' find thevalueofsin(a–ẞ) andcos(α+β).
45 33
2. If sina=53
sin (α+β). 15
and sinẞ=65, find the values of sin(a-ẞ)β) and
3. If sina=17 andcosẞ=1312 find thevalues ofsin(a+ẞ), cos(a–β),
,

and tan (α+β).

Prove that
4. sin(A+B)sin(A-B)=sin² A-sin²B.
5. cos (A+B) cos(A-B)=cos² A– sin² B.
-

6. cos(45°-A) cos(45º-B)–sin(45°-A)sin (45°–B)=sin (A+B).

92 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XIII.]
7. sin (45°+A) cos (45°–B)+cos (45°+A) sin(45° –B)=cos (A -B).
-

sin(A-B) sin(B-C), sin(C-A) -0.

8. cos A cos B + cosB cos C + cos C cos A
9. sin 105° +cos 105°=cos 45°.
10. sin 75° – sin 15°=cos 105°+cos 15°.
-

11. COS acos (γ- α) sin asin (γ - α)α) == COS a.

-

12. cos (a+ẞ) cosy−cos (β+y) cosa=sinẞ sin (y− a).

-

13. sin(n+1) A sin (n - 1) A +cos (n +1)Acos (n- 1)A=cos 2A.

14. sin (n+1) A sin (n + 2) A +cos (n + 1) A cos (n +2)A =cos A.
94. From Arts. 88 and 90, we have, for all values of
A andB,
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sinB,
and sin (A - B) = sin A cos B- cos A sin B.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have
sin (A +B) + sin(A - B) = 2 sinA cosB......(1),
and sin (A + B) – sin(A -B) = 2cosA sinB......(2).
From the same articles we have, for all values of A
and B,
cos (A +B) = cosA cosB- sinA sinB,
and cos (A -B)=cosA cosB+ sin A sinB.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have
cos (A +B)+cos(A -B) = 2 cosA cosB......(3),
and cos (A -B) - cos (A +B) = 2 sinA sin B......(4).
Put A +B = C, and A -B=D, so that
A = C+D C- D
2 , and B = 2
 PRODUCT FORMULÆ. 93
On making these substitutions the relations (1) to (4)
become, for all values of C and D,
sin C + sin D = 2 sin C +2D COS C -D
2 ......I,
sin C - sin D = 2 cos C +2D sin C -2D ......II,
cos C + cos D = 2 cos C + D COS C - D III,
2 2 ...

and cosD- cos C = 2 sin C +2D sin C 2

-D ... IV.
['The student should carefully notice that the left-hand
member of IV is cos D cos C and not cos C- cos D.]
- -

95. These relations I to IV are extremely important

and should be very carefully committed to memory.
On account of their great importance we give a geo-
metrical proof for the case when C and D are acuteangles.
Let AOC be the angle Cand AOD the angle D.
Bisect the angle COD by the straight line OE. On OE
take a point P and draw QPR perpendicular to OP to
meet OC and OD in Qand R respectively.
Draw PL, QM and RN perpendicular to OA, and
through R draw RST perpendicular to PL or QM to
meet them in S and T respectively.
Since the angleC-DOC
D
is C- D, each of the angles
DOE and EOC is 2 , andalso
<AOE=∠AOD+∠DOE=D+C-D=C+D.
2 2
Since the two triangles POR and POQ are equal in
all respects we have OQ = OR, and PR= PQ, so that
RQ= 2RP.
94 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence QT = 2PS, and RT = 2RS, i.e. MN = 2ML.
Therefore MQ + NR = TQ + 2LS= 2SP + 2LS= 2LP.
Also OM+ ON = 20M + MN = 20M + 2ML = 2OL.
Hence sin C + sin D= MQNR MQ + NR
OQ + OR OR
C
=

Q E
P D
T S R

OMLN A
2LP 2 LPOP
-

OR =
OPOR= 2 sinLOPCOSPOR
2 sin C+ D COS C - D
2 2
Again sinC- sin D = MQ NR MQ - NR
OQ OR OR
- =

SP SP RP = 2 cos SPR sin ROP

= 2-OR -

= 2RPOR
C- D
= 2 cos C+D
2 sin 2 ,

< SPO = <LOP==C+D].

[ for ∠ SPR== 90° -−OQOR C+D
Also cos C + cos D = OM + ON OM+ ON
OR =

= 2 OL OL OP
OR=2 OPOR C-D
= 2 cos LOP COSPOR= 2 cos C+D
2 COS 2
 PRODUCT FORMULÆ. 95
Finally cosD- Cos C= ON OM
OR OQ
- = ON - OM
OR
=
MN= 2 SR 2SR PR
OR OR PR OR
= 2 sin SPR. sinPOR
= 2 sin C+D C-D
2 sin 2
96. The student is strongly urged to make himself
perfectly familiar with the formulae ofthe last article and
to carefully practise himself in their application; perfect
familiarity with these formulae will considerably facilitate
his further progress.
The formulae are very useful because they change
sums and differences of certain quantities into products of
certain other quantities, and products ofquantities are, as
the student probably knows from Algebra, easily dealt
with by the help of logarithms.
We subjoin a few examples oftheir use.
Ex. 1. sin 60+ sin 40 = 2 sin 60+40 60-40 2sin 50 cos θ.
2 cos 2

Ex. 2. cos 30 - cos 70= 2 sin 30+70 70-30 2 sin 50 sin 20.
2 sin 2

sin 75° - sin 15° 2 cos 75°+15°

2 sin 75°-15°
2
Ex. 3. 75°+ 15° 75° -15°
cos 75°+ cos 15° 2 cos COS
2 2
2 cos 45° sin 30° =tan 30° = 1 =
2 cos 45° cos 30° √3 3√3= 57735......
[This is an example of the simplification given by these formulae ; it
would be a verylong and tiresome process to look out from the tables the
values of sin75°, sin15°, cos75°, and cos 15°, and then to perform the
division of one long decimal fraction by another.]
96 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 4. Simplify the expression
(cosθ - cos 30) (sin 80+ sin 20)
(sin50 – sin 0) (cos 40 – cos 60)
On applying the formulae ofArt. 94 this expression
2 sin 0+30 30-0 80+ 20 80-20
2 sin 2 × 2 sin 2 COS 2
2 cos 50+ 0 sin 50-0 × 2 sin 40+60 sin 60-40
2 2 2 2
4. sin 20 sin 0. sin 50 cos 30
=
4. cos 30 sin 20. sin 50 sin 0 =1.

EXAMPLES. XIV.
Prove that
1. sin 70 - sin 50
cos70+ cos 50 = tan θ. 2. cos 60- cos40
sin 60 + sin 40 = - tan 0.
sin A + sin 3A =tan 2A.
3. cos A + cos 3A
sin 7A - sin A = cos 4A sec 5A.
4. sin 8A - sin 2A
5. cos 2B+
cos cos 2A
2B - cos 2A =cot (A +B) cot (A-B).
6. sin 2A + sin 2B _ tan (A+B)
=

sin 2A – sin 2B tan (A-B)

-

sin A + sin 24 =cot A

7. cosA- sin 5A - sin 3A =tan A.
8. cos
cos 2A 2 3A + cos 5A
9. cos2B cos 2A
-

sin 2B + sin 2A =tan (A - B).

10. cos (A+B) +sin (A- B)=2 sin(45° +A)cos (45°+B).
sinA
11. cos 3A -cosA cos 2A cos 4A -

sin 3A - sinA + sin 4A - sin 2A cos 2A cos 3A

=
•

12. sin (4A – 2B) + sin (4B – 24)-

cos (4A - 2B) + cos (4B– 2A) =tan (A +B).

-

tan 50+ tan 30=4 cos 20 cos 40.

13. tan 50 - tan 30
[Exs. XIV.] PRODUCT FORMULAE. 97
14. cos 30 + 2 cos 50+ cos 70
cos +2 cos 30+ cos 50 = cos 20 - sin 20 tan 30.
sin A + sin 3A + sin 5A + sin 7A =tan 4A.
15. cos A + cos 3A + cos 5A + cos 7A
sin (0+ ) – 2 sin 0+ sin (0 – 4) =tan θ.
16. cos
-

(0+ ) -2cos 0+cos (0 – ф) -

sin
17. sin 3AA + 2 sin 3A + sin 5A sin3A
=
+ 2 sin 5A + sin 7A sin 5A
18. sin (A - C) + 2 sin A +sin (A + C) _sin A
sin (B- C) +2 sinB+ sin (B+C) sinB
-
=

sin A - sin 5A + sin 9A – sin 13A =cot 4A .

19. cosA-cos
-

5A - cos 9A +cos 13A

A+B A-B
20. sin A + sin B
sin A - sinB=tan 2 cot 2
cosA+ cosB= cot A+B cot4-B
21. cosB-cosA 2 2

22. sinA + sin B =tan A+B •

cosA + cos B 2
sin A - sin B= cot A+B
23. cosB- cosA 2
cos (A+B+C)+cos( A+B+ C) + cos(A-B+C) +cos(A+B-C)
24. sin( A+B+C)+sin( A+B+C)-sin(A-B+C)+sin(A+B-C)=cotB.
25. cos 3A + cos 5A +cos 7A + cos 15A= 4 cos 4A cos 5A cos 6A.
26. cos( A+B+ C) +cos(A-B+C) +cos(A+B-C)+cos(A+B+C)
=4 cos A cos B cos C.
27. sin 50°– sin 70°+sin 10°=0.
-

28. sin10°+sin20°+sin40°+sin 50°=sin 70°+sin 80°.

29. sina+sin2a+sin4a+sin5a=4COS 2α COS За2 sin3a. -

Simplify
30. cos {0+(n-2)$} -cos{0+(n+1) } .
3
COS
3
2 Φ •

31.sin 0+(n-2)$}+sin30+(n+1) Φ}.

L. T.
1
2 •

7
98 TRIGONOMETRY.
97. The formulae (1), (2), (3), and (4) of Art. 94 are
also
form
very important. They should be remembered in the
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)...(1),
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A - B)...(2),
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)...(3),
2 sin A sin B = cos (A -B) – cos (A + B)...(4).
They may be looked upon as the converse of the
formulae I-IV. of Art. 94.
Ex. 1. 2 sin 30 cos 0= sin 40+ sin 20.
Ex. 2. 2 sin 50 sin 30= cos 20 cos80.
-

Ex. 3. 2 cos 110 cos 20=cos 130+ cos 90.

Ex. 4. Simplify sin 80 cos 6 – sin 60 cos 30
-

cos 20 cos 0 -- sin 30 sin 40 °

By the above formulae the expression
1
[sin 90+ sin 70]- 1 [sin 90+ sin 30]
1 1
2 [cos 30+ cos 0] - 2 [cos θ-cos 70]
sin 70 - sin 30
cos 30+ cos 70
2 cos 50 sin 20
2cos50cos20, by the formulae ofArt. 94,
= tan 20.
[The student should carefully notice the artifice of first employing
the formulae of this article and then, to obtain a further simplification,
employing the converse formulae of Art. 94. This artifice is often
successful in simplifications.]
EXAMPLES. XV.
Express as a sum or difference the following
1. 2 sin50 sin 70. 2. 2 cos 70 sin 50.
3. 2 cos 110 cos 30. 4. 2 sin 54° sin 66°.
[Exs. XV.] TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES. 99
Prove that
sin 0 70 +sin302 sin 110
5. sinsin 2 =sin 20 sin50.
6. cos 20 cos θ2- cos30cos 902 = sin 50 sin 502 •

7. sinAsin (A+ 2B) – sinBsin(B+ 24) =sin (A -B) sin(A +B).

8. (sin 3A+sinA) sin A+ (cos 3A-cosA) cosA=0.
2 sin (A- C) cos C-sin(A- 2C) sinA
9. 2sin(B- =

C) cos C- sin(B2C) sin B

10. sin A sin 2A + sin 3A sin 6A + sin 4A sin 13A
sin A cos 2A + sin 3A cos 6A + sin 4A cos 13A =tan 9A.
11. cos2A cos 3A - cos 2A cos 7A + cos A cos 10A
sin 4A sin 3A – sin 2A sin 5A + sin 4A sin 7A = cot 6A cot 5A.
-

12. cos (36° -A) cos (36° +A) + cos (54° +A) cos (54° - A) =cos 2A.
13. cosA sin (B- C)+cosB sin1(C- A) +cos C sin (A-B)=0.
14. sin(45°+A)sin (45°–4) = 2 cos24.
15. versin (A+B) versin (A -B)=(cos A- cosB)2.
16. sin(β- y)cos(a – δ)+sin(y– a)cos(β-δ) +sin(a–β)cos (γ– δ) =0.
-

π
17. 2 cos 13 9π 3π 5π
COS 13 + COS 13 + cos 13 =0.
98. To prove that tan (A + B) = 1tan-tan
A + tan B and
A tanB'
tanA tanB-

thattan(A-B) =1 + tanAtanB
By Art. 88, we have, for all values ofA and B,
tan (A + B) = sin (A + B) sinA cosB+ cos A sin B
cos (A +B) cos A cosB – sin A sin B -

sin A sin B
cosA + cosB
=

1 sin
-
by dividing both
A sin Β '
cosA cosB
numerator and denominator by cos A cos B.
.. tan (A + B) = 1tan A + tan B
-tan A tan B
7-2
100 TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, by Art. 90,
tan (A - B) = sin (A - B) cos
sinAA cosB-
cos (A -B)
cosA sin B
cos B + sinA sin B
sin A sin B -

cosA cosB
sinAsinB,by dividing as before.
1+ cos A cosB

... tan (A - B) = 1tan+ tan

A - tan B
A tan B
99. The formulae ofthe preceding article may be obtained geometri-
cally from the figures ofArts. 88 and 90.
(1) Taking the figure ofArt. 88 we have
MP QN+RP
tan (A+B)=OM= OQ-RN
QNRP tan A + RP
= ÖQ RN
+ OQ =
OQ
1- 1 RN RP
---

OQ RP OQ
But, since the anglesRPN and QON are equal, the triangles RPNand
QON are similar, so that RP OQ
PNON'
RP = PN = tan B.
and therefore OQ ON
tan A + tanB tan A + tan B
Hence tan(A+B)=1-tanRPNtanB 1 - tan A tanB
(2) Taking the figure ofArt. 90, we have
tan(A - B) = MP QN - PR
OM OQ +NR
=

QN PR tanA PR
- -

= OQ OQ OQ =

1+ NR 1+ NR
PR
PR
OQ OQ
 TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES. 101
RP OQ
But, since the angles RPN and NOQ are equal, wehave PNON ==
-

and therefore PR PN=tanB.

=
OQ ON
Hence tan (A -B)= 1+tantanARPN
- tanB tanA - tanB
tanB1 +tanA tanB

100. As particular cases of the preceding formulae,

we have, by puttingB equal to 45°,
tan (A + 45°) = tan A + 1 1 + tan A =
1 - tan A 1 - tan A '
and tan (A - 45°) = 1tan+ Atan-A1
Similarly as in Art. 98 we may prove that
cot (A + B) = cotA cot B- 1
cotA + cot B
and cot (A - B) = cotA cotB + 1
cotB- cot A
tan45°+ tan 30°
101. Ex. 1. tan 75° = tan (45° + 30°) = 1-tan45°tan30°
1+ 1
√√3√3 +1 ( 3-1
T3-1 = 3 + 1)2_4+ 22/3 =2 +√3
1- √3-1
√3
=2 +1-73205... = 3-73205....
tan 45°- tan 30°
Ex. 2. tan 15°=tan (45° – 30°)= 1+tan
-

45° tan 30°

1-1 3-1 ( 3-1)2_4-2/3
2 = 2-3
=

1+ 1 /3 + 1 3-1
√3
= 2-1-73205... = 26795....
102 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XVI.
A= 12 and tanB=3,1 find the values of tan (2A+B) and
1. If tanA=
tan (2A -B)...
√3 and tan B= √3
2. IftanA= 4√3 4+√3 , prove that
tan (A -B)= 375.
3. If tan A= n+ 1 and tan B = 2n1+1 ' find tan (A+B).
n

tan a= 5 andtanẞ= 1 , prove thata+B=

4.ProveIf that π

5. tan 4
6. cot π
+0) x tan 3π
π
cot 4
4 +0
Ө =1.
= -

1.

4 +0 -

A =tanAcot - 1= secA.
7. 1+tanA tan 2
102. As further examples of the use of the formulae
of the present chapter we shall find the general value of
the angle which has a given sine, cosine or tangent. This
has been already found in Arts. 82-84.
Find the general value ofall angles having a given sine.
Let a be any angle having the given sine and e any
other angle having the same sine.
We have then to find the most general value of 0
which satisfies the equation
sin e = sin a,
i.e. sin e - sin a = 0.
This may be writtenθ + α
2 cos 2 sin θα
2 = 0,
 ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 103
and it is therefore satisfied by
COS θα θα
2 =0, and by sin 2 =0,
θα π
i.e. by 2 = any odd multiple of 2
‫د‬
θα
andby 2 = any multiple of π
i.e. by 0 =-aα+ any odd multiple of π......(1),
and 0 = a + any even multiple of ㅠ ......(2),
i.e. O must = (-1)" α + ηπ, where n is any positive or
negative integer.
For when n is odd this expression agrees with (1), and
when n is even it agrees with (2).
103. Find the general value of all angles having the
same cosine.
The equation we have now to solve is
cos e = cos a,
i.e. cos a- cos 0 = 0,
i.e. 2 sin θα
2
sin 0-a
θα = 0 ,
2
and it is therefore satisfied by
sin θα
2 =0, and by sina=
θα 0,
2
θα
i.e. by 2 any multiple of π,
=

θα
and by 2 = any multiple ofㅠ,
104 TRIGONOMETRY.
i.e. by 0=− a + any multiple of 27,
-

andby 0= a + any multiple of 2π.

Both these sets of values are included in the solution
θ = 2ηπ + α, where n is any positive or negative integer.
104. Find the general value of all angles having the
same tangent.
The equation we have now to solve is
tan 9 - tan a = 0,
i.e. sin e cos a - cos e sin a = 0,
i.e. sin (0 − a) = 0.
-

... θ- α = any multiple of π

= ηπ, where n is any positive or
negative integer,
so that the most general solution is θ= ηπ + α.
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF MULTIPLE AND
SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES.

105. To find the trigonometrical ratios ofan angle 2A

in terms of those ofthe angle A.
If in the formulae ofArt. 88 we put B = A, we have
sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A = 2 sin A cosA,
cos 2A = cosA cosA - sin A sin A = cos² A – sin² A
-

=(1 - sin² A) - sin² A = 1 - 2 sin²A,

and also
= cos² A - (1 cos² A) = 2 cos² A - 1 ;
-

and
tan 2A = 1 -tantan
A + tan A 2 tan A
A.tanA 1 - tan² A
Now the formulae of Art. 88 are true for all values of
A and B; hence any formulae derived from them are true
for all values ofthe angles.
In particular the above formulae are true for all values
of A.
106 TRIGONOMETRY.
106. An independent geometrical proof ofthe formulae
of the preceding article may be given, for values of A
which are less than a right angle.
Let QCP be the angle 2A. P

With centre C and radius CP A

describe a circle and let QC meet A 2A Q

it again in O. C N

Join OP and PQ, and draw PN

perpendicular to OQ.
By Euc. III. 20, the angle
QOP = ½ < QCP = A,
and the angle NPQ= ∠ QOP = A.
Hence
sin 2A = NP 2NP NP _NP OP
CP 2CQ 2 OQ = 2 OPOQ
=

= 2 sinNOP cosPOQ, since OPQ is a right angle,

2 sin A cos A ;
also
CN_2CN_ (OC + CN) – (OC – CN)
cos 2A = CPOQ =
- -

OQ
= ON- NQ ON OP NQ PQ
= -

OQ OP OQ PQ OQ
cos² A - sin² A ;
2 NP
ON
and tan 2A = NP -

CN - ON- NQ
2NP
NQ PN
1- PN ON
2 tan A
1- tan²A
 MULTIPLE ANGLES. 107
Ex. To find the values ofsin 15° and cos 15°.
Let the angle 24 be 30°, so that A is 15°.
Let the radius CPbe 2a, so that we have
CN=2a cos 30°=a/3,
and NP=2a sin 30°= a.
Hence ON= QC+ CN= a (2 + √3),
and NQ= CQ - CN= a (2-3).
.. OP2= ON.OQ=a (2 + √3) ×4a (Euc. vI. 8),
so that OP= a√2 ( 3 +1),
and PQ²=QN.QO=a (2-3) × 4a,
so that PQ = a/2 (/3 – 1).
Hence sin 15°= PQ_√2
OQ
= ( 43-1)
/3-1
2/2
=
,

and OP√2 ( 43+1) /3 + 1

cos 15°= OQ = =

2/2 •

107. To find the trigonometrical functions of 3A in

terms ofthose of A.
By Art. 88, putting B equal to 2A, we have
sin 3A = sin (A + 2A) =sin A cos 2A + cosA sin 2A
= sinA (1 - 2 sin²A) + cosA. 2 sinA cosA
sin A (1 - 2 sin² A) + 2sin A (1 – sin² A).
Hence sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin³ A .........(1).
-

So
cos 3A = cos (A + 2A) = cos A cos 2A - sinA sin 2A
= cosA (2 cos²A - 1) -sinA. 2sinA cosA
= cosA (2 cos²A - 1) - 2 cos A (1 -cos²A).
Hence cos 3A = 4cos³A -

3 cos A .........(2).
108 TRIGONOMETRY.

Also tan 3A = tan(A + 2A) = 1 tanA + tan 2A

tan A tan 2A
-

tan A + 12-tanA
tan² A tan A (1 - tan² A) + 2 tan A
1 - tan A. tan A
2 (1 -tan²A) - 2tan² A •

- tan² A
1-1
Hence tan 3A = 3 tan A - tan³ A
1 3 tan² A
-

108. By a process similar to that of the last article,

the trigonometrical ratios of any higher multiples of
may be expressed in terms of those of 0. The method is
however long and tedious. In a later chapter better
methods will be pointed out.
As an example let us express cos 50 in terms of cos 0.
We have
cos 50 =
cos (30 + 20)
cos 30 cos 20 - sin 30 sin 20
=(4cos³ 0 - 3 cos 0) (2 cos² 0 − 1)-

- (3 sin 0 - 4 sin³ 0). 2 sin e cos θ

= (8 cos5 0 – 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos θ)
-

- 2 cos 0. sin² 0 (3 – 4 sin² 0)

(8 cos5 0 - 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos θ)
-
2 cos 0(1 - cos² θ)(4cos² 0− 1) -

= (8 cos5 0 - 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos θ)

-

2 cos 0 (5 cos² 0 – 4 cos² 0 – 1)

-

= 16 cos5 0 - 20 cos³ 0 + 5 cos 0.

 MULTIPLE ANGLES. 109

EXAMPLES. XVII.
1. Find the value of sin 2a when
3
(1) cosa=예 (2) sin a= 12
,
16
13 and (3) tan a=63 -

2. Find the value of cos 2a, when

(1) cosa= 1517' (2) sina=45',and(3)
and (3) 5
tana = 12
b
3. If tan 0=a', find the value of a cos 20 +b sin 20.
Prove that
4. 1 +sincos2A2A =tanA. 5. sin 2A
1- cos 2A =cotA.
6. 11+- cos 2A
cos 2A =tan²A. 7. tan A + cot A = 2 cosec 2A.
8. tanA - cotA= -2 cot 2A. 9. cosec 2A + cot 2A= cotA.
10. 11-+ cos A+cosB- cos (A+B) A B
cos A - cos B - cos (A+B)=tan -2 cot 2 •

11. 1 +cosA
sin A
-
tan(445°± 2A sec 8A - 1 tan 8A
12. sec =
4A - 1tan 2A •

13. 1+tan³ (45°–А) -

1 -tan2 (45° –А)=cosec 2A.

-

tan α+β
14. sin (α+β) =
2
sin (a –β) tan α-β΄
2

15. sin Asin² A -- sin²B

cos A - sinB cos B =tan (A +B).
16. tan ( +0)-tan -0)0)=2 tan 20.
4
cos A + sin A cosA -sinA =2 tan 24.
17. cos -

A - sinA cos A + sin A

4 cos 2A
18. cot(A+15°)–tan(4-15°)=1+2sin24
-
•
110 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVII.]
1 + sin 0- cos θ 0
19. 1 +sincos0+ +sincos2020 -

-
tan θ. 20. 1 + sin + cos θ =tan •

sin (n+ 1) A – sin (n- 1) A =tan A

cos(n +1)A + 2cos nA + cos(n - 1)A an2
-

21.
22. sin(n+cos1)(n-A+2sinnA+sin(n-1)
1) A- cos (n+ 1) A A_cotA2 •

23. sin (2n+1)A sin A =sin² (n+ 1) A – sin²nA. -

24. sin (Asin+ 3B) + sin (3A+B) =2 cos (A+B).

2A + sin 2B
25. sin 3A+ sin 2A - sinA = 4 sin A cos A2 COS 3A
2 •

26. tan2A=(sec 24+1) √sec²A−1. 2 -

27. cos³20+3 cos20=4 (cos6 0 – sin60). -

28. 1+cos2 20=2 (cos4 0 + sin⁴ 0).

29. sec² A(1 +sec2A) =2 sec 2A.
30. cosecA- 2cot 2Acos A = 2 sin A.
31.32. cotA= (c
2
1
o t -tanA
2 ). A

sin asin(60° –a)sin(60°+a)= sin 3a.

•

33. cosa cos (60–a)COS (60°+a)= 1 cos3a.

-

34. cota+cot(60+a) -cot (60° -a)=3 cot3a.

1
35. cos 20° cos 40° cos 60° cos 80°= 16 •

36. sin20°sin40°sin60°sin80°=163
37. cos 4a=1-8 cos² a +8 cos4 a.
38. sin 4A =4 sin A cos³ A - 4 cosA sin³ A.
39. cos 6a=32 cosa -48cos4 a+18 cos² a –1.
40. tan 3A tan 2A tan A=tan3A - tan 2A --tan A.
41. 22coscos220 +1
0 + 1 (2cos0 -1) (2 cos 20 – 1) (2cos 220-1)
-

......(2 cos 2n−10 − 1).

-
 SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES. 111

Submultiple angles.
109. Since the relations of Art. 105 are true for all
values of the angle
A
A, they will be true if instead of A
we substitute 2', and therefore if instead of 2A we put
2 . A2', i.e. A.
Hence we have the relations
sin A = 2 sin A A
2 COS 2 (1),
A
cos A = cos2 A
2 sin2 2
-

= 2 cos2 A A
2 1 = 1 - 2 sin² 2
-
.... ..
(2),
2 tan A
2
-

and tan A =
1 - tan2A
(3).
2
From (1) we also have A A
sinA = A cos이
2sin 2
A
COS2 2 + sin²2 2

2 tan A
2
4,bydividingnumera-
1 + tan² A'
2
A
tor and denominator by cos 2 2
112 TRIGONOMETRY.
A sin A
cos2 -

So cosA 2 2
A A
cos" 2 + sin² 2 2

1 - tan² A2
1 + tan² A2
•

A
110. To express the trigonometrical ratios ofthe angle
2 in terms of cos A.
----

From equation (2) ofthe last article we have

cos A = 1- 2 sin²2 A2'
so that 2 sin² A2 = 1- cos A,
2

sin A 1 - cos A
and therefore 2
‫م‬

=±√ 2
..
(1).
Again, cos A = 2 cos² A
2 -1,
so that 2 cos2 A = 1 + cos A,
A2
and therefore COS 2
A - = + 1 + cos A (2).
2

A sin A
2 1 - cos A
Hence, tan2
=

A =
±√ 1+ cosA .........
(3).
COS
2
 A IN TERMS OF COS A.
RATIOS OF 2 113
111. In each of the preceding formulae it will be
noted that there is an ambiguous sign. In any particular
case the proper sign can be determined as the following
examples will shew.
1
Ex. 1. Given cos 45°= √2 Ja,,find
findthethevalues
values ofofsin22 andcos22 °.
The equation (1) ofthe last articlegives, byputtingAequal to 45°,
1
1- J2
sin 221°= = 1-cos45° 2-2
2 *N 2 +
4
1
===2 √2-√2.
Now sin22 is necessarily positive, so that the upper sign must be
taken.
Hence sin221°= √2-√2.
So cos 221°= = 1+cos 45°
2
+ 2+/2
4
1
2√2+√2;
also cos 221° is positive;
.:. cos221°=√2+√2
-
-

Ex. 2. Given cos 330°=√3

2 , find the values of sin 165° and cos 165°.
The equation (1) gives
1- cos 330° 1_√32
-

4-2/3
sin 165°= ± 2 N 2
+
8
= √3-1
2/2
Also
1+ √3
cos 165°= ± 1+ cos 330° 2
2
+ 4+ 2/3
2 8
= +√3+1
2/2
L. T. 8
114 TRIGONOMETRY,
Now 165° lies between 90° and 180°, so that, byArt. 52, its sine is
positive and its cosine is negative.
Hence sin 165°=√3-1
2/2 '
and cos 165°= √√3+1
2/2 •

From the above examples it willbe seen that, when the angleA and
its cosine aregiven, the ratiosforthe angle A maybe determined without
any ambiguity of sign.
When however onlycosA is given, there is an ambiguity in finding
sin A2 and cos A The explanation of this ambiguity is given in the next
article.

**112. To explain why there is ambiguity when cos A2

and sin A
2 arefoundfrom the value ofcos A.
-

We know that, if n be any integer,

cosA cos (2ηπ + A) = k (say).
=

Hence any formula which gives us cos A2 in terms of k,

should give us alsothe cosine of 2ηπ2+ Α
Now COS
2ηπ + Α
2 COS
(ηπ + A2
A
COS nπ COS
27sinn sin2A = cos ηπ COS A2
+ cos A
2'
according as n is even or odd.
 RATIOS OF A
2 IN TERMS OF SIN A. 115
Similarly any formula giving us sin A2 in terms of k,
-

should give us also the sine of 2ηπ2+ Α •

Also sin 2ηπ2+ Α = sin =sin(

(1κπ± A
2
sin nu cos + cos na sin 2 = + cos nw sin A2
A A

= + sin A
2
Hence in each case we should expect to obtain two
A and sin A , and this is the number which
A
values for cos -
2
the formulae ofArt. 110 give.
A
113. To express the trigonometrical ratios ofthe angle
2 in terms ofsinA.
From equation (1) ofArt. 109 we have
2 sin A cos A2 = sinA
2 cos
-

•
(1).
Also sin2A2 + cos2 A2 = 1, always ..........
(2).
First adding these equations, and then subtracting
them, we have
sin² A2 + 2sin A2 COS A-2 + cos2 A2 = 1 + sin A,
and sin² A -2sin A2 cos A2 + cos² A2 = 1 - sin A ;
2

8-2
 116 TRIGONOMETRY.

i.e. (sin A +cosAA\2 = 1 + sinA,

2 2
and sin A2 -
COS A\2
2 = 1 − sin A ;
-

so that sin A A
2 + cos 2 = + √1 + sin A............(3),
and sin2A -COS A2 = + √1 − sin A............(4).
-

By adding, and then subtracting, we have

2 sin A2 = ± √1 + sin A + √ 1 - sin A ......(5),
and 2cos A 2 = + 1 + sin A + √1 - sin A ......(6).
The other ratios of A2 are then easily obtained.
114. In each of the formulae (5) and (6) there are
two ambiguous signs. In the following examples it is
shewn how to determine the ambiguity in any particular
case.

Ex. 1. Given that sin 30° is 1 5, find the values ofsin 15° and cos 15°.
Putting A=30°, we have from relations (3) and (4),
√3
sin 15° + cos 15°= = 1 + sin 30°= ° √2'

°= °√21
sin15°- cos 15°= ± √1- sin 30°=
Now sin15º and cos15º are both positive andcos15º is greater than
sin15°. Hence the expressions sin 15°+cos 15° and sin15°-cos15° are
respectively positive and negative.
 RATIOS OF A IN TERMS OF SIN A. 117
Hence the above two relations should be
√3
sin 15°+ cos 15°= +√2'
1
and sin 15°-cos 15°= √2
sin 15°=√3- 1 √3+1
Hence
2/2 and cos 15°= 2/2
,

Ex. 2. Given that sin 570° is equal to - 12, find the values of sin285°
and cos 285°.
Putting A equal to 570°, we have
sin 285° +cos 285°= 1+sin 570°= ± √21 '
and sin285° cos285°
-
=
±√I -

√
sin 570°= ± 3
2
Now sin285° is negative, cos 285° is positive, and the former is
numerically greater than the latter, as may be seen by a-figure.
Hence sin 285°+cos 285° is negative and sin285° cos 285° is also
negative. 1
... sin 285°+ cos 285°= -

√2'
and √3
sin 285° - cos 285° = - √2 •

Hence sin285°= √3+1-

2/2 ,

and cos 285°=√√3-1

2/2
**115. To explain why there is ambiguity when sin A2 ----

and cos A2 arefound from the value ofsin A.

-

We know that, if n be any integer,

sin {nㅠ + (−1)" A} = sin A =k(say). (Art. 82.)
118 TRIGONOMETRY.

Hence any formula which gives us sin A2 in terms of k,

‫م‬

should give us also the sine

also the sine ofof nㅠ+(−1)η
ηπ 2 Α
First, let n be even and equal to 2m. Then
sin ηπ + (−1)η
2
Α sin Μπ + A
2
= sin MT COS A2 ++ cos mㅠ sin 2
A = cos mㅠ sin A

42
= --

+ sin A
2' ,

according as m is even or odd.

Secondly, let n be odd and equal to 2p + 1.
Then
sin ηπ + (−1)η
2
Α -sin 2ρπ+π-
2 Α sin|[ρπρπ++ π -A]Α
2
π-Α π -
A A
= sinpr cos 2 + cos pr sin 2 = cos pr cOS 2
=
+ cos A
2'
according as p is even or odd.
Hence any formula which gives us sin Aহ in terms of
sinA should be expected to give us, in addition, the
values of
sin A A A
-

2' COS 2 and -

COS
2'
i.e. 4 values in all. This is the number of values which
we get from the formulae ofArt. 113,bygiving all possible
values to the ambiguities.
 RATIOS OF A
2 IN TERMS OF SIN A. 119
A
In a similar manner it may be shewn that when cos 이
is found from sinA, we should expect 4 values.
116. In any general case we can shew how the
ambiguities
found.
in relations (3) and (4) of Art. 113 may be
We have
sin A -
A
2 + cos 2 =√2( sin + cos )
= √2 sin A2 cos π + cos A2 sin π4 = √2 sin
- -

The right-hand member ofthis equation is positive if

π A ・( +)
4 + 2 lie between 2ηπ and 2ηπ + π,
i.e. if A lie between 2ηπ - π and 2ηπ + 3π
-

2 -44 4 •

Hence sin A2 + cos A A

2 is positive if 2 lie between
-

3π
2ηπ -

74 and 2ηπ++;
4
it is negative otherwise.
Similarly we can prove that
sin A2 COS A A
2 √2 sin 24=
- -

Therefore sin A A
- COS
2 is positive if
-
- -

( 一 ) lie between 2ηπ and 2ηπ+ π,

i.e. if A lie between 2ηπ +- and 2ηπ + - π 5π
হ 4 4.
120 TRIGONOMETRY.
It is negative otherwise.
The results ofthis article are shewn graphically in the
following figure.
B
sinA2 + cos A
2 is+ P
A A
sin - cosis+
A sin A A
sin A2 + cosis-
2 2 + cos 2 is+
A +
A' sin A cosis sin A A A
2 -COS 2 is
-

2 2 Ο

A
sin A
2 + cos 2 is---
S
R sinA COS A is-
2
-
-

2
Β'
OA is the initial line and OP, OQ, OR and OSbisect
the angles in the first, second, third and fourth quadrants
respectively.
Numerical Example. Within what limits must Alie
2 lie if
2 sinA2 = -1+sinA- √1-sinA.
In this case the formulae ofArt. 113 must clearly be
A A
sin +cos == -√1+sinA
2 2 ........(1),
sinA A
and 2-cos 2
= -

√1- sin A •
....(2).
For the addition of these two formulae gives the given formula.
From (1) it follows that the revolving linewhich bounds the angle A
must be between OQ and OR or else between OR and OS.
 RATIOS OF A
2 IN TERMS OF TAN A. 121
From (2) it follows that the revolving line must lie between OR and
OS or else between OS and OP.
Both these conditions are satisfied only when the revolving line lies
A
between OR and OS, andtherefore the angle lies between
2ηπ- 3π and 2ηπ- π •

4 4
117. To express the trigonometrical ratios of A in
terms of tan A.
From equation (3) ofArt. 109 Awe have
2 tan 2
tan A =
1 - tan² A
•

2
.. 1 - tan2 A 2
2 tanA tan 2
=
A

Hence tan² A2 + tan2A tan A2 + tan²A

1 1
1+ tan²A =

=
1 + tan² A
tan A
... tan A + 1
+ √1 + tan² A
2 tanA tanA
. tan A =
+ √1 + tan² A - 1 ....(1).
2 tan A
118. The ambiguous sign in equation (1) can only
beofA.determined when we know something of the magnitude
Ex. Given tan 15°=2- /3, find tan 74°.
Putting A=15° we have, from equation (1), ofthe last article,
tan 71°= ± √1 +2-3
(2-3)2−1 ± √8-43-1
2-√3 ...........(1).
122 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now tan71° is positive so that we must take the upper sign.
Hence tan710+( 2--3
= 6-2)-1 ,

= (√6-2-1) (2 + 3) = √6 - √3 +√2-2 =(√3 - √2) (√2 – 1).

Since tan 15°=tan 195°, the equation which gives us tan 15°
2 in terms
of tan15° may be expectedto give us tan 195°
2 in terms of tan195°. In
fact the value195°
obtained from (1) by taking the negative sign before the
radical is tan 2 •

Hence tan 2 -√8-43-1 - ( 6-2) -1

2-3 2-3
=( - 6 + √2-1) (2 + 3) = - (√3 + √2) (√2 + 1),
so that -cot71°=tan971°= - (√3 +√/2) (√2 +1).
**119. To explain why there is ambiguity when tan A2 -

is foundfrom the value oftan A.

We know, by Art. 84, that, if n be any integer,
tan(ηπ + A) =tanA =k (say).
Hence any equation which gives us tan A2 in terms of k
may be expected to give us tan ηπ 2+ Α also.
First, let n be even and equal to 2m.
Then
tan ηπ 2+ Α = tan 2mㅠ2+ Α tan
-

(mㅠ+ A2)
= tan A
2, as
2' as in Art. 84.
Secondly, let n be odd and equal to 2p+ 1.
 RATIOS OF A
2 IN TERMS OF SIN Α. 123
Then tan ηπ 2+ Α =tan (2p + 1)π
2
+A
= tan (ρπ+π+4) 2 = tan π +2 Α (Art. 84)
-
cot A
(Art. 70.)
----

2 •

Hence the formula which gives us the value of tan A2

should be expected to give us also the value ofof-- cotto •

An illustration of this is seen in the example of the

last article.
EXAMPLES. XVIII.
1. If sin 0= 12 and sin = 3'1, find the values of sin (0 + 4) and
sin (20 +24).
2. The tangent ofan angle is 2.4. Find its cosecant, the cosecant of
half the angle and the cosecant of the supplement ofdouble the angle.
11
and sinf=3,4 find the values of sin 2a β and
-

3. If cos a = 61 2
cos22α+β
2 the angles a and ẞbeing positive acute angles.
,

4. If cosa=3 andcosp=5,4 find the value of cos α-β

2 , the angles
a and ẞ being positive acute angles.
5. Given sec 0=14, find tan 2θ and tan 0.
6. If cosA= 28, find the value of tan A2' and explain the resulting
ambiguity.
7. Find the values of (1) sin 71°, (2) cos71°, (3) tan221°, and
(4) tan114°.
124 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVIII.]
8. If sin +sin =a and cos +cos p=b, find the value of tan θ -2φ
Prove that
9. (cosa+cosẞ)²+(sina-sinẞ)²=4cos2 a+β
2
–

10. (cos a +cos ẞ)² +(sin a +sinẞ)²=4 cos2 α2 β

-

-sinẞ)2=4 sin2 α-2β

11. (cosa-cos ẞ)2+(sin a -sinẞ)2=4sin2 -

2 tan A
2
1 - tan² A2
12. sin A = • 13. COS
1 + tan2 A
2 1 + tan² A2
π T
14. sec 4+0 sec
4 Ө =2 sec 20.
-

15. tan (45° + 1/4 =

A
2
1 + sin A
1- sinA = sec A + tan A.
16. sin2( +)- 2 (-

一 )=
sin2 π

17. cos²a+ cos (a+ 120°)+ cos2 (a- 120°)=

-
A
2
1 sinA.
3

18. cos 8 + cos4 3π8 +cos4 5π

π 7π 3
8 +cos4 8 2 = •

5π 7π 3
19. sin 8 + sin 3π
8 + sin 8 + sin = 0.
20. cos20cos 2p +sin2 (0 – 4) – sin2 (0 + 4)=cos (20 +24).
-

21. (tan4A+tan 2A) (1-tan² 3Atan²A)=2 tan34 sec²A.

22.Find(1+tan 2-sec )(1+tan +sec )=sinasec 2 2
the proper signs to be applied to the radicals inthe 3 following
α
2
formulae.
23. 2 cos A2 = ± √1- sin A + √√1+sinA, when A2=278°.
24. 2sinA2 = = √1-sinA +√1+sinA, when Α2= 19π.
11
[Exs. XVIII.] EXAMPLES. 125
A
4=
25. 2 cos A
2
=
±√1-sin
√1−sinA+ √√1+sin A,when=== -- 140°. 2
26. If A = 340°, prove that
2sin A2= - √1+ sin A+ √1−sin 4,
and 2cos A2= -1+ sin A – √1 – sin 4.
27. If A=460°, prove that
2 cos A
2
=
-√1+sin A+ √1- sin A.
28. If A=580°, prove that
2 sin A
2
= -

√1 + sin A - 1 - sin A.
29. Within what respective limits must A2 lie when
(1) 2sinA2 = √1+sin4+ √1−sin4.
- -

A
(2) 2sin2= - √1+sin4+ √1−sinA, -

(3) 2sin A2 = + 1-1+ sin A - √11-- sinA,

A
and (4) 2cos==
2 √1+sinA – √1− sinA.
-
- -

30. In the formula

2 cos A = √1+sin4+
A+ √1 - sin A,
find within what limits A
2 must lie when
(1) thetwo positive signs are taken,
(2) thetwo negative " "

and (3) the first signisnegative and the secondpositive.

31. Prove that the3πsine is algebraically less than the cosine for any
π
angle between 2ηπ -

4 and 2ηπ +4 where n is any integer.

126 METRY..
TRIGONOMETRY [Exs. XVIII.]
32. If sin A3 be determined from the equation
sin A = 3 sin A3 4sin³ A
-

2'
prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of
sinπ 3- Α and - sin π 3+ Α

33. If cos A3 be found from the equation

cosA = 4 cos3 A A
3 3 cos 3
---

prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of

COS
2π –Α and cos 2π +Α
-

3 3

120. By the use of the formulae of the present

chapter we can now find the trigonometrical ratios of
some important angles.
To find the trigonometricalfunctions ofan angle of18°.
Let e stand for 18°, so that 20 is 36° and 30 is 54°.
Hence 20 = 90° - 30,
and therefore
sin 20 =sin (90° - 30) = cos 30.
. . 2 sin e cos 0 = 4 cos³ 0 -3 cos 0 (Arts. 105 and 107).
Hence, either cos 0 = 0, which gives 0 = 90°, or
2 sin 0 = 4 cos² 0 - 3 = 1 - 4 sin² 0.
... 4 sin² 0 + 2 sin 0 = 1.
By solving this quadratic equation, we have
sin 0 = ±√5-
4
1
 ANGLES OF 18° AND 36°. 127
In our case sine is necessarily a positive quantity.
Hence we take the upper sign, and have
sin 18° = √5-1
4
Hence
/10 + 2√5
cos 18° =√ī sin² 18°=
√10 + 2√5
=√1- 6-2/5
16 16
=
4 •

The remaining trigonometrical ratios of 18° may be

now found.
Since 72° is the complement of 18°, the values of the
ratios for 72° may be obtained by the use ofArt. 69.
121. To find the trigonometricalfunctions of an angle
of36°.
Since cos 20 = 1 - 2 sin² 0, (Art. 105),
.. cos 36° = 1 - 2 sin² 18° = 1-2
= 1- 3 - √5
=1-26-25)
‫د‬
4
so that cos 36° = √54+ 1
Hence
=√1
sin 36° = √1 cos² 36° =
-

_6 +2/5 /10 -2/5

4
The remaining trigonometrical functions of 36° may
•

now be found.
Also, since 54° is the complement of36°, the values of
the functions for 54° may be found by the help ofArt. 69.
122. The value of sin 18° and cos 36° may also be
found geometrically as follows.
128 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let ABC be a triangle constructed, A
as in Euc. IV. 10, so that each of the
angles B and C is double of the angle
A. Then L
180° = A + B + C= A + 2A + 2A, X
so that A = 36°.
Hence, if AD be drawn perpendicu- B D C
lar to BC, we have
∠BAD = 18°.
By Euclid's construction we know that BC is equal to
AX where X is a point on AB, such that
AB . BX = AX2.
Let AB = a, and AX = x.
This relation then gives
а (а - x) = x²,
a ,

i.e. x² + αx = ά², 2

i.e. x= α √5-1
2
Hence sin 18° = sin BAD = BD 1 BC
BA 2BA -
-

1 x √5-1
2α 4
Again (by Euc. IV. 10) we know that AX and XC are
equal; hence if XL be perpendicular to AC, then L
bisects AC.
Hence
AL a 1
cos 36° = AX= 2+
√5+1
x = √5-1√5 +1
=(√5 – 1)(/5 + 1) =
-
4
 ANGLES OF 9° AND 81°. 129
123. To find the trigonometricalfunctions for an angle
of 9°.
Since sin 9° and cos9° are both positive the relation
(3) ofArt. 113 gives
sin 9°+cos 9°=√1+sin 18°==√1+ √5-1
√5-1 √3 +..(1).√5
4 2

Also, since cos9° is greater than sin 9° (Art. 53), the

quantity sin9° - cos 9° is negative. Hence the relation
(4) ofArt. 113 gives
sin 9° - cos 9° = - √1 - sin 18° = -
-

√1-√5-1
√5-5
4

2 ...(2).
By adding (1) and (2), we have
sin 9° = √3 + √5 -4 √5 - 5 ,

and, by subtracting (2) from (1), we have

cos 9° = √3 + √5 +4 √5 - √5
The remaining functions for 9° may now be found.
Also, since 81° is the complement of 9°, the values of
the functions for 81° may be obtained by the use of
Art. 69.
EXAMPLES. XIX.
Prove that
1. sin² 72°- sin² 60°=√5-1
8
•

√5+1
2. cos²48° -sinº 12º= 8
L. T. 9
130 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XIX.]
3. cos 12°+cos 60°+cos 84°=cos 24°+cos48°.
π 3π 4π 5
2π
4. sin5 sin에sin에sin에=16.
5
π
5. sin 10+sin 13π 1
10
=
6. sin 10 sin 13π
π
10-4
1 •

7. tan6ºtan 42° tan66° tan 78°=1.

π
8. cos 15 2π cos 3π COS 4π COS 5π COS 6π COS 7π 1
COS 15 =
15 15 15 15 15-27
9. 16 cos 2π 4π 8π 14π
15 cos 15 COS 15 COS 15 =1.
10. Two parallel chords of a circle, which are on the same side of the
centre, subtend angles of 72° and 144° respectively at the centre. Prove
that the perpendicular distance between the chords is half the radius of
the circle.
11. In any circle prove that the chord which subtends 108° at the
centre is equal tothe sum ofthe two chords which subtend angles of 36°
and 60°.
12. Construct the angle whosecosine is equalto its tangent.
13. Solve the equation
4 cos 0 - 3 sec 0 = 2 tan θ.
 CHAPTER IX.
IDENTITIES AND TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS.
124. THE formulae of Arts. 88 and 90 can be used to
obtain the trigonometrical ratios of the sum of more than
two angles.
For example
sin (A +B + C) = sin (A +B) cos C+cos (A+ B) sin C
=[sinA cosB+ cosA sinB] cosC
+[cosA cosB-sinA sin B] × sin C
sinA cosBcos C + cosA sinBcos C
+ cosA cosBsin C- sinA sinBsin C.
So
cos (A + B+ C) = cos (A + B)cos C- sin(A +B) sin C
=(cosA cosB-sinAsinB) cosC
- (sinA cosB+cosA sinB) sin C
cos A cos Bcos C- cos A sinB sin C - sin A cos Bsin C
-
sin A sin B cosC.
9-2
132 TRIGONOMETRY.

Also tan (A + B+ C) = 1tan-tan(A

(A + B) + tan C
+B) tan C
tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tanB + tan C
1 tanA + tanB tanC
-

1- tanAtanB
tan A + tan B + tan C - tan A tan B tan C
1- tanBtan C- tan CtanA - tan A tan B
125. The last formula of the previous article is a
particular case of a verygeneral theorem which gives the
tangent of the sum of any number of angles in terms of
the tangents of the angles themselves. The theorem is
tan (A1 + A2 + A3 + ... + An)
=
S₁ - S3 + S5 - S7 + ...

... ...(1),
1 -S2 + S4 - S + ...
where
s₁ = tan A₁ + tanA₂ + ... + tan An
= the sum of the tangents of the separate angles,
s₂ = tan A₁ tan A₂ + tanA₁ tanA3 + ...

= the sum ofthe tangents taken two at a time,

s3 = tan A₁ tanA, tan A3+ tanA₂ tanA, tanA4 + ...

= the sum of the tangents taken three at a time, and so

on.
Assume the relation (1) to hold for n angles and add
on another angle An+1.
Then tan (A1 + A₂ + ... + An+1)
= tan [(A1 +A2 + ... + An) + An+1]
tan (A1 + A2 + ... +An) +tan An+1
1 - tan (A1 + A2 + ... + An) , tanAn+1
 TANGENT OF THE SUM OF ANGLES. 133
$1S₁ - S3 + S5 - S7 + ... + tan An+1
1 - S3 + S4 ...
1-81-83
1-82 ++ $485 .... tan An+1
...

Let tanA₁, tanA₂, ... tan An+1 be respectively called

t1, t2,... tn+1.
Then tan (A1 +A2 + ... + An+1)
(S₁-S3
S1 + 85 ...) + tn+1 (1 -S2 + 84 ...)
(1 S2 + 84 ...) - (8₁ - S3 + S5 ...) tn+1
-

=
(81 + tn+1) - (83+ S2tn+1) + (S5 + S4tn+1) ...
1- (82 + 81tn+1) + (S4 + S3 tn+1) - (S6+ S5tn+1) ...
But S1 +tn+1 =(t₁ + to + ... tn) + tn+1
= the sum of the (n + 1) tangents,
S2 + S1 tn+1 = (t₁t₂+ tats + ...) + (t₁ + t2 +... + tn) tn+1
= the sum, two at a time, of the (n+ 1)tangents.
S3 + S2 tn+1 = (t₁tats + tatats + ...) +(t₁t2 + tat3 + ...)tn+1
= the sum three at a time of the (n+ 1) tangents
and so on.
Hence we see that the same rule holds for (n+1)
angles as for n angles.
Hence, if the theorem be true for n angles, it is true
for (n + 1) angles.
But, by Arts. 98 and 124, it is true for 2 and 3 angles.
Hence the theorem is true for 4 angles ; hence for
5 angles .... Hence it is true universally.
Cor. If the angles be all equal and there ben of
them and each equal to 0, then
s₁ = n.tan 0 ; s₂= "C₂tan20 ; s₃ = "C, tan³ .......
3
134 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. Write down the value of tan 40.
$1- $3 4tan 0-4C3 tan³ 0
Here tan40=1-82+84-1-4C,tan20+4C,tan40
=

4 tan 0-4 tan³ 0

-

1-6 tan20 + tan4 0

Ex. Prove that tan 50= 5 tan 0 - 10 tan³ 0 + tan5 0
1-10 tan20 + 5 tan40 •

126. By a method similar to that of the last article

it may be shewn that sin (A1 + A2 + ... + An)
= cosA₁ cos A₂ ... Cos An (S1 - S3 + S585 - ...),
1

and that cos (A1 + A2 + ... + An)

= cosA₁ cosA₂ ... cos An (1-82 +84 - ...),
1 2

where S1, S2, S3, ... have the same values as in that article.
127. Identities holding between the trigono-
metrical ratios of the angles of a triangle.
When three angles A, B and C, are such that their
sum is 180°, many identical relations are found to hold
between their trigonometrical ratios.
The method of proof is best seen from the following
examples.
Ex. 1. IfA+B+ C=180°, to prove that
sin 2A + sin 2B+ sin 2C=4 sin A sin B sin C.
sin 24+sin 2B+sin2C
2sin(A+B)cos (A-B) +2sinCcos C.
Since A+B+ C= 180°,
wehave A+B=180° – С',
-

and therefore sin (A +B) =sinC,

and cos (A+B)= -cos C. (Art. 72)
 IDENTITIES. 135
Hence the expression
=2 sin Ccos (A-B) +2 sin Ccos C
=2sin C[cos (A -B)+cos C]
=2 sin C [cos (A-B) - cos (A+B)]
2 sin C. 2 sinA sin B
4 sinA sinB sin C.
Ex. 2. If A+B+ C=180°,
prove that cosA + cos B - cos C=:-1+4coscossin
-1 + 4 cos C

The expression =cosA + (cosB-cos C)

2 cos²24A2 - 1+ 2 sin B+C C-B
2 sin 2 •

Now B+ C= 180°–А,
so that B+C=
2 90°_ Aহ4 -
-
-

and therefore sin B+C A

2 =cos 2',

and B+C= sin A

cos 2 2
Hence the expression
2cos²A2 -1+2cos
1+ 2cos A2 sin -B
=2cos [cos +sinB]-1
A
2 2

=2cos [sinB+C+sinB]-1
A
2 2 2

= 2 cos A. 2 sin C cos B - 1

2 2
= -1+ 4 cos A cossinC
Ex. 3. If A +B + C= 180°,
prove that sin² A+ sin²B + sin² C=2 + 2 cosA cosBcos C.
136 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let S= sin² A + sin²B+ sin² C,
so that 2S= 2 sin² A + 1 - cos 2B + 1 - cos 2C
=2 sin²A + 2-2 cos (B +C) cos(B- C)
=2-2 cos²A +2-2cos (B+C)cos (B -C).
.. S=2 + cos A [cos (B- C)+cos (B+ C)],
since cos A=cos {180° – (B + C)} = - cos (B+C).
-

.: S=2 + cosA. 2 cosB cosC.

=2 + 2 cosAcosB cosC.
Ex. 4. If A +B + C= 180°,
prove that tanA + tanB+tan C=tanA tan B tan C.
By the third formula ofArt. 124, we have
tan (A +B +C)= 1-tanA + tan B+ tan C - tan A tan B tan C
(tanBtan C+tan Ctan A+tanAtanB)
But tan (A +B+ C) =tan 180°=0.
Hence 0=tan A+tanB+tanC - tanA tanB tanC,
i.e. tanA + tan B + tan C=tan A tan B tan C.
This may also be provedindependently. For
tan (A +B) =tan (180° – C)= -tanC.
tanA + tanB
..
1 - tanA tanB= -tan C.
.. tanA +tanB= -tan C+tanA tanB tan C,
i.e. tanA + tanB +tan C=tanA tan B tan C.
Ex. 5. Ifx +y + z=xyz, prove that
2x 2y 2z 2x 2y 2z
-X +1-y2 + 1-221-x21-y21-22•
=

Put x=tanA, y=tanB, and z=tan C, so that we have

tan A +tanB +tan C=tanA tan B tan C.
tan A + tanB tanC, - -

1 - tan A tanB
so that tan (A +B)=tan (ㅠ - C). [Art. 72.]
 IDENTITIES. 137
Hence A +B + C=ηπ + π,
2x 2y 2z 2 tanA 2 tanB 2 tanC
..
1 - x2 + 1-y2 1-22 = tan² A + 1 - tan² B1
+ 1-221- + - tan2 C
=tan 2A + tan 2B+tan 2C=tan 2A tan2Btan 2C,
(by a proof similar to that of the last example)
2x 2y 2z
1 - x21 -y21-22
•

EXAMPLES. XX.
If A +B + C= 180°, prove that
1. sin 24+ sin 2B - sin 2C=4 cosA cosB sin C.
2. cos 2A+cos 2B+ cos2C= -1-4 cosA cosBcos C.
3. cos 2A+ cos 2B- cos 2C=1 - 4 sin A sinBcos C.
4. sinA+ sinB + sin C= 4 cos 2A COS B2 Cos2C •

5. sinA +sinB - sin C=4= 4 sin A=2 sin B2 COS 2C •

A B C
6. cosA + cos B+ cos C=1+4sinsin
2 2- sin 2
7. sin² A + sin2 B– sin² C=2 sin A sinBcos C.
-

8. cos² A + cos2 B+cos2 C=1-2 cos A cos B cos C.

9. cos² A +cos2B - cos² C=1-2 sin A sin Bcos C.
sin A2 +sin2 B2+sin2
10. sin² = 1 sin-A2 sin-B2 sin C
+ sin2 2=1-2
11. sin + sin -sin -1-2 cos A2 cos Bsin C2 •

B+tantan
+tantan
+tan 2 tan +tan-tan
12. tantan +tan- =1.
13. cotA2 + cotB2 + cot 2C=cot A2 cot-B2 cot C2
14. cotB cot C+cot CcotA +cot A cot B= 1.
138 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XX.]
15. sin (B +2C) + sin (C+2A)+sin (A+ 2B)
=4sinB-Cs
2
sin C-Asin4-B
2 2 •

16. sin +sin +sin -1=4sin -4sin

4
A
4 Bsin
π-
. π-

17. sinsinA
2A + sin 2B + sin 2C=8 sin -A sin B- sin C
+ sin B + sin C 2 2 2
18. sin (B+C -A) + sin (C +A - B) + sin (A + B - C)
sin A sin B sin C.
If A +B + C=2S prove that
19. sin (S-A) sin (S-B) +sin S sin (S– C)=sinA sinB.
20. sin Ssin(S–A) sin(S–B) sin (S– C)
= 1 - cos² A- cos²B- cos² C+ 2 cosA cosB cos C.
21. sin(S-A)+sin(S-B)+sin (S– C) – sin S A sin-
B C
=4 sin-
2 2 sin 2
22. cos²S+cos² (S -A) + cos² (S-B) +cos² (S– C)
=2 + 2 cos A cos B cos C.
23. cos²A+cos²B+cos2 C+ 2 cosA cosBcos C
=1+4 cosScos (S--A)cos (S–B)cos (S–C).
24. If α+β+γ + δ=2π, prove that
cos a+cos +cosy+ cos 8+ 4 cosα+β α+ γ α+ δ
2 COS 2 COS 2 0,
=

sina-sin ẞ+siny - sin 8+4 cos α+β α+ γ α + δ

and 2 sin 2 COS 2 =0.
25. If the sum of four angles be 180° prove that the sum of their
cosines taken two and two together is equal to the sum of their sines
taken similarly.
Prove
26. 1- cos² 0 - cos² - cos² + 2 cos e cos o cos y
sin 0+4+2 4 sin 0+ 2-4 sin 0-4+4sin
2 -0+4+4.
2 •
[Exs. XX.] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS. 139
27. sin 2a+sin 2ẞ+sin 2γ
=2 (sina+sinẞ+siny) (1+cos a+cos +cosy)
if α+β+γ=0.
28. Verify that
sin³ asin (b -c) +sin³b sin (c - a) + sin³c sin (a–b)
+sin (a +b +c) sin(b - c) sin(c -a)sin (a–b)=0.
-

If A, B, C, and D be any angles prove that

29. sinA sinBsin(A-B)+sinBsinCsin (B- C)
+sin CsinAsin (C -A) +sin (A -B) sin(B- C) sin(C – A)=0.
30. sin (A- B) cos(A+B) + sin(B- C) cos (B+C)
+sin(C-D)cos (C+D) +sin(D-A)cos (D+A)=0.
31. sin (A+B- 2C) cosB- sin (A+C- 2B) cosC
=sin (B-- C) {cos (B+C-A) +cos (C+A -B) +cos (A+B- C)}.
32. sin (A+B+ C+D) + sin(A +B- C- D) + sin (A+ B-C+D)
+sin (A+B+C-- D)=4 sin (A+B) cos CcosD.
33. If any theorem be true for values ofA, B, and C such that
A+B+ C=180°,
prove that the theorem is still true if we substitute for A, B, and C
respectively the quantities
(1) 90° , 90°- B, and 90°- 2C',
or (2) 180°-24, 180°-2B, and 180°- 2C.
If x +y +z=xyz prove that
34. 3х-х³ + Зу -у³ + 3z- z33x- x³ 3y-y³ 32 -23
Зу-у³3

1--3x21-3y21-322-1-3x21-3y21–322
and 35. x (1 -y²) (1-22) +y(1-z2) (1-x2) +z (1 -x²) (1 –y²)=4xyz.
128. The Addition and Subtraction Theorems may be
used to solve some kinds oftrigonometrical equations.
Ex. Solve the equation
sin x + sin 5x= sin 3x.
140 TRIGONOMETRY.
By the formulae ofArt. 94 the equation is
2 sin 3x cos 2x = sin 3x.
... sin 3x = 0, or 2 cos 2x = 1.
If sin 3x = 0, then 3x = ηπ.
If cos 2x 12' =
then 2x= 2ηπ ± 3 . π

ηπ π
Hence x=
3 ‫ د‬or ηπ + 6 •

129. To solve an equation ofthe form

a cos θ + b sin e = c.
Divide both sides of the equation by Va² +b², so that
it may be written
a
cos 0 + b C
√a² + b²
2
Va² + b² sin 0= a²+b² 2 2

Find from the table of tangents the angle whose

tangent is b and call it a.
a
Then tan a = ab-b so that
,

b a
√a²+b²' and cos a = Na²+b²
sin a =
The equation can then be written
C
cos a cos + sin a sin 0 = Va²+b² ,

C
i.e. cos(θ-α) = Va²a²+b²
+ b²
 GRAPHIC SOLUTION. 141
Next find from the tables, or otherwise, the angle B
C
whose cosine is Va²+b² '
so that cos β = Na²C+b²',

[N.B. This can onlybe done when cis <Va²+b².]

The equation is then cos (0 – a)= cos β.
-

The solution of this is 0 - α = 2ηπ + β, so that

Ө = 2ηπ + α + β,
where n is any integer.
Angles, such as a and ß, which are introduced into
trigonometrical work to facilitate computation are called
Subsidiary Angles.
130. The above solution maybe illustrated graphically
as follows; P
Measure OM along the initial Q
line equal to a, and MP perpen-
dicular to it, and equal to b. The A
angle MOP is then the angle whose MN

tangent isb
is α', i.e. a. P'
With centre O and radius OP,
i.e. Va²+b², describe a circle and measure ON along
the initial line equal to c.
Draw QNQ' perpendicular to ON to meet the circle in
Q and Q' ; the angles NOQ and Q'ON are therefore each
equal to B.
The angle QOP is therefore a- Band Q'OP is a + β.
142 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the solutions of the equation are respectively
2ηπ + QOP and 2nㅠ + Q'OP.
The constructionclearly fails ifcbe > Va² +b², for then
the point N would fall outside the circle.
131. As a numerical example let us solve the equation
5 cos 0-2 sin 0=2.
2
given that tan 21° 48′= 5
Dividing both sides ofthe equation by
wehave
√52+22 i.e. √29, √29
21°48′
2

5 2 5
729 sine = √29
√29 cos θ0- √29
Hence cos e cos 21° 48′ – sin e sin 21° 48'
-

=sin 21° 48′=sin (90-68° 12′)

=cos 68° 12′.
.. cos (0 +21° 48') =cos 68° 12′.
Hence 0+ 21° 48′ = 2ηπ ± 68° 12'. (Art. 83)
:. 0 =2ηπ - 21° 48′ ± 68° 12′
π
=2ηπ- 2 or 2ηπ +46° 24′,
where n is any integer.
EXAMPLES. XXI.
Solve the equations
1. sin 0+sin 70=sin 40. 2. cos +cos 70=cos 40.
3. cos +cos 30= 2 cos 20. 4. sin40 - sin 20=cos 30.
5. cos - sin 30=cos 20. 6. sin 70=sin 0 + sin 30.
7. cos +cos 20+ cos30=0. 8. sin +sin 30+ sin 50= 0.
9. sin20 -cos 20 - sin 0+ cos 0 =0.
10. sin (30 +a) + sin (30 – a) +sin(a – 0) – sin (a+b) =cos a.
[Exs. XXI.] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS. 143
11. cos (30+a) cos (30 - a) +cos (50+ a) cos (50 –a)=cos 2α.
12. cos no=cos (n − 2) 0 + sin 0. 13. sin"+10=sin
2
n --

2
1 0 +sin 0.

14. sin me + sin nθ =0. 15. cos me + cos nθ = 0.

16. sinne – sin² (n - 1) 0= sin² 0. 17. sin 30+ cos 20=0.
-

18. √3 cos +sin 0 = √2. 19. sin +cos 0 =√2.

20. 3 sin - cos 0 = √2. 21. sin x+ cos x=√2 cosA.
22. 5sin 0 +2 cos 0 = 5 (given tan 21° 48′ = 4).
23. 6cosx+8sin x= 9 (given tan53° 8′=14).
24. 1+sin20= 3 sin 0 cos 0 (given tan71° 34′ =3).
25. cosec =cot 0+ √3. 26. cosec x= 1 + cotx.
27. (2+ 3)cos 0=1 − sin 0.
-

28. tan + sec 0=√3.

29. cos 20= cos² θ. 30. 4 cos 0-3 sec0=tan 0.
31. cos 20 + 3 cos 0=0. 32. cos 30 + 2 cos 0 =0.
33. cos20=(√2+1)(cos0--2).
34. cot - tan 0= 2. 35. 4 cot 20= cot20 - tan2 0.
36. 3 tan (0-15°)=tan (0 + 15°).
37. tan0+tan 20 +tan 30=0.
38. tan 0 +tan 20+√3 tan 0 tan 20 =√3.
39. sin3a=4sin a sin (x + a) sin(x –a).
40. Prove that the equation x³ - 2x+ 1=0 is satisfied by putting for x
either of the values
√2 sin 45°, 2 sin18°, and 2 sin234°.
132. Ex. To trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude
0 to 360°.
ofthe expression sin 0 + cos e as e increases from
We have sin e + cos =
√2/ √21 sin 0 + √21可
= √2 [sin e cos45° + cos esin 45°] = √2 sin (0 + 45°).
COS
144 TRIGONOMETRY.
As e increases from 0 to 45°, sin (0 + 45°) increases
from sin 45° to sin 90°, and hence the expression increases
from 1 to 2.
As e increases from 45° to 135°, 0 + 45° increases from
90° to 180°, and hence the expression is positive and
decreases from 2 to 0.
As e increases from 135° to 225°, the expression
changes from √2 sin 180° to √2 sin 270°, i.e. it is negative
and decreases from 0 to - √2.
As e increases from 225° to 315°, the expression
changes from √2 sin 270° to √2 sin 360°, i.e. it is negative
and increases from - √2 to 0.
As e increases from 315° to 360°, the expression
changes from √2sin 360° to √2 sin 405°, i.e. it is positive
and increases from 0 to 1.
133. Ex. To trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude of a cos + b sine, and to find the greatest
value of the expression.
We have
b
a cos 0 + b sin 0 = √a² + b² Va²a+b² cos +
Va²+b²2 •

Let a be the smallest positive angle such that

α b
cos a =
Va² + b²= ., and sin a = Va² +b²
The expression therefore
= √a²+b² [cos e cos a + sin e sin a] = √a²+b² cos (0 – α). -

As e changes from a to 360° + a, the angle θ-α

changes from 0 to 360°, and hence the changes in the
sign and magnitude ofthe expression are easily obtained.
 MAXIMUM VALUE. 145
Since the greatest value of the quantity cos (0 –a) is
unity, i.e. when o equals a, the greatest value of the
expression is √a² +b².
Also the value of which gives this greatest value is
such that its cosine is Va²a+ b²

EXAMPLES. XXII.
As e increases from 0 to 360°, trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude of
1. sin 0 cos θ,
-

2. sine+√3 cos 0,
0=2 =2 sin + √√3 cos0]=2 sin(0+60°). ]
[N.B.3. sinsin0+0-3√313cos0=2
1
2
cos 0. 4. cos² 0 - sin² 0.
5. sin e cos θ. sin 0+ sin 20
6. cos •

+ cos 20
7. sin ( sin0). 8. cos(πsin 0).
sin(πcos θ)
9. cos(ㅠsin0)
sin 30 as the
10. Trace the changes in the sign and magnitude of cos20
angle increases from 0 to 90°.

L. T. 10
 CHAPTER X.
LOGARITHMS.
134. SUPPOSING that we know that
102.4031205 = 253, 102-6095944= 407,
-

and 105-0127149 = 102971,

we can shew that 253 × 407 = 102971 without performing
the operation ofmultiplication. For
253 × 407 = 102-4031205 × 102-6095944
= 102-4031205+2-6095944
= 105-0127149 102971.
-

Here it will be noticed that the process of multiplica-

tion has been replaced by the simpler process of addition.
Again supposing that we know that
104-9004055 = 79507,
and that 101-6334685= 43,
we can easily shew that the cube root of79507
3 중
is 43.
For 79507 = [79507] = (104-9004055)
= 105×4.9004055 = 101-6334685 = 43.
Here it will be noticed that the difficult process of
extracting the cube root has been replaced by the simpler
process ofdivision.
 LOGARITHMS. 147
135. Logarithm. Def. If a be any number and æ
and N two other numbers such that ax= N, then x is called
the logarithm ofN to the base a and is written logaN.
Exs. Since 102=100, therefore 2=log10 100.
Since 105=100000, therefore 5=log10100000.
Since 24=16, therefore 4=log2 16.2
Since 83=[83]2 =22=4, therefore 3==logg4.
1

1 1 1 therefore
Since 9-2 938-27 '
- =log ( ).
3
2
1

N.B. Since aº= 1 always, thelogarithm of unityto anybase is always

zero.

136. In Algebra, if m and n be any real quantities

whatever, the following laws,known as the laws ofindices,
are found to be true :
(i) amxan = am+n,
(ii) am ÷ an = am-n, ,

and (iii) (am)n = amn.

Corresponding to these we have three fundamental
laws of logarithms, viz.
(i) loga(mn) =logam + loga n,
(ii) loga m = logam -loga n,
-

and (iii) loga mn = n loga m.

The proofs of these laws are given in the following
articles.
10-2
148 TRIGONOMETRY.
137. The logarithm of the product oftwo quantities is
equal to the sum of the logarithms of the quantities to the
same base, i.e.
loga (mn) = loga m + loga n.
Let x=logam, so that ax = m,
and y=logan, so that ay = n.
Then mn = ax × ay = ax+y.
... loga mn = x+ y (Art. 135, Def.)
=logam + loga n.
138. The logarithm of the quotient of two quantities is
equal to the difference oftheir logarithms, i.e.
Let
(Ⅲ
loga ) m
= loga m - loga n.
----

n
x=logam, so that ax=m, (Art. 135, Def.)
and y= logan, so that ay = n.
m
Then n
=ax ÷ av = ах-У.

... loga (m = x- y (Art. 135, Def.)

=logam- logan.
139. The logarithm of a quantity raised to any power
is equal to the logarithm of the quantity multiplied by the
index of the power, i.e.
loga(m²) = nloga m.
Let x= logam, so that ax = m. Then
mn = (ax)n = anx.
... loga (m²) = nx (Art. 135, Def.)
= n loga m.
 LOGARITHMS. 149
140. Common system of logarithms. In the
system of logarithms which we practically use the base is
always 10, so that, if no base be expressed, the base 10
is always understood. The advantage of using 10 as the
base is seen in the three following articles.
141. Characteristic and Mantissa. Def. If the
logarithm of any number be partly integral and partly
fractional, the integral portion ofthelogarithm iscalled its
characteristic and the decimalportion iscalled its mantissa.
Thus, supposing that log 795= 2.9003671, the number
2 is the characteristic and 9003671 is the mantissa.
Negative characteristics. Suppose we know that
Then
log 2 = 30103.
log + = log 1 - log 2 = 0 - log 2 = - ·30103,
so that log is negative.
Now it is found convenient, as will be seen in Art. 143,
that the mantissæ of all logarithmsshouldbe kept positive.
We therefore instead of - 30103 write [1 - 69897], so
-

that
log = - (1-69897) = - 1 + 69897.
For shortness this latter expression is written 1.69897.
The horizontal line over the 1 denotes that the integral
part is negative; the decimal part however is positive.
As another example 3.4771213 stands for
-3 + 4771213.
142. The characteristic ofthe logarithm ofany number
can always be determined by inspection.
150 TRIGONOMETRY.
(i) Let the number be greater than unity.
Since 10°= 1, therefore log 1 = 0 ;
since 10² =10, therefore log 10 1 ; -

since 102 = 100, therefore log 100 = 2,

and so on.
Hence the logarithm of any number lying between 1
and 10 must lie between 0 and 1, that is, it will be a
decimal fraction and therefore have 0 as its characteristic.
So the logarithm of any number between 10 and 100
must lie between 1 and 2, i.e. it will have a characteristic
equal to 1.
Similarly the logarithm of any number between 100
and 1000 must lie between 2 and 3, i.e. it will have a
characteristic equal to 2.
So, if the number lie between 1000 and 10000, the
characteristic will be 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
number will be one less than the number of digits in its
integral part.
Exs. The number 296-3457 has 3 figures in its integral part and
therefore the characteristic ofits logarithm is 2.
The characteristic of the logarithm of 29634.57 will be 5-1, i.e. 4.
(ii) Let the number be less than unity.
Since 10°= 1, therefore log 1 = 0 ;
since 10-1 = 101 =
1, therefore log 1 =-1;
1
since 10-2 = 102 -
-

01, therefore log 01 = -2 ;

since 10-3 = 1 103= 001, therefore log 001 = -3;
and so on.
 CHARACTERISTIC OF ANY LOGARITΗΜ. 151
The logarithm ofany number between 1 and '1 there-
fore lies between 0 and -1, and so is equal to 1 + some -

decimal, i.e. its characteristic is 1.

So the logarithm of any number between 1 and 01
lies between - 1 and -2, and hence it is equal to 2+ -

some decimal, i.e. its characteristic is 2.

Similarly the logarithm of any number between 01
and 001 lies between - 2 and – 3, i.e. its characteristic is 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
decimal fraction will be negative and numerically will be
greater by unity than the number of cyphers following the
decimal point.
For any fraction between 1 and 1 (e.g. 5) has no
cypher following the decimal point and we have seen that
its characteristic is 1.
Any fraction between 1 and 01 (e.g. 07) has 1 cypher
following the decimal point and we have seen that its
characteristic is 2.
Any fraction between 01 and 001 (e.g. 003) has two
cyphers following the decimal point and we have seenthat
its characteristic is 3.
Similarly for any fraction.
Exs. The characteristic of the logarithm of the number 00835 is 3.
The characteristic ofthe logarithm ofthe number 0000053 is 6.
The characteristic ofthe logarithm ofthe number 34567is 1.
143. The mantissæ of the logarithm of all numbers,
consisting ofthe same digits, are the same.
This will be made clearby an example.
Suppose we are given that
log 66818 = 48248935.
152 TRIGONOMETRY.
Then
log668.18=log 66818
100- =log 66818-log100(Art. 138)
=
48248935 - 2 = 28248935 ;
66818
log 66818 =log 100000 = log 66818 - log 100000
= 48248935 - 5 = 1.8248935.
(Art. 135)
So log 00066818 = log 66818
108 = log 66818 - log 108
= 4.8248935 - 8 = 48248935.
Now the numbers 66818, 668·18, 66818, and 00066818
consist of the same significant figures and only differ in
the position ofthe decimal point. We observe that their
logarithms have the same decimal portion, i.e. the same
mantissa, and they only differ in the characteristic.
The value of this characteristic is in each case deter-
mined by the rule ofthe previous article.
It will be noted that the mantissa of a logarithm is
always positive.
144. Tables of logarithms. The logarithms of all
numbers from 1 to 108000 are given in Chambers' Tables
of Logarithms. Their values are there given correct to
seven places ofdecimals.
The student should have access to a copy of the above
table of logarithms or to some other suitable table. It
will be required for many examples in the course of the
next few chapters.
On the opposite page is a specimenpage selected from
Chambers' Tables. Itgivesthe mantisse of the logarithms
of all whole numbers from 52500 to 53000.
 No. 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Diff.
5250 7201593 1676 1758 1841 1924 2007 2089 2172 2255 2337
51 2420 2503 2586 2668 2751 2834 2916 2999 3082 3164
52 3247 3330 3413 34953578 3661 3743 3826 3909 3991
53 4074 4157 4239 4322 4405 4487 4570 4653 4735 4818
54 4901 4983 5066 5149 5231 5314 5397 5479 5562 5645
55 5727 5810 5892 5975 6058 6140 6223 6306 6388 6471
56 6554 6636 6719 6801 6884 6967 7049 7132 7215 7297
57 7380 7462 7545 7628 7710 7793 7875 7958 8041 8123
58 8206 8288 8371 8454 8536 8619 8701 8784 8867 8949
59 9032 9114 9197 9279 9362 9445 9527 9610 9692 9775
60 9857 9940 0023 0105 0188 0270 0353 0435 0518 0600
5261 7210683 0766 0848 0931 1013 1096 1178 1261 1343 1426
62 1508 1591 1674 1756 1839 1921 2004 2086 2169 2251
63 2334 2416 2499 2581 2664 2746 2829 2911 2994 3076
64 3159 3241 3324 3406 3489 3571 3654 3736 3819 3901
65 3984 4066 4149 4231 4314 4396 4479 4561 4644 4726
66 4809 4891 4973 5056 5138 5221 5303 5386 5468 5551
67 5633 5716 5798 5881 5963 6045 6128 6210 6293 6375
68 6458 6540 6623 6705 6787 6870 6952 7035 7117 7200
69 7282 7364 7447 7529 7612 7694 7777 7859 7941 8024
70 8106 8189 8271 8353 8436 8518 8601 8683 8765 8848
5271 8930 9013 9095 9177 9260 9342 9424 9507 9589 9672 828
12
72 9754 9836 9919 0001 0084 0166 0248 0331 0413 0495 2 16
7374 7220578
1401
0660
1484
0742 0825
1566 2472
0907
1648 1731 0990
1813
1072
1895
1154
1978
1237 1319
2060 21424
3 3325
75 2225 2307 2389 2554 2636 2719 2801 2883 2966 5 41
3048 3130 3212 3295 3377 6 49
3459 3542 3624 3706 3789 7 57
76
77 3871 3953 4036 4118 4200 4282 4365 4447 4529 4612 8 66
78
79
4694 4776
5517 5599 4858
5681 4941
5763 5023
5846 5105
5928 5188 5270 5352
6010 6092 6175 5434
6257 9 74
80 6339 6421 6504 6586 6668 6750 6833 6915 6997 7079
5281 7162 7244 7326 7408 7491 7573 7655 7737 7820 7902
82 7984 8066 8148 8231 8313 8395 8477 8559 8642 8724
83 8806 8888 8971 9053 9135 9217 9299 9382 9464 9546
84 9628 9710 9792 9875 9957 0039 0121 0203 0286 0368
85 7230450 0532 0614 0696 0779 0861 0943 1025 1107 1189
86 1272 1354 1436 1518 1600 1682 1765 1847 1929 2011
87 2093 2175 2257 2340 2422 2504 2586 2668 2750 2832
88 2914 2997 3079 3161 3243 3325 3407 3489 3571 3654
89 3736 3818 3900 3982 4064 4146 4228 4310 4393 4475
90 4557 4639 4721 4803 4885 4967 5049 5131 5213 5296
5291 5378 5460 5542 5624 5706 5788 5870 5952 6034 6116
92 6198 6280 6362 6445 6527 6609 6691 6773 6855 6937
93 7019 7101 7183 7265 7347 7429 7511 7593 7675 7757
94 7839 7921 8003 8085 8167 8250 8332 8414 8496 8578
95 8660 8742 8824 8906 8988 9070 9152 9234 9316 9398
96 9480 9562 9644 9726 9808 9890 9972 0054 0136 0218
97
98
7240300
1120 0382
1202 0464 0546 0628
1283 1365 1447 0710 0792 0874 0956 1038
1529 1611 1693 1775 1857
99 1939 2021 2103 2185 2267 2349 2431 2513 2595 2677
5300 2759 2841 2923 3005 3086 3168 3250 3332 3414 3496
154 TRIGONOMETRY.
145. To obtainthe logarithm ofanysuchnumber, such
asextreme
52687,left-hand
we proceedcolumn
as follows. Run the eye down the
until it arrives at the number
5268. Then lookhorizontally until the eye sees the figures
7035 which are verticallybeneath the number 7 at the top
of the page. The number corresponding to 52687is there-
fore 7217035. But this last number consists only of the
digits of the mantissa, so that the mantissa required is
7217035. But the characteristic for 52687 is 4.
Hence log 52687 = 4.7217035.
So log 52687 = 1-7217035,
and log 00052687 = 4-7217635.
If again the logarithm of52725 be required the student
will find (on running his eye vertically down the extreme
left-hand column as far as 5272 and then horizontally
along the row until he comes to the column under the
digit 5) the number 0166. The barwhich is placed over
these digits denotes that to them must be prefixed not
721 but 722. Hence the mantissa corresponding to the
number 52725 is 7220166.
Also the characteristic ofthe logarithm of the number
52725 is 4.
Hence log 52725 = 4-7220166.
So log 052725 = 2.7220166.
We shall now work a few numerical examples to shew
the efficiency of the application of logarithms for purposes
of calculation.
146. Ex. 1. Find the value of 5/23.4.
Let x= 5/23-4=(23.4) , 1
so that logx= log (23.4), by Art. 139.
 EXAMPLES OF LOGARITHMS. 155
In the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 234, the
logarithm 3692159.
Hence log 23.6=1.3692159.
Therefore logx==1 [1.3692159]= 2738432.
Againinthetable of logarithmswe find,correspondingto thelogarithm
2738432, the number 187864, so that
log 1.87864= 2738432.
... x=1·87864.
Ex. 2. Find the value of
(6.45)3× 00034
(9.37)2× 8.93
Let x be the required value sothat, byArts. 138 and 139,
logx=log(6.45)3+log ( 00034) -log (9.37)2 –log /8-93
-

= 3log (6.45)++ 1log ( 00034)–2log (9.37) -log

-
1
4 8.93.
Now in the table of logarithms we find
opposite the number 645 the logarithm 8095597,
" " " 34 " " 5314789,
" " " 937 " " 9717396,
" " " 893 " " 9508515.
Hence
=3x 8095597++1 (4-5314789)
logx=3x
-2× 9717396--41 × -9508515.
But 1
3 (4-5314789)= 1 [6+ 2-5314789]
=2+ 8438263.
... logx=2.4286791+[2+ 8438263] -1.9434792 - 2377129
=3-2725054 – 4-1811921
-

=1+4-2725054 – 4-1811921
-

=1-0913133.
156 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 12340 the
logarithm 0913152, so that
log 12340= 1.0913152.
Hence log x=log 12340 nearly,
and therefore x= 12340 nearly.
When the logarithm of any number does not quite agree with any
logarithm in the tables but lies between two consecutive logarithms, it
will be shewn in the next chapter how the number may be accurately
found.
Ex. 3. Having given log2= 30103, find the number of digits in 267
and the position of the first significantfigure in 2-37.
We have log 267=67 xlog2=67× 30103
=20-16901.
Since the characteristic of the logarithm of 267 is 20 it follows,byArt.
142, that in 267 there are 21 digits.
Again log 2-37-37log2 = -37 × ・30103
= -

11-13811-12-86189.
Hence by Art. 142, in 2-37 there are 11 cyphers following the decimal
point, i.e. the first significant figure is in the twelfth place ofdecimals.
Ex. 4. Givenlog3= 4771213,log7 = -8450980andlog11=1.0413927,
solve the equation 3x x 72x+1 =11x+5.
Taking logarithms of both sides we have
log 3x+log 72x+1=log 11x+5.
..xlog3+ (2x + 1) log 7=(x+5) log 11.
.. x [log 3 + 2log 7- log 11] =5 log 11 - log 7.
..x=
5log11 - log 7
log 3+2log 7 – log 11
5-2069635-8450980
4771213 + 1 ・6901960 – 1.0413927
-

= 4-3618655 =3.87....
1-1259246
 LOGARITHMS TO DIFFERENT BASES. 157
147. To prove that
loga m =log, m × loga b.
Let loga m x, so that ax = m.
=

Also let logo m y, so that by =m.

=

... ax=by.
Hence loga(ax) =loga(by).
... x= y loga b (Art. 139).
Hence logam = logi m × loga b.
By the theorem of the foregoing article we can from
the logarithm ofany number to a base b find its logarithm
to any other base a. It is found convenient, as will appear
in a subsequent chapter,not tocalculate the logarithms to
base 10 directly, but to calculate them first to another
base and then to transform them by this theorem.
EXAMPLES. XXIII.
1. Given log 4= 60206 and log 3= '4771213, find the logarithms of
8, 003, 0108, and ( 00018) .
2. Given log 11=1.0413927 and log13=1·1139434, find thevalues of
(1) log 1.43, (2) log133.1, (3) log 143 and (4) log -00169.
4

3. What are the characteristics of the logarithms of 243-7, 0153,

2.8713, 00057, 023, 24615, and (24589) ?
4. Find the 5th root of 003, having given log 3= 4771213 and
log 312936=5-4954243.
5. Findthe value of(1) 77, (2) (84) and (3) (021) ,having given
log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213,
log 7= 8450980, log 132057=5-1207283,
log 588453=5-7697117 and log 461791=5-6644438.
158 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXIII.]
6. Having given log 3 = 4771213,
find the number of digits in
(1) 343, (2) 327, and (3) 362,
and the position ofthe first significant figure in
(4) 3-13, (5) 3-43, and (6) 3-65.
7. Given log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213 and log 7= 8450980, solve
•

the equations 2x.3x+4=7x,

22x+1.33x+2=74x,
and 72x2x-4-33x-7.
8. From the tables find the seventh root of 000026751.
Making use of the tables find the approximate values of
9. 645.3. 10. 82357.
5
11. √5×27
2/8x5/9
4/

3 8 × 11
7.2× 8.3
12. 9.4-16.5 13. √74×5/62
 CHAPTER XI.
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS AND TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS.

148. We have pointed out that the logarithms of all

numbers from 1 to 108000 may be found in Chambers'
Mathematical Tables, so that, for example, the logarithms
of74583 and 74584 may be obtained directly therefrom.
Suppose however we wanted the logarithm of a
number lying between these two, e.g. the number 74583.3.
To obtain the logarithm of this number we use the
Principle of Proportional Parts which states that the
increase in the logarithm of a number is proportional to
the increase in the number itself.
Thus from the tables we find
log 74583 = 48726398 ............(1),
and log 74584 = 4.8726457 ............(2).
...
(
The quantity log 74583.3 will clearly lie between
log 74583 and log 74584.
Let then log 74583-3 =log 74583 + x
= 48726398 + x............(3).
160 TRIGONOMETRY.
From (1) and (2) we see that for an increase 1 in the
number the increase in the logarithm is '0000059.
The Theory of Proportional Parts then states that for
an increase of 3 in the number the increase in the
logarithm is 3 × 0000059, i.e., 00000177.
Hence log 74583-3 == 4.87264157.
48726398 + 00000177
149. As another example we shall find the value of
log 0382757 and shall exhibit the working in a more
concise form.
From the tables we obtain
log 038275 = 25829152
log 038276 = 2.5829265.
Hence difference for
000001 = '0000113.
Therefore the difference for
0000007 = 7 × · 0000113
= 00000791,
... log 0382757 =+ 2:5829152
00000791
= 258292311.
Since we
decimals we only
omitrequire
the lastlogarithms to seven
digit and places ofis
the answer
25829231.
150. The converse question is often met with, viz.,
to find the number whose logarithm is given. If the
logarithm be one ofthose tabulated the required number
is easily found. The method to be followed when this is
not the case is shewn in the following examples.
 PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 161
Find the number whose logarithm is 2·6283924.
On reference to the tables we find that the logarithm 6283924 is not
tabulated, but that the nearest logarithms are 6283889 and 6283991,
between which our logarithm lies.
We have then log 425.00= 2-6283889 ..(1),
and log 425-01 = 2・6283991. .(2).
.................

Let log (425.00+x) =2.6283924.. (3).

..

From (1) and (2) we see that corresponding to a difference 01 in the

number there is a difference 0000102 in the logarithm.
From (1) and (3) we see that corresponding to a difference x in the
number there is a difference 0000035 in the logarithm.
Hence we have x : 01 :: 0000035 : 0000102.
35 × 01= 35
..x= 102 102 = 00343 nearly.
Hence the required number= 425.00+ 00343 =425-00343.
151. Where logarithms are taken out of the tables
the labour of subtracting successive logarithms may be
avoided. On reference to page 153 there is found at the
extreme right a column headed Diff. The number 82 at
the head ofthe figures in this column gives the difference
corresponding to a difference unity in the numbers on
that page.
This number 82 means 0000082.
The rows below the 82give the differences correspond-
ing to 1, 2,.... Thus the fifth of these rows means that
the difference for 5 is '0000041.
As an example let us find the logarithm of 52746.74.
From page 153 we have = 47221895
log 52746 7
diff. for 0000057
=

diff. for 04
1
=
10 x diff. for 4) = 0000003
.. log 52746.74 = 47221955.
L. T. 11
162 TRIGONOMETRY.
152. The proof of the Principle of Proportional Parts
will not be given at this stage. It is not strictly true
without certain limitations.
The numbers to which the principle is applied must
contain not less than five significant figures, and then we
may rely on the result as correct to seven places of
decimals.
For example, we must not apply the principle to
obtain the value of log 2.5 from the values of log 2 and
log 3.
For, if we did, since these logarithms are 30103 and
4771213, the logarithm of 2.5 would be 389075.
But from the tables the value oflog 2.5 is found to be
3979400.
Hence the result which we should obtain would be
manifestly quite incorrect.
Tables of trigonometrical ratios.
153. In Chambers' Tables will be found tables giving
the values of the trigonometrical ratios of angles between
0° and 45°, the angles increasing by differences of 1'.
It is unnecessary to separately tabulate the ratios for
angles between 45° and 90°, since the ratios of angles
between 45° and 90° can be reduced to those of angles
between 0° and 45°. (Art. 75.)
For example,
[sin76° 11′ = sin (90°-13° 49′) =cos 13° 49',
and is therefore known].
Such a table is called a table of natural sines, cosines,
etc. to distinguish it from the table of logarithmic sines,
cosines, etc.
 PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 163
Ifwe want to find the sine of an angle which contains
an integral number ofdegrees and minutes we can obtain
it from the tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds
we must use the principle ofproportional parts.
Ex. 1. Given sin 29° 14′ = 4883674,
•

and sin 29° 15′= 4886212,

-

find the value of sin 29° 14′ 32″.

By subtraction we have
difference in the sine for 1' = 0002538.
... difference in the sine for 32" = 32
60 × 0002538 = 00013536,
... sin29° 14′32″= 4883674
+00013536
= 48850276.
Since we want our answer only to seven places of decimals we omit
the last 6, and, since 76 is nearer to 80 than 70, we write
sin 29° 14′ 32″ = 4885028
N.B. When we omit a figure in the eighth place of decimals we add
1to thefigure in the seventh place, ifthe omitted figure be 5or anumber
greater than 5.
Ex. 2. Given cos 16° 27′ = 9590672,
and cos 16° 28′ = 9589848,
find cos 16° 27′47″.
We note that, as was shewn in Art. 55, the cosine decreases as the
angle increases.
Hence for an increase of 1', i.e. 60", in the angle, there is a decrease
of 0000824 in the cosine.
Hence for an increase of 47" in the angle there is a decrease of
47
60x0000824in the cosine.
... cos 16° 27′ 47″= 9590672 - 47
60 × 0000824
= 9590672 – 0000645
-

= 9590672
-
0000645
= 9590027.
11-2
164 TRIGONOMETRY,
154. The inverse question, to find the angle, when
one of its trigonometrical ratios is given, will now be
easy.
Ex. Find the angle whose cotangent is 1·4109325, having given
cot 35° 19′=1·4114799, and cot35° 20′=1·4106098.
Let the required angle be 35° 19′ +x,
so that cot (35° 19′ +x)= 1·4109325.
From these three equations we have
For an increase of 60" in the angle a decrease of 0008701 in the cotangent,
” " x" " ” " •0005474 " ,,

.. x : 60 :: 5474 : 8701, so that x= 37.7.

Hence the required angle= 35° 19′37·7".
155. In working all questions involving the applica-
tion ofthe Principle of Proportional Parts the student must
be very careful to note whether the trigonometrical ratios
increase or decrease as the angle increases. As a help to
his memory he may observe that in the first quadrant the
3 trigonometrical ratios whose names beginwith co-,i.e.
the cosine, the cotangent, and the cosecant, all decrease as
the angle increases.
Tables of logarithmic sines, cosines, etc.
156. In many kinds of trigonometric calculation, as
inthe solutionof triangles,we often require the logarithms
of trigonometrical ratios. To avoid the inconvenience of
first finding the sine of any angle from the tables and
then obtaining the logarithm of this sine by a second
application of the tables, it has been found desirable to
have separate tables giving the logarithms of the various
 TABLES OF LOGARITHMIC SINES, ETC. 165
trigonometrical functions of angles. As before it is only
necessary to construct the tables for angles between 0°
and 45°.
Since the sine of an angle is always less than unity,
the logarithm ofits sine is always negative (Art. 142).
Again, since the tangent of an angle between 0° and
45° is less than unity its logarithm is negative, whilst the
logarithm of the tangent of an angle between 45° and
90° is the logarithm ofa number greater than unity and is
therefore positive.
157. To avoid the trouble andinconvenience of print-
ing the proper sign to the logarithms ofthe trigonometric
functions, the logarithms as tabulated are not the true
logarithms, but the true logarithms increased by 10.
For example, sine 30° = ½.
Hence log sin 30° = log = -log 2
= -
30103 = 1.69897.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore
10 + log sin 30°, i.e. 9.69897.
Again, tan 60° = √3.
Hence logtan 60° = log 3 = (4771213)
= 2385606.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore
10 + 2385606, i.e. 10·2385606.
The symbol L is used to denote these " tabular
logarithms," i.e. the logarithms as found in the English
books of tables.
Thus Lsin 15° 25′ = 10 + log sin 15° 25′,
and Lsec 48° 23′ = 10 + log sec 48° 23′.
166 TRIGONOMETRY.
158. If we want to find the tabular logarithm of any
function of an angle, which contains an integral number
ofdegrees and minutes, we can obtain it directly from the
tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds we must
use the principle of proportional parts. The method of
procedure is similar to that of Art. 152. We give an
example and also one of the inverse question.
Ex. 1. Given L cosec 32° 21′= 10-2715733,
and L cosec 32° 22′ =10・2713740,
find L cosec 32° 21′ 51″.
For an increase of 60" in the angle there is a decrease of 0001993 in
the logarithm.
Hence for an increase of 51" in the angle the corresponding decrease
is 51
60 × 0001993, i.e. 0001694.
•

Hence L cosec 32° 21′ 51″=10-2715733

-
•0001694
=10-2714039.
Ex. 2. Find the angle such that the tabular logarithm of its tangent
is 9-4417250.
From the tables we have
Ltan15°27′=9.4415145,
and Ltan 15° 28′ = 9.4420062.
Let Ltan (15° 27′ + x") =9.4417250.
We then have x" 9-4417250 -9.4415145
=
60" 9.4420062-9-4415145
=
•0002105
0004917 '
so that x = 60 x 2105
4917 =nearly 26.
Hence the required angle is 15° 27′26″.
 PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 167
Ex. 3. Given L sin 14° 6' = 9.3867040
find L cosec 14°6'.
Here log sin 14° 6'=L sin 14° 6′ – 10
-

= -1 + 3867040.
Now 1
log cosec14° 6'=log sin14° 6'
= - logsin 14° 6'
=1-3867040= 6132960.
Hence L cosec 14° 6′ =10.6132960.
The error to be avoided is this; the student sometimes assumes that
because
logcosec14°6'= - log sin 14°6',
he may therefore assume that
Lcosec 14° 6'= - L sin 14°6'.
This is obviously untrue.
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
1. Given log 35705=4-5527290
and log35706=4.5527142,
find the values of log35705-7 and log 35-70585.
2. Given log 5.8743 = 7689487
and log 587.44= 2·7689561,
find the values of log58743.57 andlog 00587432.
3. Given log 47847=4-6798547
and log 47848 = 4.6798638,
find the numbers whose logarithms are respectively
2.6798593 and 3-6798617.
168 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXIV.]
4. Given log 258-36= 2-4122253
and log 2.5837= 4122421
find the numbers whose logarithms are
4122378 and 2-4122287.
5. From the table onpage 153 find the logarithms of
(1) 52538-97, (2) 527-286, (3) 000529673,
and the numbers whose logarithms are
(4) 3.7221098, (5) 2.7240075 and (6) 7210386.
6. Given sin 43° 23′ = 6868761
and sin 43° 24′ = 6870875,
find the value of sin 43° 23′ 47″
7. Find also the angle whose sine is 6870349.
8. Given cos 32° 16′ = 8455726
and cos 32° 17′= 8454172,
find the values of cos 32° 16′ 24" and of cos 32° 16′ 47″.
9. Find also the angles whose cosines are
•8454832 and 8455176.
10. Given tan 76° 21′ = 4·1177784
and tan 76° 22′ =4·1230079,
find the values of tan 76° 21′ 29" and tan76° 21′ 47″.
11. Given cosec 13° 8' = 4.4010616
and cosec 13° 9′=4·3955817,
find the values of cosec 13° 8′ 19″ and cosec 13° 8′ 37″.
12. Find also the angle whose cosecant is 4.396789.
13. Given Lcos 34°44′ =9.9147729
and L cos 34° 45′=9.9146852,
find the value of L cos 34° 44′ 27″.
14. Find also the angle θ, where
L cos 0= 9.9147328.
[Exs. XXIV.] PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 169
15. Given L cot 71° 27′ =9-5257779
and L cot 71° 28′= 9.5253589,
find the value of L cot 71° 27′47
and solve the equation L cot0= 9.5254782.
16. Given L sec 18° 27′ =10-0229168
and L sec 18° 28′ = 10·0229590,
find the value of L sec 18° 27′35″.
17. Find also the angle whose L sec is 10-0229285.
18. Find in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angle whose sine is 6,
given that log 6=7781513, L sin 36° 52′ =9-7781186
and L sin 36° 53′ =9.7782870.
159. On the next page is printed a specimen page
taken from Chambers' tables. It gives the tabular log-
arithms of the ratios of angles between 32° and 33° and
also between 57° and 58°.
The first column gives the L sine for each minute
between 32° and 33°.
In the second column under the word Diff. is found
the number 2021. This means that 0002021 is the
difference between Lsin 32° 0′ and Lsin32° 1' ; this may
be verified by subtracting 9.7242097 from 9.7244118. It
will also be noted that the figures 2021 are printed half-
way between the numbers 9.7242097 and 9.7244118,
thus clearly shewing between what numbers it is the
difference.
This same column of Differences also applies to the
column on its right-hand side which is headed Cosec.
Similarly the fifth column, which is also headed Diff.,
may
of it.
be used with the two columns on the right and left
 LOGARITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, AND SECANTS.
32Deg.
Sine Diff. Cosec. Tang. Diff. Cotang. Secant Diff. Cosine
09-7242097 2021 10-2757903 9.7957892 2811 10.2042108 10.0715795 790 9.9284205 | 60
19.7244118 2020 10-2755882 9-7960703 2810 10-2039297 10.0716585 790 9-9283415 | 59
29-7246138 2018 10-2753862 9-7963513 2809 10-2036487 10.0717375 791 9-9282625 58
3 9.7248156 2018 10-2751844 9.7966322 2808 10-2033678 10.0718166 791 9.9281834 57
4 9:7250174 2015 10-2749826 9.7969130 2808 10-2030870 10.0718957 792 9.9281043 56
5 9-7252189 2015 10-2747811 9 7971938 2807 10.2028062 10.0719749 792 9.9280251 55
6 9-7254204 2013 10-2745796 9 7974745 2806 10-2025255 10.0720541 793 9.9279459 54
79-7256217 2012 10-2743783 9-7977551 2805 10.2022449 10.0721334 793 9.9278666 53
9-927787352
89-7258229 2011 10-2741771 9-7980356 2804 10-2019644 10.0722127 794
99.7260240 2009 10-2739760 9.7983160 2804 10.2016840 10-0722921 794 9-9277079 51
10 9.7262249 2008 10-2737751 9 7985964 2803 10.2014036 10.0723715 795 9-9276285 50
11 9.7264257 10-2735743 9-7988767 2802 10-2011233 10.0724510 795 9.9275490 49
12 9.7266264 2007
2005 10-2733736 9 7991569 2801 10.2008431 10.0725305 796 9.9274695 48
13 9.7268269 2004 10-2731731 9 7994370 2800 10.2005630 10.0726101 796 9.9273899 47
14 9.7270273 10-2729727 9.7997170 10.2002830 10.0726897 9.9273103 46
15 9-7272276 2003
2002 10-2727724 9.7999970 2800
2799 10-2000030 10.0727694 797
797 9.9272306 45
169-7274278 2000 10-2725722 9.8002769 2798 10-1997231 10.0728491 798 9.9271509.44
179-7276278 1999 10-2723722 9.8005567 2798 10.1994433 10.0729289 798 9-9270711 43
18 9.7278277 1998 10-2721723 9.8008365 2796 10 1991635 10.0730087 799 9.9269913 42
19 9.7280275 1996 10-2719725 9.8011161 2796 10.1988839 10.0730886 800 9.9269114 41
20 9.7282271 1996 10-2717729 9.8013957 2795 10.1986043 10.0731686 800 9.9268314 40
21 9.7284267 1993 10-2715733 9.8016752 2794 10.1983248 10.0732486 800 9.9267514 39
22 9-7286260 1993 10-2713740 9.8019546 2794 10 1980454 10.0733286 801 9.9266714 38
23 9.7288253 1991 10-2711747 9.8022340 2793 10 1977660 10.0734087 801 9-926591337
249.7290244 1990 10-2709756 9.8025133 2792 10.1974867 10.0734888 802 9.9265112 36
259-7292234 1989 10-2707766 9.8027925 2791 10-1972075 10.0735690 803 9.9264310 35
26 9.7294223 1988 10-2705777 9.8030716 2790 10-1969284 10.0736493 803 9.9263507 34
27 9.7296211 1986 10-2703789 9.8033506 2790 10-1966494 10.0737296 803 9.9262704 33
28 9.7298197 1985 10 2701803 9.8036296 2789 10-1963704 10.0738099 805 9.9261901 32
29 9.7300182 1983 10-2699818 9.8039085 2788 10.1960915 10.0738904 804 9.9261096 31
30 9.7302165 1983 10-2697835 9.8041873 2788 10 1958127 10.0739708 805 9.9260292 30
31 9.7304148 1981 10-2695852 9.8044661 2786 10-1955339 10.0740513 806 9.9259487 29
32 9.7306129 1980 10-2693871 9.8047447 2786 10-1952553 10.0741319 806 9.9258681 28
33 9.7308109 1978 10.2691891 9.8050233 2786 10-1949767 10.0742125 806 9-9257075 27
34 9.7310087 1977 10.2689913 9.8053019 2784 10.1946981 10.0742931 808 9-9257069 26
35 9.7313064 1976 10.2687936 9.8055803 2784 10-1944197 10.0743739 807 9.9256261 25
36 9.7314040 1975 10.2685960 9.8058587 2783 10.1941413 10.0744546 808 9.9255454 24
37 9 7316015 1974 10.2683985 9.8061370 2782 10.1938630 10.0745354 809 9.9254646 23
38 9.7317989 1972 10.2682011 9.8064152 2781 10-1935848 10.0746166 809 9.9253837 22
39 9.7319961 1971 10-2680039 9.8066933 2781 10.1933067 10.0746972 810 9.9253028 | 21
40 9.7321932 1970 10-2678068 9.8069714 2780 10-1930286 10.0747782 810 9.9252218 20
419-7323902 1968 10-2676098 9.8072494 2779 10.1927506 10.0748592 811 9.9251408 | 19
9.9250597 18
42 9.7325870 1967 10-2674130 9.8075273 2779 10 1924727 10.0749403 811
43 9.7327837
44 9.7329803 1966
1965 10-2668232 9.8080829
10-2670197
10-2672163 2777 10-1916394
9.8078052
2777
9.8083606 2777 10.0751026 812
10-1919171 10.0751839
10.1921948 10.0750214
813
9.9249786 17
9.9248974 16
45 9.7331768 1963 812 9.9248161 15
46 9.7333731 1962 10.2666269 9.8086383 2775 10-1913617 10.0752651 814 9-9247349 14
47 9.7335693 1961 10.2664307 9.8089158 2775 10-1910842 10.0753465 814 9.9246535 13
489-7337654 1960 10.2662346 9.8091933 2774 10.1908067 10.0754279 814 9-9245721 12
499.7339614 1958 10.2660386 9.8094707 2773 10-1905293 10.0755093 815 9.9244907 11
50 9.7341572 1957 10.2658428 9.8097480 2773 10.1902520 10.0755908 815 9.9244092 | 10
519-7343529 1956 10-2656471 9.8100253 2772 10.1899747 10.0756723 816 9.9243277 9
52 9-7345485 1955 10-2654515 9.8103025 2771 10-1896975 10.0757539 817 9.9242461 8
539-7347440 1953 10-2652560 9.8105796 2770 10-1894204 10.0758356 817 9-9241644 7
54 9.7349393 1952 10-2650607 9.8108566 2770 10.1891434 10.0759173 817 9-9240827 6
55 9-7351345 1951 10-2648655 9.8111336 2769 10.1888664 10.0759990 819 9.9240010 5
43210

569-7353296 1950 10-2646704 9.8114105 2768 10-1885895 10.0760809 818 9-9239191

579-7355246 1949 10-2644754 9.8116873 2768 10-1883127 10.0761627 819 9.9238373
589-7357195 1947 10-2642805 9.8119641 2767 10-1880359 10.0762446 820 9-9237554
599-7359142 1946 10-2640858 9.8122408 2766 10-1877592 10.0763266 820 9.9236734
60 9.7361088 10-2638912 9.8125174 10-1874826 10.0764086 9-9235914 0
/ Cosine Diff. Secant Cotang. Diff. Tang. Cosec. Diff. Sine
57 Deg.
 PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 171
160. There is one point to be noticed in using the
columns headed Diff. It has been pointed out that 2021
(at the top of the second column) means 0002021. Now
the 790 (at the top ofthe eighth column) means not 000790,
but 0000790. The rule is this ; the right-hand figure of
the Diff. must be placed in the seventh place of decimals
and the requisite number of cyphers prefixed. Thus
Diff. = 9 means that the difference is 0000009,
Diff. = 74 ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ 0000074,
Diff. = 735 ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ 0000735,
Diff. = 2021 ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ 0002021,
whilst Diff. = 12348 ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ 0012348.
161. Page 170 also gives the tabular logs. of ratios
between 57° and 58°. Suppose we wanted Ltan 57° 20′.
We now start with the line at the bottom of the page and
run our eye up the column which has Tang. at its foot. We
goon upthethissame
column until we arrive at the number which is
level as the number 20 in the extreme
right-hand column. This number we find to be 10·1930286,
which is therefore the value of
L tan 57° 20'.

EXAMPLES. XXV.
1. Find e given that cos 0= 9725382,
cos13°27′= 9725733, diff. for 1' =677.
2. Find the angle whose sine is 3 , given
sin 22° 1' = 3748763, diff. for 1'=2696.
172 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXV.]
3. Given cosec65° 24' =1.0998243,
diff. for 1' =1464,
find the value of cosec 65° 24′37″
and the angle whose cosec is 1.0997938.
4. Given L tan 22° 37′=9.6197205,
diff. for 1' =3557,
find the value of L tan 22° 37′22″
and the angle whose L tan is 9.6195283.
5. Find the angle whose L cos is 9.993, given
L cos 10° 15′= 9.9930131, diff. for 1' = 229.
6. Find the angle whose Lsec is 10·15, given
L sec 44° 55′= 10·1498843, diff. for 1' =1260.
7. From the table on page 170 find the values of
(1) Lsin 32°18′23″, (2) L cos32° 16′49″,
(3) Lcot32° 29′43″, (4) Lsec 32° 52′ 27″,
(5) Ltan57°45′ 28″, (6) Lcosec57° 48′21″,
and (7) Lcos57° 58′29″.
8. With the help ofthe same page solve the equations
(1) Ltan 0=10-1959261, (2) Lcosec =10·0738125,
(3) Lcos 0= 9.9259283, and (4) L sin 0 =9-9241352.
9. Take out of the tables Ltan16°6′23″ and calculate the value of
the square root of the tangent.
10. Change into aform more convenient forlogarithmiccomputation
(i.e. express in the form of products of quantities) the quantities
(1) 1+ tanxtany, (2) 1-tanxtany,
(3) cotx+tany, (4) cotx - tany,
1 - cos 2x
(5) 1 + cos2x ' and (6) tan x+ tany
cot x+coty •
 CHAPTER XII.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND THE TRIGONOMETRICAL
RATIOS OF THE ANGLES OF ANY TRIANGLE.

162. IN any triangle ABC, the side BC, opposite

to the angle A, is denoted by a; the sides.CA and AB,
opposite to the angles B and C respectively, are denoted
by b and c.
163. Theorem. In any triangle ABC,
sinA sinB sin C
a b C ,

i.e. the sines of the angles are proportional to the opposite

sides.
A A A
C b C C
b b
B a D CB a C DB a C
Draw AD perpendicular to the opposite side meeting
it, produced ifnecessary, in the point D.
174 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the triangle ABD, we have
AD = sinB, so that AD = csinB.
AB
In the triangle ACD, we have
AD = sin C, so that AD = bsin C.
AC
[If the angle C be obtuse, as in the second figure, we have
AD
b =sinACD= sin (180° – C)=sin C
-

(Art. 72),
so that AD= b sin C.]
Equating these two values ofAD, we have
csinB= b sinC,
i.e. sinB sin C
b C

In a similar manner by drawing a perpendicular from

B upon CA we have sin C sinA
C a

If one ofthe angles, C, be a right angle as in the third

figure we have sin C = 1,
and sinsinB=bC
sin A = αC , and
= =-

Hence sin A sin B 1 sin C

a b C C
We therefore have, in all cases,
sin A sin B sin C •

a b C
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 175
164. In any triangle to find the cosine of an angle in
terms of the sides.
A A A
C b C C
b b
B a D CB a C DB a C

Let ABC be the triangle and let the perpendicular

from A on BC meet it, produced if necessary, in the
point D.
First, let the angle C be acute, as in the left-hand
figure.
By Euc. II. 13, we have
AB² = BC2 + CA² - 2BC . CD............(i).
2

But CD = cos C, so that CD=bcos c.

CA
Hence (i) becomes
c² = a² + b² - 2a. b cos C,
i.e. 2ab cos C = a² + b² — c²,
-

i.e. cos C = a² +2ab

b² - c²

Secondly, let the angle C be obtuse, as in the right-

hand figure.
By Euc. II. 12, we have
CD
AB² = BC2 + CA² + 2BC.CD .........(ii).
But CA = cosACD= cos (180° C) = - cos C, -

so that CD= - b cos C. (Art. 72)

176 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence (ii) becomes
c² = a² + b² + 2a ( -b cos C) = a² +b²- 2ab cosC,
so that, as in the first case, we have
cos C = a² +2ab
b² - c2 •

In a similar manner it may be shewn that

COS
b² + c² - a²2
2bc ,

and cos B = c² +2ca

a² - b² •

If one of the angles, C, be a right angle, the above

formula would give c²=a²+b², so that cos C = 0. This
is The
correct, since C is a right angle.
above formula is therefore true for all values of C.
Ex. If a= 15, b= 36, and c= 39,
then cosA= 2 x 36 x 39152_322 (122+132
362+392- - 52) 288 12
=

x 32 x 12 x 13 24 × 1313
165. To find the sines of half the angles in terms of
the sides.
In any triangle we have, by Art. 164,
cosA b² +2bc
c² - a² 2
•

By Art. 109, we have

cos A = 1- 2 sin² A
2
-

2sin² = 1-cosA = 1-b²+2bcc²- a²

Hence 2 sin² A
2
2 -
2

2bc – b²2bc- c² + a² a² - b² 2bc

2
+ c² - 2bc) a²-2bc
(b -c)2
[a +(b -- c)][a
2bc -(b-c)] _ (a+b- c)(a-b
2bc +c) ...(1).
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 177
Let 2s stand for a +b + c, so that s is equal to halfthe
sum ofthe sides ofthe triangle, i.e. s is equal to the semi-
perimeter ofthe triangle.
We then have
a +b - c = a + b + c - 2c = 2s - 2c = 2 (s-c),
and a - b + c = a + b + c - 2b = 2s - 2b = 2 (s - b).
The relation (1) therefore becomes
2 sin² 2 A_2 (s-c)x2bc2(s - b) _ 2 (s –b)(s
bc
-c) -

... sin A = (s -b) (s - c) .........(2).

2 bc
Similarly,
sinB2 =
(s - c)ca( s - a) , and sin 2C = (s - a)ab(s - b) .
166. To find the cosines of halfthe angles in terms of
the sides.
By Art. 109, we have A
cos A = 2 cos² 2 - 1.
Hence 2cos² A2 = 1 + cos A = 1 + b² +2bc
c² - a² 2

2bc + b² + c² - a² (b + 2bc
2
c)² - а² 2

2bc
[(b +c)+ a][(b
2bc +c) -a] _(a+b +c)(b+c-a)
2bc ...(1).
Now b + c - a = a + b + c - 2a = 2s - 2a = 2 (s -a),
L. T. 12
178 TRIGONOMETRY.
so that (1) becomes
2 cos2 A 2s x 2 (s - a) 2 s (s - a)
=

2 2bc bc
.. COS 2 =
A s(s-a) ....(2).
bc
Similarly,
B
COS 2 = V
s (s - b) ,
and cos2C = s(sab- c)
ca

167. To find the tangents of half the angles in terms

of the sides. A
Since A sin 2
tan2 COS
A'
2
we have, by (2) ofArts. 165 and 166,
A (s - b) (s - c) s (sbc- a) (s -b) (s - c)
tan2=V bc
N÷ N=
s (s - a)
Similarly,
tan B2 =N (s -s(s-
√(8 c) (s - a) , and tan C
b)
-
= (s -s (sa)(s-b)
S S
- c)
Since A is always< 180°, A2 is always < 90°.
The sine, cosine, and tangent of A2 arethereforealways
positive (Art. 52).
The positive sign must therefore always be prefixed to
the radical sign in the formulae of this and the last two
articles.
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 179
168. Ex. If a=13, b=14 and c=15
then S
13+14+15 = 21, s - a = 8, s - b= 7,
2
and s - c=6.
sinA 7× 6 1 1
Hence 2
=
14x15 = 5 = 5√5,
sinB 6×8 4 4
2
=
✓15×1365-65/65,
3 3
C 21 × 6
>
COS
2= 13x1413 1313,
and tan B 6×8 4
2 = ✓ 21×7-7
=

169. To express the sine of any angle of a triangle

in terms of the sides.
We have, by Art. 109, A A
sinA = 2 sin 2 COS 2
But, by the previous articles,
sin A
2
Hence
√(s-b)(s -c) and cos 2 = 1 s (s-a)
S
bc
S
,
bc
A •

sinA = 221 (s - b)bc(s - c) s (sbc-a) •

. . sinA =bos(s
2
bc -a)(s -b)(s - c).
EXAMPLES. XXVI.
In a triangle
1. Given a=25, b=52 and c=63,
find tanA B C
2' tan 2', and tan 2
12-2
180 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXVI.]
2. Given a= 125, b =123 and c=62,
find the sines of half the angles and the sines of the angles.
3. Given a=18, b =24 and c=30,
find sinA, sinB, and sin C.
4. Given a=35, b= 84 and c=91,
find tanA, tanB, and tan C.
5. Given a= 13, b =14 and c=15,
find the sines of the angles.
6. Given a=287, b =816 and c= 865,
find the values of tan A2 and tanA.
7. Given a=√3, b=√2 and c=√6+√2 2 ,

find the angles.

170. In any triangle to prove that
a = b cos C + c cosB.
Take the figures ofArt. 164.
In the first case, we have
BD
BA = cosB, so that BD = ccosB,
and CD = cos C,
CA so that CD =bcos C.
Hence a = BC = BD + DC = c cos B + b cos C..
In the second case, we have
BD
BA = cosB, so that BD =ccosB,
CD
and CA =cosACD = cos (180° - C)
=- cos C (Art. 72),
so that CD = - b cos C.
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 181
Hence, in this case,
a =BC= BD -CD = ccos B-(-b cos C),
so that in each case
a = b cos C + c cos B.
Similarly, b = ccosA + a cos C,
and C a cos B + b cos A.
171. In any triangle to prove that
B- C b - C A
tan 2 b + c cot 2.
In any triangle, we have
b sinB
=

C sin C
B + C B- C
...
b - c sinB- sin C 2 cos 2 sin 2
=

b + csinB + sin C 2 sin B+C COS B - C

2 2
tan B-
tan B 2- C C
2
B+C tan 90° - A
tan 2
(
tan B-
2
C

cot A
(Art. 69).
2
tan B 2- C b - c cot
Hence =
b + c cotA
2'
182 TRIGONOMETRY.
172. Ex. From the formulae of Art. 164 deduce those of Art. 170
and vice versa.
The first and third formulae ofArt. 164 give
b cos C + ccosB= a²+b² - c2 c² + a2 - b2
2a + 2a
2a2
2a =a,
so that a= bcos C + c cos B.
Similarly, the other formulae ofArt. 170 may be obtained.
Again, the three formulae ofArt. 170 give
a=bcos C +ccosB,
b=ccos A + a cos C,
and c=acos B +b cos A.
Multiplying these in succession by a, b, and - c we have, by addition,
a² + b² - c²= a (b cos C+c cos B) + b (ccos A + a cos C) -c (acos B+bcosA)
=2ab cos C.
... cos C= a² +2ab
b² - c²
Similarly, the other formulae ofArt. 162may be found.
173. Thestudentwilloften meet with identities,which heisrequired
to prove, which involve both the sides and the angles of a triangle.
It is, in general,desirable in the identityto substitute for the sides in
terms of the angles, or to substitute for the ratios of the angles in terms
of the sides.
B-C
Ex. 1. Prove that a cos 2 =(b +c) sin A2
ByArt. 163 wehave B+C B- C
b+c sin B + sin C 2 sin 2 COS 2
a sinA A A
2 sin -COS
2 2
A B- C
COS 2 cos 2 COS
B- C
2
•

sin A COS A
2 sin 2 A

∴ (b+c)sin =acosBC. 2 •
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 183
Ex. 2. In a triangle prove that
(b2 -c²) cotA+(c² - a²) cotB+ (a² - b²) cot C=0.
By Art. 163 we have
sinA sin B sin C
a b C =k (say).
Hence the given expression
ak +(c2-a²) cosB
=(b2 - c2) cosA bk +(a²-b²) ck
cos C
1 b2 + c2 - a2 +(c2 -a2) c² + a2 - b2
+(a²-b²)a²+b²-c27
=
k (82-2) 2abc 2abc 2abc
1
2abck[b4-c4-a²(b2-c²)+c²-a4-b²(c2-a²)+a
(c² −b −c² (a²– 2)] - -

=
0.
Ex. 3. In a triangle prove that
(a +b+c)(tan +tan )=2ccot .
The left-hand member
2
B
2
C
2

=28[√ (s -s (sb)-(sa)- c) + (8-6)(s (s -b)-a) , byArt. 167,

S

=28√ [√ +√ ]=2/3(3-0) [ (80)]

2/s(s-c).c
S
√(s - a) (s -b) since 2s =a +b +c,
= ,

=2c cot C2 응.
This identity may also be provedby substituting for the sides.
We have, by Art. 163,
a +b + c sin A + sin B + sin C
C sin C
B C
4cos A
2 COS 2 COS 2 cos A2 cos B2
C C , as in Art. 127, = •

2 sin -COS
2 2 sin 2C
184 TRIGONOMETRY.
C
2 cot 2 2 cos C A B
2 COS 2
- COS 2
Also
tanA B C A B A B
2 +tan 2 sin 2 sin2 cos 2 +cos 2 sin 2

2 cos A B C A B
2 COS 2COS 2 2 cos 2 COS- 2
C A+B C •
(Art. 69.)
sin-sin
2 2 sin 2
We have therefore
a+ b + c 2cot C
2
C
tan +tanB'
A
2
so that (a +b+c)(ttanax +tan )=2ccot
A
2
B
2 2
Ex. 4. If the sides of a triangle be in Arithmetical Progression, prove
that so also are the cotangents ofhalf the angles.
Wehave given that a+ c=2b.... .(1),
andwe have to prove that
cotA C cot B
2 + cot-=2
2 2 ....(2).
Now (2) is true if
s (s- a) s (s - c) s (s - b)
(s -b) (s -c) +√ (8--a) (s -b) =2 (s - c) (s - a)'
or, by multiplying both sides by
(s - a) (s -S b) (s-c) ,

if (s - a) + (s- c)=2 (s - b),

i.e. if 2s - (a + c) =2s – 2b,
i.e. if a + c=2b, which is relation (1).
Hence if relation (1) be true, so also is relation (2).
 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 185

EXAMPLES. XXVII.
In any triangleABC, prove that
1. sin B 2- C =b a- c cos A
2. a (cos B + cos C) = 2(b+c)sin² A2.
3. a (cos C- cosB) =2 (b - c) cos2 A2
4. a+ b
a -b =tan 2 A+Bcot4-B.
2

56.. (a²+b +c-a)( c ot +cot

B
2 )=2ac
C
2 o t . A
2
b² +c² =2 (bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C).
7. (a² - b²+c²) tanB=(a² + b²2– c²) tan C.
8. c²=(a-b)2 cos² C2 + (a+b)² sin 2C
9. a sin (B - C) + b sin (C – A) +c sin (A - B)=0.
-

10. a sin (B- C) _ b sinc2-a2

2 -
2
(C-A) _c sina²-(A-B)
b² 2

11. a sin A sinBB - C+ bsin sin C-A

-
2 2 24+c sin 2C sin47B=0.
B
2
A-B
2
12. a² (cos²B-cos²C)+b² (cos² C- cos²A) +c² (cos²A -cos²B)=0.
13. b2-c2sin2A+c2-a2
a2
a2 -b2
b2 sin 2B+ C2 sin 2C=0.
A B C
cotA +cot
+ b² + c²2 cot
14. a²(a +b+c) =
2+cot
2
+ cotB +cot C
2
•

15. a³ cos (B- C) +b³ cos (C-A) +c³ cos (A - B)=3 abc.
16. In a triangle whose sides are 3, 4, and √38 feet respectively,
prove that the largest angle is greater than 120°.
186 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXVII.]
17. The sides of a right-angled triangle are 21 and 28 feet; find the
length of the perpendicular drawn to the hypothenuse from the right
angle.
18. If in any triangle the angles be to one another as 1 : 2 : 3,
prove that the corresponding sides are as 1 : √3 : 2.
19. In any triangle if A 5 B 20
tan 2-6 ' tan 237
=
'
find tan C and prove that in this triangle a + c=2b.
20. In an isosceles right-angled triangle a straight line is drawn from
the middle point of one of the equal sides to the opposite angle. Shew
that it divides the angle into parts whose cotangents are 2 and 3.
21. The perpendicular AD to the base of a triangle ABC divides it
into segments such that BD, CD and AD are in the ratio of 2, 3 and 6 ;
prove that the vertical angle ofthe triangle is 45°.
22. A ring, ten inches in diameter, is suspended from a point one
foot above its centre by 6 equal strings attached to its circumference at
equal intervals. Find the cosine of the angle between consecutive
strings.
23. If a², b²º and c² be in A.P., prove that cotA, cotB and cotCare in
A.P. also.
24. If a, b and cbe in A.P., prove that cosA cot A cosB cot B
2
C are in A. P.
and cos C cot 2
25. If a, b and care in H.P. prove that sin² A2' sin²
sin2B2 and sin²
sin2 C2 are
also in H.P.
26. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and the greatest and least
angles are 0 and 6; prove that
4 (1 − cos 0)(1 – cos 4) = cos θ + cos φ.
:

27. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and the greatest angle exceeds
the least by 90° ; prove that the sides areproportional to √7+ 1, 7 and
√7-1.
[Exs. XXVII.] SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 187
28. If C=60°, then prove that
1 1 3
a+ c + b + c a+b + c
29. In any triangleABC if D be any point ofthe base BC, such that
BD : DC :: m : n, prove that
(m+n) cotADC=ncotB mcot C, -

and (m+n)2 AD2=(m +n) (mb²+nc²) –тпа².

30. If in a triangle the bisector of the side c beperpendicular to the
side b, prove that 2 tan A + tan C=0.
31. In any triangle prove that, if o be any angle, then
b cos =c cos (A-0) +a cos (C+0).
32. If pand q be the perpendiculars from the angularpointsA and B
on any line passing through the vertex C of the triangle ABC, then
prove that
a²p² +b²q²-2abpq cos C=a²b² sin2 C.
33. In the triangle ABC, lines OA, OB, and OC are drawn so that
the angles OAB, OBC, and OCA are each equal to w; prove that
cot w= cot A +cot B + cotC,
and cosec2 w = cosec²A + cosec²B + cosec² С.
 CHAPTER XIII.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.

174. In any triangle the 3 sides and the 3 angles are

often called the elements of the triangle. When any 3
elements of the triangle are given, provided theybe not the
3 angles, the triangle is ingeneral completely known, i.e.
its other angles and sides can be calculated. When the 3
angles are given, only the ratios ofthe lengths of the sides
can be found, so that the triangle is given in shape only
and not in size. When 3 elements of a triangle are given
the process of calculating its other 3 elements is called
the Solution of the Triangle.
We shall first discuss the solution of right-angled
triangles, i.e. triangles which have one angle given equal
to a right angle.
The next four articles refer to such triangles, and C
denotes the right angle.
175. Case I. Given the hypothenuse and one side, to
solve the triangle.
 RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE. 189
Let b be the given side and c the given hypothenuse.
The angle B is given by the
relation A
sinB= bC- . C b
.. Lsin B= 10 + log blog c. C
Since b and care known we B a
thus have L sin B and therefore B.
The angle A (= 90° -B) is then known.
The side a is obtained from either of the relations
cosB= , tanB= b , or a= √(c- b)(c+ b).
a
C

176. Case II. Given the two sides a and b, to solve

the triangle.
Here B is given byb A
tanB= a , C b
so that C
L tan B = 10 + log b - log a. B a
Hence Ltan B, and therefore B, is known.
The angle A (= 90° - B) is then known.
The hypothenuse c is givenbythe relation c=Va² +b².
This relation is not however very suitable for loga-
rithmic calculation, and c is bestgivenby
b
sinB = Cb i.e. c= sinB
... log c = logb - log sinB
= 10 + log b - Lsin B.
Hence c is obtained.
190 TRIGONOMETRY.
177. Case III. Given an angle B and one ofthe sides
a, to solve the triangle.
Here A (= 90° -B) is known. A
The side b is found from the rela- C b
tion
b = tanB,
-
B a C
a
and c from the relation
a
C
= cosB.
178. Case IV. Given an angle B and the hypothenuse
c, to solve the triangle. A
Here A is known and a and b are C
obtained from the relations b
a
C =cosB, and Cb =sinB.
-

B a C

EXAMPLES. XXVIII.
1. In a right-angled triangle ABC, where C is the right angle, if
a=50 and B=75°, find the sides. (tan75°=2+√3.)
2. Solve the triangle of which two sides are equal to 10 and 50 feet
and of which the included angle is 90° ; given that log20=1:30103, and
L tan 26° 33′=9.6986847, diff. for 1'= 3160.
3. The length of the perpendicular from one angle of a triangle upon
the base is 3 inches and the lengths ofthe sides containing this angle are
4 and 5 inches. Find the angles, having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3= 4771213,
L sin 36°52′=9-7781186, diff. for 1'=1684,
Lsin 48° 35′=9.8750142, diff. for 1'= 1115.
4. Findtheacute anglesof a right-angled trianglewhosehypothenuse
is four times as long as the perpendicular drawn to it from the opposite
angle.
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 191
179. We now proceedto thecase of the triangle which
is not given to be right angled.
The different cases to be considered are ;
Case I. The three sides given ;
Case II. Two sides and the included angle given;
Case III. Two sides and the angle opposite one of
them given;
Case IV. One side and two angles given;
Case V. The three angles given.
180. Case I. The three sides a, b, and c given.
Since the sides are known, the semi-perimeter s is
known
S с.
-
and hence also the quantities s- a, s - b, and
The half-angles A, B and C2 are then found from the
-

formulae
tan A 2
=
(s-b) (s - c)
s(s - a) , tanB=
2 (s-c)(s-a)
s (s - b) '
S --

and C_ (s -s(sa)(s- c)- b)

tan 2N •

Only two of the angles need be found, the third being

known since the sum ofthe three angles is always 180°.
The angles may also be found by using the formulae
for the sine or cosine ofthe semi-angles.
(Arts. 165 and 166.)
The above formulae are all suited for logarithmic
computation.
192 TRIGONOMETRY.
The angle A may also be obtained from the formula
cos A = b² +2bc
c² - a² 2
(Art. 164.) •

This formula is not, in general,suitable for logarithmic

calculation. It may be conveniently used however when
the sides a, b, and c are small numbers.
Ex. The sides of a triangle are 32, 40, and 66 feet ; find the angle
opposite the greater side, having given that
log 207=2-3159703, log 1073=3-0305997,
Lcot 66° 18′ =9-6424341, tabulated difference for 1'=3431.
Here a=32, b=40 and c=66,
so that S 32+40 +66 =69, s -a=37,
- a= s - b =29 ands - c=3.
2
C
Hence cot 2 s (s - c)
S 69 x 3 207
=
(s - a) 1(s - b) 37× 29 = 1073
C
Lcot 2=10+ [log
[log207–log
207– 1073] -

=10 + 1.15798515 – 1· 51529985

-

=9.6426853.
Lcot C2 is therefore greater than Lcot66° 18',
C
so that 2 is less than 66° 18'.
Let then 2C= 66° 18' - х".
The difference inthelogarithm corresponding to difference of x" in the
angle therefore =
- 9.6426853
-9-6424341
= 0002512
Also the difference for 60″= 0003431.
Hence X 0002512
=

60.0003431 '
2512
so that x=
3431 × 60= nearly 44.
C
..
2 =66° 18′ - 44"= 66° 17′16″, and hence C= 132° 34′ 32″.
 THE THREE SIDES GIVEN. 193

EXAMPLES. XXIX.
1. If the sides of a triangle be 56, 65, and 33 feet, find the greatest
angle.
2. The sides of a triangle are 7, 4/3, and 13 yards respectively.
Find the number ofdegrees in its smallest angle.
3. The sides of a triangle are x² +x+1, 2x+1 and x² -1; prove that
the greatest angle is 120°.
4. The sides of a triangle are a, b, and a²+ab+b² feet ; find the
greatest angle.
5. If a=2, b=√6 and c=√3-1, solve the triangle.
6. If a= 2, b =√6 and c=√3 +1, solve the triangle.
7. If a=9, b= 10 and c=11, find B, given
log 2= 30103, Ltan 29° 29′=9-7523472,
and Ltan 29° 30′ =9-7526420.
8. The sides of a triangle are 130, 123 and 77 feet. Find the
greatest angle, having given
log2= 30103, Ltan 38° 39′=9.9029376,
and L tan 38° 40′ =9.9031966.
9. Find the greatest angle of a trianglewhose sides are 242, 188, and
270 feet, having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3= 4771213, log 7= 8450780,
Ltan 38° 20′= 9.8980104, and Ltan38° 19′= 9.8977507.
10. The sides of a triangle are 2, 3, and 4; find the greatest angle,
having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3= 4771213,
•

L tan52° 14′ =10·1108395,

and L tan 52° 15′ = 10·1111004.
Making use ofthe tables, find all the angles when
11. a=25, b=26 and c=27.
12. a=17, b = 20 and c=27.
13. a=2000, b= 1050 and c=1150.
L. T. 13
194 TRIGONOMETRY.
181. Case II. Given two sides b and cand the
included angle A.
Taking b to be the greater of the two given sides,
we have A
tan B- C b-C
b + c cot (Art. 171)...(1), C b
=
2
and B+C
2 =90°-A2 ......(2). B a C
These two relations give us
B - C and B + C
2 2 ,

and therefore, by addition and subtraction, B and C.

The third side a is then known from the relation
α b
sin A sinB'
sinA
which gives sinB'a= b

and thus determines a.

The side a may also be found from the formula
a² = b² + c² - 2bc cos A.
2

This is not adapted to logarithmic calculation but is

sometimes useful, especially when the sides a and b are
small numbers.
182. Ex. 1. If b = √3, c= 1, and A =30°, solve the triangle.
We have
tan B 2- C bb+- ccA √3-1 cot 15°.
=
cot2=73+1
2√3+1
Now √3-1
tan 15°= 3+1 (Art. 101),
so that cot 15°=√3+1
√3-1
 GIVEN TWO SIDES AND THE INCLUDED ANGLE. 195
Hence tan B2- C 1.
B - C=45°
2
.....
..
(1).
Also B+C
2 =90° - A-=90°-15°=75°
2 ...
....
...
(2).
By addition B=120°.
By subtraction C=30°.
Since A = C, we have a=c= 1.
Otherwise. We have
c2 - 2bc cos A = 3 + 1-2√3 . √32 =1,
=b2 + c²-
a²-b²
so that a=1= c.
.. C=A=30°,
and B= 180° - AC= 120
Ex. 2. Ifb=215, c=105, and A=74° 27', find the remaining angles,
having given
log2= 30103, log 11=1·041393,
log 105=2-0211893, log 212-486=2-3273103,
L cot 37° 13′ 30″=10·119341, L tan24° 20′40″=9.655572,
Ltan24°20′ 50″=9.655626, Lsin 74°27′=9-9838052,
and L sin 28° 25′ 48″= 9.6776842.
Here tan B 2- C bb+c
- c cot A 11 cot 37° 13′ 30″.
=
2 32
..LtanB-C
2 log11-5log 2+L cot 37° 13′ 30″
=

1.041393 •30103
+10-119341 5
=
11-160734-1-50515
=9-655584,
so that B-2 C lies between 24° 20′ 40″ and 24° 20′50″.
13-2
196 TRIGONOMETRY.

Let then B-2 C 24° 20′ 40″ + x".

The difference for x"= 9.655584) = 000012.
- 9-6555725
The difference for 10"= - 9.655626)
9.6555725 =.000054.
X 000012 2
Hence 10.000054-9 SO that x=23".
=
=

B- C
2 = 24° 20′ 42 ″ (1).
.. ...
.......... ...

B+ C= 90° A =90° - 37° 13′ 30″ = 52° 46′ 30″

But 2 2
-

.........
(2).
By adding (1) and (2), we have B=77°7′12″.
By subtracting (1) from (2), we have C=28° 25′ 48″.
To get a we have a C
sinAsin C
.: log a=logc + L sinA - L sin C
=log 105+ L sin 74° 27′ -L sin 28° 25′ 48″
2-0211893
+ 9-9838052
= 12-0049945

-9-6776842
= 2-3273103
=log 212-486.
.. a=212-486.
The triangle is therefore completely determined.
*183. There are ways of finding the third side a of the triangle in the
previous case without first finding the angles B and C.
Two methods are as follows :
(1) Since a²-b²2 +c² - 2bc cos A.
=b² +c² - 2bc 2 cos2 A2 -

1
A
=(b +c)2 – 4bc cos2 2'
-
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 197
..
2 = 2 1 -
4bc A

2
(b+c)2
Hence, if sin² 0= 4bc(b+c)2cos2
A
,

wehave a²=(b + c)² [1 - sin² 0]=(b + c)2 cos² 0,

so that a= (b + c) cos θ.
If then sin o be calculated from the relation
sin 0=-2√bc A
b+c COS 2'
we have a=(b +c) cos θ.
(2) We have
=b2 - 2bc+ c² -2bc(cosA- 1)
a²-b²-
=(b - c)² + 4bc sin² A2
=(0--c)21+ (b4bc
- c)2
A
2
Let 4bc sin2 A =tan² 4,
(b-c)2 2
so that 2/besin42'
tan = b - c
and hence & is known.
Then a²=(b-c)²[1+tan² ]=(b-c)2
cos²ф
-

so that a=(b - c) secф,

and is therefore easily found.
An angle, such as 0 or above, introduced for the purpose of
facilitating calculation is called a subsidiary angle (Art. 129).
EXAMPLES. XXX.
x 1. If b=90, c=70, and A =72° 48′30″, find B and C, given
log2= 30103, Lcot36° 24′15″=10-1323111,
L tan 9° 37′ =9-2290071
and L tan 9° 38′= 9-2297735.
198 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXX.]
2. If a=21, b= 11, and C= 34° 42′30″, find A and B, given
log 2= 30103
and L tan 72° 38′45″ =10.50515.
3. If the angles of a triangle bein A. P. and the lengths of the greatest
and least sides be 24 and 16 feetrespectively, find the lengths of the third
side and the other angles, given
log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213,
L tan19° 6′= 9.5394287, diff. for 1' =4084.
4. If a=13, b=7, and C=60°, find A and B, given that
log 3= 4771213,
L tan 27° 27′=9·7155508, tabulated diff. for 1' =3087.
5. If a=2b, and C=120°, find the values of A, B, and the ratio of c
to a, given that
log 3= 4771213,
Ltan10° 53′=9-283907, diff. for 1' =6808.
6. Ifb = 14, c=11, and A=60°, find B and C, given that
log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213,
Ltan 11° 44′ =9·3174299,
and Ltan 11° 45′ = 9.3180640.
7. The two sides of a triangle are 540 and 420yards long respectively
and include an angle of 52°6'. Find the remaining angles, given that
log 2= 30103, L tan 26° 3′= 9.6891430,
L tan14° 20′=9.4074189, L tan 14° 21′ = 9.4079453.
8. If b=2ft., c=2ft., and A=22° 20′, find the other angles, and
shew that the third side is nearly one foot, given
log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213,
Lcot 11° 10' =10·70465, L sin22° 20′=9.57977,
Ltan29° 22′ 20″=9.75038, Ltan 29°22′30″=9.75043,
and L sin 49° 27′34″= 9.88079.
[Exs. XXX.] SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 199
9. If a= 2, b = 1 + √3, and C=60°, solve the triangle.
10. Two sides of a triangle are 3 + 1 and 3-1, and the included
angle is 60° ; find the other side and angles.
11. If b =1, c=/3-1, and A=60°, find thelength of the side a.
12. If b= 91, c=125 and tan = 176 ' prove that a=204.
13. If a=5, b=4, and cos (A- B)=;3312,provethatthethird sideewill
be 6.
14. One angle of a triangle is 30° and the lengths of the sides
adjacent to it are 40 and 40√3 yards. Find the length of the third
side and the number of degrees in the other angles.
15. The sides of a triangle are 9 and 3, and the difference of the
angles opposite to them is 90°. Find the base and the angles, having
given
log 2= 30103, log 3= 4771213,
log 75894=4.8802074, log 75895=4-8802132,
L tan 26° 33′ =9.6986847
and Ltan 26° 34′ = 9.6990006.
16. Two sides of a triangle are 237 and 158 feet and the contained
angle is 66° 40' ; find the base and the other angles, having given
log 2 = 30103, log79=1.89763,
log 22687=4-35578, Lcot 33° 20′=10·18197
L sin 33° 20′ = 9.73998, L tan 16° 54′ =9-48262,
Ltan 16° 55′=9.48308, L sec 16° 54′=10-01917,
and L sec 16° 55′ =10·01921.
B - C = b +c sin A
[UseUse the formula cos 2 a

17. If tan =aa+- bb cot 2

C
'
C
sin 2
prove that c =(a + b) cos •
200 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXX.]
If a = 3, b =1, and C=53°7′48″, find e without getting A and B,
given
log 2 = 30103, log 25298=4.4030862,
log 25299 =4.4031034, L cos 26° 33′ 54″=9.9515452,
and L tan 26° 33′ 54″ = 9.6989700.
In the following 4 examples, the required logarithms must be taken
from the tables.
18. If a= 242.5, b= 164·3, and C= 54° 36', solve the triangle.
19. If b=130, c=63, and A=42° 15′30″, solve the triangle.
20. Two sides of a triangle being 2265.4 and 1779 feet and the
included angle 58° 17′ ; find the remaining angles.
21. Two sides of a triangle being 237.09 and 130-96 feet and the
included angle 57°59′, find the remaining angles.
184. Case III. Given two sides b and c and the
angle B opposite to one ofthem.
The angle C is given by the relation
sin C sinB ,
C A
i.e. sin C= C sin B ......(1). C b
Taking logarithms we determine B a
C
Cand then A (= 180° - B - C) is
found.
The remaining side a is then found from the relation
a b
sin A sinB'
i.e. a b sinA
sinB (2).
 AMBIGUOUS CASE. 201
185. The equation (1) ofthe previous article gives in
some cases no value, in some cases one, and sometimes
two values, for C.
Ifc sinB > b, the right-hand member of (1) is greater
than
for C.
unity, and hence there is no corresponding value
If csinB=b, the right-hand member of (1) is equal
to unity and the corresponding value of C is 90°. c sinB
If c sin B < b, there are two values of C having b
asotherits between
sine, one90°value lying between 0° and 90° and the
and 180°.
Both ofthese values are not however always admissible.
For if b > c, then B> C. The obtuse-angled value of
C is now not admissible ; for, in this case, C cannot be
obtuse unless B be obtuse also, and it is manifestly
impossible to have two obtuse angles in atriangle.
If b < c and B be an acute angle, both values of C
are admissible. Hence there are two values found for
A and hence the relation (2) gives two values for a. In
this case there are therefore two triangles satisfying the
given conditions.
Since, for some values of b, c and B, there is a doubt
or ambiguity in the determination of the triangle, this
case is called the Ambiguous Case of the solution of
triangles.
186. The Ambiguous Case may also be discussed
in a geometrical manner.
Suppose we were given the elements b, c and B and
that we proceeded to construct, or attempted to construct,
the triangle.
 202 TRIGONOMETRY.
We first measure an angle ABD equal to the given
angle B.
A A
C C
b
B D B D
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
A A
C b b C
b
D
B C2 C1 C2 B D C₁
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
We then measure along BA a distance BA equal to
the given distance c, and thus determine the angular
point A.
We have now to find a third point C, which must lie
on BD and must also be such that its distance from A
shall be equal to b.
To obtain it, we describe with centre A a circle whose
radius is b.
The point or points, if any, in which this circle meets
BD will determine the position of C.
Draw AD perpendicular to BD, so that
AD = AB sinB= c sinB.
One of the following events will happen.
The circle may never reach BD (Fig. 1) or it may
 AMBIGUOUS CASE. 203
touch BD (Fig. 2), or it may meet BD in two points C₁
and C. (Figs. 3 and 4).
In the case of Fig. 1, it is clear that there is no
triangle satisfying the given condition.
Here b < AD, i.e. < csin B.
In the case of Fig. 2, there is one triangle ABD
which is right-angled at D. Here
b = AD = c sinB.
In the case of Fig. 3, there are two triangles ABC₁
and ABC2. Here b lies in magnitude between AD and c,
i.e. bis > csinBand < c.
In the case of Fig. 4, there is only one triangle ABC₁
satisfying the given conditions [the triangle ABC2 is
inadmissible; for its angle at B is not equal to B but is
equal to 180° -B]. Here b is greater than both csinB
and c.
To sum up :
Given the elements b, c, and B of a triangle,
(a) Ifb be < csinB, there is no triangle.
(β) If b = csinB, there is one triangle right-angled.
(y) If b be > csinBand < c and B be acute, there are
two triangles satisfying the given conditions.
(8) Ifb be > c, there is only one triangle.
Clearly if b = c, the points B and C₂ in Fig. 3 coincide
and there is only one triangle.
IfB be obtuse, there is no triangle except when b > c.
187. The ambiguous case may also be considered
algebraically as follows.
204 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the figure of Art. 184 we have
b² = c² + a²2 - 2ca cos B.
2

... a² - 2ac cosB + c² cos² B = b² - c² + c² cos²B

2

-
b² - c² sin² B.
2

... a - ccos B= + √b² - c² sin²B,

i.e. a = c cos B + √b - c² sin² B ............(1).
Now (1) is an equation to determine the value of a
when b, c and B are given.
(a) If b < csin B, the quantity √b - c² sin² Bis
imaginary and (1) gives no real value for a.
(β) If b = csinB, there is only one value, ccosB,
for a; there is thus only one triangle which is right-
angled.
(y) If b > csinB, there are two values for a. But,
since a must be positive, the value obtained by taking
the lower sign affixed to the radical is inadmissible unless
c cosB-√b² - c² sin²B is positive,
2

i.e. unless √b² - c² sin² B< c cosB,

2

i.e. unless b² - c² sin² B< c² cos²B,

i.e. unless b² < c².
There are therefore two triangles
csinB and at the same time C.
only when bis
188. Ex. Givenb = 16, c =25, and B=33° 15′, prove that the triangle
is ambiguous andfind the other angles, having given
log 2= 30103, L sin 33° 15′ =9.7390129,
L sin 58° 56′=9-9327616,
and L sin 58° 57′ = 9.9328376.
 AMBIGUOUS CASE. 205
We have
sin C= sinB= 2516 sinB= 100
64 sinB= 10226 sin 33° 15′.
Hence Lsin C=2 +L sin 33° 15′ – 6 log 2
-

= 9-9328329.
C therefore lies between 58° 56′ and 58°57′, so that
C=58° 56′ + x".
For a difference of a" in the angle the difference in the log
=9.9328329-9-9327616 = 0000713.
For a difference of 60" in the angle the difference
= 9-9328376-9-9327616 = 0000760.
Hence ax
=
0000713 713 =

60.0000760-760 °
6×713
.. X =
76 =56 nearly,
so that L sin C=L sin 58° 56′56″.
.. C=58° 56′56″ or 180° - 58° 56′ 56″.
Hence (Fig. 3, Art. 186) we have
C₁=58°56′ 56″, and C₂=121° 3′ 4″.
..LBAC₁=180° - 33° 15′ – 58° 56′56″= 87° 48′ 4″,
-

and LBAC = 180° - 33° 15′ – 121° 3′ 4″ = 25° 41′56″.

EXAMPLES. XXXI.
1. If a=5, b =7, and sin A = 43 is there any ambiguity?
,

2. If a=2, c= /3 + 1, and A =45°, solve the triangle.

3. If a=100, c=100/3 and A=30°, solve the triangle.
4. If 2b=3a, and tan A= 3 , prove that there are two values to the
third side, one of which is double the other.
5. If A = 30°, b =8, and a= 6, find c.
206 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXI.]
6. Given B=30°, c= 150, and b= 1503, prove that of the two
triangles which satisfythe data one will be isosceles and the other right-
angled. Find the greater value of the third side.
Would the solution have been ambiguous had
B=30°, c= 150, and b=75?
7. In the ambiguous case given a, b, and A, prove that the difference
between the two values of c is 2/a2 – b² sin² A.
-

8. If a=5, b =4, and A= 45°, find the other angles, having given
log 2= 30103, L sin 33° 29′=9.7520507,
and L sin 33°30′ = 9.7530993.
9. If a=9, b = 12, and A=30°, find c, having given
log 2= 30103, log3= 47712,
log 171=2-23301, log 368= 2-56635,
Lsin 11° 48′ 39″= 9.31108, L sin 41°48′39″ =9.82391,
and L sin 108° 11′ 21″ =9.977774.
10. Point out whether or no the solutions of the following triangles
are ambiguous.
Find the smaller value of the third side in the ambiguous case and
the other angles in both cases.
(1) A= 30°, c=250 feet, and a=125 feet ;
(2) A=30°, c=250 feet, and a=200 feet.
Given log 2 = 30103, log 6·03893= 7809601,
L sin 38° 41′ =9.7958800,
and L sin 8° 41′ = 9·1789001.
11. Given a=250, b=240, and A=72° 4′ 48″, find the angles B and C,
and state whether they can have more than one value, given
log 2.5= 3979400, log 2.4 = 3802112,
L sin 72° 4′ = 9・9783702, L sin 72°5′=9-9784111,
and Lsin 65° 54′ = 9-9606739.
12. Two straight roads intersect at an angle of 30°; from thepoint of
junction two pedestrians A and B start at the same time, A walking
[Exs. XXXI.] SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 207
along one road at the rate of 5 miles per hour and B walking uniformly
along the other road. At the end of 3 hours they are 9 miles apart.
Shew that there are two rates at which B may walk to fulfil this
condition and find them.
For thefollowing 3 examples, a book of tables will be required.
13. Two sides of atriangle are 1015 feet and 732 feet and the angle
opposite the latter side is 40°; find the angle opposite the former and
prove that more than one value is admissible.
14. Two sides of a triangle being 5374.5 and 1586.6 feet, and the
angle opposite the latter being 15° 11', calculate the other angles of the
triangle or triangles.
15. Given A= 10°, a=2308.7, and b=7903·2, find the smaller value
of c.

189. Case IV. Given one side and two angles, viz.
a, B, and C.
Since the three angles of a triangle are together equal
to two right angles, the third angle
is given also.
The sides b and care now obtained
A
C b
from the relations
b C a B a C
sinBsin C sin A'
sinB and c = a sinC
giving b = a sin A' sinA
190. Case V. The three angles A, B and C given.
Here the ratios only of the sides can be determined
by the formulae a b C
sinAsinB sinC
Their absolute magnitudes cannot be found.
208 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XXXII.
1
1. If cos A=17
22 and cos C 14' find the ratio of a : b : c.
2. The angles of a triangle are as 1 : 2 : 7 ; prove that the ratio of
the greatest side to the least side is √5 + 1 : √5-1.
3. If A = 45°, B=75°, and C= 60°, prove that a+ c√2 =2b.
4. Two angles of a triangle are 41° 13′22″ and 71° 19′ 5″ and the side
opposite the first angle is 55; find the side opposite the latter angle,
given
log 55=1.7403627, log 79063=4.8979775,
L sin 41° 13′ 22" = 9-8188779,
and L sin 71° 19' 5"=9.9764927.
5. From each of two ships, one mile apart, the angle is observed
which is subtended by another ship and a beacon on shore ; these angles
are found to be 52° 25′15″ and 75° 9′30″ respectively. Given
L sin 75° 9′30″ = 9.9852635,
L sin 52° 25′ 15″=9.8990055, log 1·2197= 0862530
and log 1·2198= '0862886,
find the distance of the beacon from each of the ships.
6. The base angles of a triangle are 221° and 1121°; prove that the
base is equal to twice the height.
For the following 5 questions a book of tables is required.
7. The base of a triangle being seven feet and the base angles
129° 23′ and 38° 36′, find the length of its shorter side.
8. If the angles of a triangle be as 5 : 10 : 21, and the side opposite
the smaller angle be 3 feet, find the other sides.
9. The angles of a triangle being 150°, 18° 20′, and 11° 40′, and the
longest side being 1000 feet, find the length ofthe shortest side.
10. To get the distance of a point A from a point B, a line BC and
the angles ABC and BCA are measured, and are found to be 287 yards
and 55° 32′10″ and 51°8′20″ respectively. Find the distance AB.
11. To find the distance from A to Pa distance, AB, of 1000 yards is
measured in a convenient direction. At A the angle PAB is found to be
41° 18′ and at B the angle PBA is found to be 114° 38′. What is the
required distance to the nearest yard ?
 CHAPTER XIV.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.

191. In the present chapter we shall consider some

questions of the kind which occur in land-surveying.
Simple questions of this kindhave already been considered
in Chapter III.
192. To find the height of an inaccessible tower by
means ofobservations made at distant points.
Suppose PQ to be the tower and that the ground
passing through the foot Q of the P
tower is horizontal. At a point A
on this ground measure the angle
oftower.
elevation a of the top of the X

Measure off a distance AB(=α) Α αa B B Q

from A directly toward the foot of
the tower, and at B measure the angle of elevation β.
To find the unknown height x of the tower, we have
to connect it with the measured length a. This is best
done as follows :
L. T. 14
210 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the triangle PBQ we have
X
BP = sin B ....(1),
and from the triangle PABwe have
PB sinPАВ sin a
a sin BPA sin(β – a) .......(2), ..

since ∠BPA = ∠ QBP – ∠ QAP = β -α.

From (1) and (2), by multiplication, we have
X sin asin β
asin (β - α) '
i.e. sin asin B
x= sin(β-α) •

The height x is therefore given in a form suitable for

logarithmic calculation.
Numerical Example. If a= 100 feet, a= 30°, and ẞ=60°, then
x=100 sin 30° sin 60°
sin 30° = 100 × √3=
2
86.6 feet.
193. It is often not convenient to measure AB
directly towards Q. P
Measure therefore AB in any
other suitable direction on the hori- X
zontal ground and at A measure the
angle of elevation a of P, and also A B: 0
the angle PAB(= β).
At B measure the angle PВА a B
(= γ).
In the triangle PAB we have then
∠ APB = 180° −∠ PAB −∠ PBA = 180° − (β + γ).
- -
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 211
Hence AP sin PBA sin y
α sinBPA sin (β+ γ) •

From the triangle PAQ, we have

sin asin y
x= APsina= asin(B+ ) •

Hence x is found by an expression suitable for

logarithmic calculation.
194. To find the distancebetweentwo inaccessiblepoints
by means of observations made at two points the distance
between which is known, all four points being supposed to
be in one plane.
Let P and Qbe two points whose distance apart, PQ,
is required. P
Let A and B be the two known
points whose distance apart, AB, is !
given to be equal to a.
At A measure the angles PАВ
and QAB, and let them be a and B A 3 a B δ

respectively.
At Bmeasure the angle PBA and QBA, and let them
be y and 8 respectively.
Then in the triangle PAB we have one side a and the
two adjacent angles a and y given, so that, as in Art. 163,
we have AP given by the relation
AP sin y siny
a sinAPB sin (a + y) ..(1).
In the triangle QAB we have, similarly,
AQ sin d ......(2).
a sin(β + δ)
14-2
212 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the triangle APQ we have now determined the
sides AP and AQ; also the included angle PAQ(=α- β)
ismethod
known.of Art.We 181.
can therefore find the side PQ by the
If the four points A, B, P, and Q be not in the same
plane, we must, in addition, measure the angle PAQ; for
inthethissolution
case PAQ is not equal to a -β. In other respects
will be the same as above.
195. Bearings and Points of the Compass. The
Bearing of a given point Bas seen from a given point
O is the direction in which B is seen from O. Thus if
NWoerbtyh

No.byEastrth
st.
Norbty.h.
N.W

N.N.W.

.North
bN.yE.

N
Ν.Ν.Ε.

N.W. by West.
N.W.

Ν.Ε. N.E. by East.

W.N.W.
Ε.Ν.Ε.
WestbyNorth. East by North
W E
West bySouth. East by South.
E.S.E.
W.S.W.
S.W. byWest. S.E. by East.
S.E.
S.W.
SobutEy.h.
S.boyut.h

S.
S.W

S.S.E.
S.S.W.

SoEautbyst..h
SobWeyutsth

S
,

the direction of OB bisect the angle between East and

North, the bearing ofB is said to be North-East.
If a line is said to bear 20° West of North we mean
that it is inclined to the North direction at an angle of
20°, this angle being measured from the North towards
the West.
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 213
To facilitate the statement of the bearing of a point
the circumference of the mariner's compass-card is divided
into 32 equal portions, as in the above figure,and the sub-
divisions marked asindicated. Consider onlythe quadrant
between East and North. The middle point of the arc
between N. and E. is marked North-East (N.E.). The
bisectors of the arcs between N.E. and N. and E. are
respectively called North-North-East and East-North-
East (N.N.E. and E.N.E.). The other four subdivisions,
reckoning from N., are called North by East, N.E. by
North, N.E. by East, and East by North. Similarly the
other three quadrants are subdivided.
It is clear that the arc between two subdivisions of
the card subtends an angle of 360°
32, i.e. 111 , at the
centre O.
EXAMPLES. XXXIII.
1. A flagstaff stands on the middle of a square tower. A man on
the ground opposite the middle of one face and distant from it 100 feet
just sees the flag; receding another 100 feet the tangents of elevation of1
the top of the tower and the top of the flagstaff are found to be 2
and 59 . Find the dimensions of the tower and the height of the flagstaff,
the ground being horizontal.
2. A man, walking on a level plane towards a tower, observes that
at a certain point the angular height of the tower is 10° and after going
50 yards nearer the tower the elevation is found to be 15°. Having given
L sin 15°=9.4129962, Lcos 5°=9.9983442,
log 25-783 =1.4113334 and log25-784=1.4113503,
find, to 4 places ofdecimals, the height of the tower inyards.
214 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII.]
3. DE is a tower standing on a horizontal plane and ABCD is a
straight line inthe plane. The height of the tower subtends an angle θ
at A, 20 at B, and 30 at C. If AB and BC be respectively50 and 20 feet,
find the height of the tower and the distance CD.
4. A tower, 50 feet high, stands on the top of a mound ; from a
point on the ground the angles of elevation of the top and bottom of the
tower are found to be 75° and 45° respectively; find the height of the
mound.
5. A vertical pole (more than 100 feet high) consists of two parts,
the lower being 1rd of the whole. From a point in a horizontal plane
through the foot of the pole1 and 40 feet from it, the upper part subtends
an angle whose tangent is 2 Find the height ofthe pole.
6. A tower subtends an angle a at a point on the same level as the
foot of the tower and at a second point, h feet above the first, the
depression of the foot of the tower is ẞ. Find the height of the tower.
7. A person in a balloon, which has ascended vertically from flat
land at the sea level, observes the angle ofdepression of a ship at anchor
to be 30° ; after descending vertically for 600 feet he finds the angle
of depression to be 15°; find the horizontal distance of the ship from the
point of ascent.
8. PQ is a tower standing on a horizontal plane, Q being its foot ;
A and B are two points onthe plane such that the Z QAB is 90°, and AB
is 40 feet. It is found that
cot PAQ==103 and cot PBQ= 1 .
Find the height of the tower.
9. A column is E.S.E. of an observer and at noon the end of the
shadow is North-East of him. The shadow is 80 feet long and the
elevation of the column at the observer's station is 45°. Find the height
of the column.
10. A tower is observed from two stations A and B. It is found to
be due north of A and north-west of B. Bis due east ofA and distant
from it 100 feet. The elevation of the tower as seen from A is the
complement of the elevation as seen from B. Find the height of the
tower.
[Exs. XXXIII.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 215
11. The elevation of a steeple at a place due south of it is 45° and
at another place due west of it the elevation is 15°. If the distance
between the two places be a, prove that the height of the steeple is
a ( 3-1) •

2/3
12. A person stands in the diagonal produced of the square base of
a church tower, at a distance 2a from it, and observes the angles of
elevation of each of the two outer corners of the top of the tower to be
30°, whilst that of the nearest corner is 45°. Prove that the breadth of
the tower is a (/10 -√2).
13. A person standing at a pointA due south of a tower built on a
horizontal plane observes the altitude of the tower to be 60°. He then
walks to B due west of A and observes the altitude to be 45°, and again
at C in AB producedhe observes it to be 30°. Prove that B is midway
between A and C.
14. At each end of a horizontal base of length 2a it is found that
the angular height of a certain peak is e and that at the middle point it
is 4. Prove that the vertical height of the peak is
a sin e sin •

√sin (4+ 0) sin (4-0)

15. A and B are two stations 1000 feet apart ; P and Q are two
stations in the sameplane as AB and on the same side ofit; the angles
PAB, PBA, QAB, and QBA are respectively 75°, 30°, 45°, and 90°; find
how far Pis from Q and how far each is fromA and B.
For the following 4 examples a book of tables will be wanted.
16. At a point on ahorizontalplane the elevation of the summit of
a mountain is found to be 22° 15′ and at another point on the plane a
mile further awayinadirect line its elevation is 10°12'; find the height
of the mountain.
17. From the top of a hill the angles ofdepression of two successive
milestones, on level ground and in the same vertical plane with the
observer, are found to be 5º and 10° respectively. Find theheight ofthe
hill and the horizontal distance to the nearest milestone.
18. A castle and a monument stand on the same horizontal plane.
The height of the castle is 140 feet and the angles of depression of the
top and bottom of the monument as seen from the top ofthe castle are
40° and 80° respectively. Find the height of the monument.
216 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII.]
19. A flagstaffPN stands on level ground. A base AB is measured
at right angles to AN, thepointsA, B andN being in the same horizontal
plane, and the angles PANand PBN are foundto be a and ẞ respectively.
Prove that the height ofthe flagstaff is
AB✓sin(a -ẞ)sin(a+β)
sina sinẞ
If AB= 100 feet, a=70°, and ẞ=50°, calculate the height.
20. A man standing due south of a tower on a horizontal plane
through its foot finds the elevation ofthe top ofthe tower to be 54° 16';
he goes east 100 yards and finds the elevation to be then 50° 8′. Find
the height of the tower.
21. A man in a balloon observes that the angle of depression of an
object on the ground bearing duenorth is 33°; the balloon drifts 3 miles
due west and the angle ofdepression is now found to be 21°. Find the
height of the balloon.
22. From the extremities of a horizontal base-line AB, whose lengtlı
is 1000 feet, the bearings of the foot C of a tower are observed and it is
found that ∠CAB=56° 23′, ∠CBA=47°15′, and that the elevation of
the tower from A is 9° 25' ; find the height ofthe tower.
196. Ex. A flagstaff is on the top of a tower which
stands on a horizontal plane. A person observes the angles,
a and B, subtended at a point on the horizontal plane by the
flagstaff and the tower ; he then walks a known distance a
toward the tower and finds that the flagstaff subtends the
same angle as before; prove that the height of the tower
and the length of theflagstaff are respectively
asinẞcos(α+β) and asin a
cos (a+ 2β) cos (a + 2β)
Let P and Qbe the top and foot of the tower, and let
PR be the flagstaff. Let A and B be the points at which
the measurements are taken, so that ∠PAQ = B and
∠PAR =∠PBR = a. Since the two latter angles are
equal, a circle will go through the four points A, B, P,
andR.
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 217
To get the height of the flagstaffwe have to connect
the unknown length PRwith the known length AB.
This may be done by connecting each with the
length AR.
To do this, we must first
determine the angles of the R
triangles ARP and ARB. θβ

Since A, B, P, andR lie on a 90+B

circle, we have 10 P
∠ BRP = ∠ BAP = β, α
β
and ∠APB= ∠ARB = 0 (say). A B Q
Also ∠APR = 90° + ∠ PAQ = 90° + β.
Hence, since the angles of the triangle APR are
together equal to two right angles, we have
180° = a + (90° + β) +(θ + β),
so that θ = 90° − (α + 2β)..................(1).
From the triangles APRAR
and ABR we then have
PR AR a
sina sinRPA sinRBA = sin (Art. 163).
= =

[It will be found in Chap. XV. that each of these

quantities is equal to the radius of the circle. ]
Hence the height of the flagstaff
asina a sin a
= PR = sin
cos (a+ 23)' by (1).
Again PQ PB =cosBPQ= cos (α + β) .... (2),
and PB sin PAB sin 3=
(3).
a sin APB sin
Hence, from (2) and (3), by multiplication,
PQ_sin cos(α + β) sin cos(α +β)2, by (1).
a sin θ cos(a+ 2β)
218 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also BQ = PQ tan BPQ = PQtan(α + β)
sin ẞ sin (α + β)
cos (a+23) ,

and AQ = a + BQ = a cos (a + 23) + sin 3 sin (α + β)

cos (a+ 2β)
a cos ẞ cos (α +β)
cos (a + 2β)
If a, a, and ẞ be given numerically these results are
all in a form suitable for logarithmic computation.
197. Ex. A man walks along a straight road and
observes thatthe greatest anglesubtended by two objects is a;
from the pointwhere this greatest angle issubtendedhe walks
a distance c along the road and finds that the two objects are
now in a straight line which makes an angle ẞ with the
road ; prove that the distance between the objects is
csin a sinBsec α +2 β sec α -β
2
Let P and Q be the two points and let PQ meet
the road in B.
P

B
α
θ β B
A A C
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 219
If A be the point at which the greatest angle is
subtended then A must be the point where a circle drawn
through P and Q touches the road.
[For, take any other point A' on AB and join it to P
cutting the circle inB' andjoin A'Q and B'Q.
Then ∠PA'Q< < PBQ (Euc. I. 16),
and therefore < ∠PAQ (Euc. III. 21).]
Let the angle QAB be called θ. Then (Euc. III. 32)
the angle APQ is e also.
Hence 180° = sum of the angles of the triangle PAB
= θ + (α + θ) + β,
so that 0= 90° - α+2 β
From the triangles PAQ and QAB we have
PQ sina AQ sin B sin β
AQ sin d ' and C sin AQBsin (θ + a)
= =
-
-
•

Hence, by multiplication, we have

PQ sin a sin B
C sin e sin (θ + a)
sin a sin B
COS α + β COS α-β΄
2 2

.. PQ= csina sin ẞ sec α+2 β seca-B

2
220 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XXXIV .
1. A bridge has 5 equal spans, each of 100 feet measured from the
centre of the piers, and a boat is moored in a line with one of the middle
piers. The whole length of the bridge subtends a right angle as seen
from the boat. Prove that the distance of the boat from the bridge is
100/6 feet.
2. A ladder placed at an angle of 75° just reaches the sill of a
window at a height of 27 feet above the ground on one side of a street.
On turning the ladder over without moving its foot, it is found that
when it rests against a wall on the other side of the street it is at an
angle of 15° with the ground. Prove that the breadth of the street and
the length of the ladder are respectively
27(3 +√3) and 27 ( 6-2) feet.
3. From a house on one side of a street observations are made of the
angle subtended by the height of the opposite house; from the level of
the street the angle subtended is the angle whose tangent is 33; from two
windows one above the other the angle subtended is found to be the
angle whose tangent is -3 ; the height of the opposite house being
60 feet, find the height above the street of each of the two windows.
4. A rod of given length can turn in a vertical plane passing through
the sun, one end being fixed on the ground; find the longest shadow it
can cast on the ground.
Calculate the altitude of the sun when the longest shadow it can cast
is 3½ times the length of the rod.
5. A ship A observes another ship B leaving a harbour, whose
bearing is then N.W. After 10 minutes A, having sailed one mile N.E.,
sees B due west and the harbour then bears 60° West of North. After
another 10 minutes B is observed to bear S.W. Find the distances
between A and B at the first observation and also the direction and rate
ofB.
6. A ship sailing north sees two lighthouses, which are 6 miles
apart, in a line due west ; after an hour's sailing one of them bears S.W.
and the other S.S.W. Find the ship's rate.
[Exs. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 221
7. A ship sees a lighthouse N.W. ofitself. After sailing for 12 miles
in a direction 15° south of W. the lighthouse is seen due N. Find
the distance of the lighthouse from the ship in each position.
8. A man, travelling west along a straight road, observes that when
he is due south of a certain windmill the straight line drawn to a distant
church makes an angle of 30° with the road. A mile further on the
bearings of the windmill and tower are respectively N.E. and N.W. Find
the distances of the tower from the windmill and from the nearest point
of the road.
9. An observer on a headland sees a ship due north of him ; after a
quarter of an hour he sees it due east and after another half-hour he sees
it due south-east; find the direction that the ship's course makes with
the meridian and the time after the ship is first seen until it is nearest
the observer, supposing that it sails uniformly in a straight line.
10. A man walking along a straight road which runs in a direction
30° east of north notes when he is due south of a certain house ; when he
has walked a mile further he observes that the house lies due west and
that a windmill on the opposite side of the road is N.E. of him ; three
miles further on he finds that he is due north of the windmill ; prove
that the line joining the house and the windmill makes with the road
the angle whose tangent is
48-25/3
11
11. A, B, and Care three consecutive milestones on a straight road
from each of which a distant spire is visible. The spire is observed to
bear north-east at A, east at B, and 60° east of south at C. Prove that
the shortest distance ofthespire fromthe road is 7+5/3
13 miles.
12. Two stations due south of a tower, which leans towards the
north, are at distances a and b from its foot ; if a and ẞ be the
elevations of the top of the tower from these stations, prove that its
inclination to the vertical is
cot-1 b cotab -- aacotẞ •

13. From a point A on a level plane the angle of elevation of a

balloon is a, the balloon being south of A ; from a point Bwhich is at a
distance C south of A the balloon is seen northwards at an elevation of
β; find the distance of the balloon from A and its height above the
ground.
222 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIV.]
14. A statue on the top of a pillar subtends the same angle a at
distances of 9 and 11 yards from the pillar; iftana= 1071 ' find theheight
of the pillar and of the statue.
15. Atower and a spire on the top of the tower subtend equal angles
at a point whose distance from the foot of the tower is a; if h be the
height ofthe tower, prove that the height ofthe spire is
h a² +h2
a2 -h2
16. A flagstaff on the top ofa tower is observed to subtend the same
angle at two points on a horizontal plane, which lie on a line passing
through the centre ofthebase ofthe tower and whose distance from one
another is 2a, and an angle ẞ at a point halfway between them. Prove
that the height of the flagstaff is
asina 2 sin β
cosasin (a-β)
17. An observer in the first place stations himself at a distance a
feet from a column standing upon a 1mound. He finds that the column
subtends an angle, whose tangent is 2' at his eye which may be supposed
to be on the horizontal plane through the base of the mound. On
moving 2 a feet nearer the column he finds that the angle subtended is
unchanged. Find the height of the mound and of the column.
18. A church tower stands on the bank of a river which is 150 feet
wide and on the top of the tower is a spire 30 feet high. To an observer
on the opposite bank ofthe river the spire subtends the same angle that
a pole six feet high subtends when placed upright on the ground at the
foot of the tower. Prove that the height ofthe tower is nearly 285 feet.
19. A person, wishing to ascertain the height of a tower, stations
himself on a horizontal plane through its foot at a point at which the
elevation of the top is 30°. On walking a distance a in a certain direction
he finds that the elevation of the top is the same as before, and on then
walking a distance 35 a at right angles to his former direction he finds the
elevation of the top to be 60°. Prove that the height of the tower is
either 5 85 α.
6a or 48
[Exs. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 223
20. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower, standing on a
horizontal plane, from two points distant a and b from the base and in
the same straight line with it are complementary. Prove that the height
of the tower is Sab feet, and, if o be the angle subtended at the top of
the towerby the line joining the two points, then sin 0= a- b
a+ b
21. A tower 150 feet high stands on the top of a cliff 80 feet high.
At what point on the plane passing through the foot of the cliff must an
observer place himself so that the tower and the cliff may subtend equal
angles, the height of his eye being 5 feet ?
22. A statue on the top of a pillar, standing on level ground, is
found to subtend the greatest angle a at the eye of an observer when his
distance from the pillar is c feet; prove that the height of the statue is
2c tana feet, and find the height ofthe pillar.
23. Atower stood at the foot of an inclined plane whose inclination
to the horizon was 9°. A line 100 feet in length was measured straight
up the incline from the foot ofthe tower, and at the end of this line the
tower subtended an angle of 54°. Find the height of the tower, having
given
log2 = 30103, log 114-122=2.0584726,
and L sin 54°= 9-9079576.
24. Avertical tower stands on a declivity which is inclined at 15° to
the horizon. From the foot of the tower a man ascends the declivity for
80 feet, and then finds that the tower subtends an angle of 30°. Prove
that the height ofthe toweris 40 ( 6-2) feet.
25. The altitude of a certain rock is 47° and after walking towards it
1000 feet up a slope inclined at 30° to the horizon an observer finds its
altitude to be 77°. Find the vertical height of the rock above the first
point of observation, given that sin 47°= 73135.
26. A man observes that when he has walked c feet up an inclined
plane the angular depression ofan object in a horizontal plane through
the foot of the slope is a, and that, when he has walked a further distance
of c feet the depression is β. Prove that the inclination of the slope to
the horizon is the angle whose cotangent is
(2cotẞ - cota).
224 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIV.]
27. A regular pyramid on a square base has an edge 150 feet long
and the length of the side of its base is 200 feet. Find the inclination of
its face to the base.
28. A pyramid has for base a square of side a ; its vertex lies on a
line through the middle point of the base and perpendicular to it, and at
a distance h from it ; prove that the angle a between the two lateral faces
is given by the equation
sina 2h/2a²+4h²
a² +4h2
•

29. A flagstaff, 100 feet high, stands in the centre of an equilateral

triangle which is horizontal. From the top of the flagstaff each side
subtends an angle of 60°; prove that the length of the side of the triangle
is 50/6 feet.
30. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high
and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base, just reaches the
side of the base and is distant 56 and 8 feet respectively from the
extremities of that side. Find the sun's altitude if the height of the
pyramid be 34 feet.
31. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high
and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base,just reaches the
side of the base and is distant x feet and y feet respectivelyfromthe ends
of that side; prove that the height of the pyramid is
x² +y2 tan α- 6,
2
where a is the elevation of the sun.
32. The angle of elevation of a cloud from a point h feet above
a lake is a and the angle of depression of its reflexion in the lake is
β ; prove that its height is h sin (β+a)
sin (β – a)
-
•

33. The shadow of a tower is observed to be half the known height

of the tower and sometime afterwards it is equal to the known height ;
how much will the sun have gone down in the interval, given
log2 = 30103, Ltan63° 24′ =10·3009994,
and diff. for 1' =3159 ?
[Exs. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 225
34. An isosceles triangle ofwood is placed in a vertical plane, vertex
upwards, and faces the sun. If 2a be the base of the triangle, h its
height, and 30°the altitude ofthe sun,prove that the tangent of the angle
2ah/3
atthe apexofthe shadow is 3h2-a2
35. A rectangular target faces due south, being vertical and standing
on a horizontal plane. Compare the area of the target with that of its
shadow on the ground when the sun is pº from the south at an altitude
of a°.
36. A spherical ball, of diameter 6, subtends an angle a at a man's
eye when the elevation
1
of its centre is ẞ; prove that the height of the
centre ofthe ball is 2 sin ẞ cosec 2
α
•

37. A man standing a plane observes a row of equal and equi-

distant pillars, the 10th and 17th of which subtend the same angle that
they would 1do if 1they were in the position of the first and were
respectively and 3 of their height. Prove that, neglecting the height
of the man's eye, the line of pillars is inclined to the line drawn to the
first at an angle whose secant is nearly 2.6.
For the following 4 examples a book of tables will be wanted.
38. A and B are two points on the opposite bank of a river 1000 feet
wide and between them is the mast of a ship PN; the vertical elevation
of Pat A is 14°20' and at B it is 8° 10′. What is the height of P
above AB ?
39. AB is a line 1000 yards long; Bis due north of A and from B
a distant point P bears 70° east of north ; at A it bears 41° 22′ east of
north ; find the distance from A to P.
40. A is a station exactly 10 miles west of B. The bearing of a
particular rock from A is 74° 19' east of north and its bearing from Bis
26° 51' west of north. How far is it north of the line AB ?
41. The summit of a spire is vertically over the middle point of a
horizontal square enclosurewhose side is oflength a feet; the height of
the spire is h feet above the level of the square. If the shadow of the
spire just reach a corner of the square when the sun has an altitude 0,
prove that
h√2 =a tan 0.
Calculate h, having given a=1000 feet and 0=25°15′.
L. T. 15
 CHAPTER XV.
PROPERTIES OF A TRIANGLE.

198. Area of a given triangle. Let ABC be any

triangle and AD the perpen- A F
dicular drawn from A upon the E
opposite side.
Through A draw EAF parallel
to BC and draw BE and CF per- B
pendicular to it. By Euc. I. 41, D C
the area ofthe triangle ABC
= +rectangle BF= +BC.CF= a.AD.
But AD = ABsin B = c sin B.
The area of the triangle ABC therefore = ca sinB.
This area is denoted by A.
Hence A = ca sin B = ab sin C = bc sin A ...(1).
ByArt. 169, we have sin A = 2 Ns(s-a)(s - b)(s - c),
C
so that ∆ = bc sin A = √s(s - a) (s - b) (s -c)...(2).
This latter quantity is often calledS.
 AREA OF A TRIANGLE. 227

EXAMPLES. XXXV.
Find the area of the triangle ABC when
1. a= 13, b=14, and c=15. 2. a=18, b=24, and c=30.
3. a=25, b=52, and c=63. 4. a=125, b=123, and c=62.
5. a=15, b=36, and c=39. 6. a=287, b=816, and c=865.
7. a=35, b=84, and c = 91.
8. a=/3, b=/2, and c =√6 +√2
2
9. If B=45°, C=60°, and a=2 ( 3 +1) inches, prove that the area
ofthe triangle is 6+ 2/3 sq. inches.
10. The sides of a triangle are 119, 111, and 92 yards; prove that its
area is 10 sq. yards less than an acre.
11. The sides of a triangular field re 242, 1212 and 1450 yards ;
prove that the area ofthe field is 6 acres.
12. A workman is told to make a triangular enclosure of sides 51, 41,
and 21 yards respectively; having made the first side one yardtoo long,
what length must he make the other two sides in order to enclose the
prescribed area with the prescribed length of fencing ?
13. Find, correct to 0001 of an inch, the length of one ofthe equal
sides of an isosceles triangle on abase of 14 inches having the same area
as a triangle whose sides are 13.6, 15, and 15.4 inches.
14. Prove that the area ofa triangle is a²2sinBsinC
sinA •

If one angle of a triangle be 60°, the area 10/3 square feet, and the
perimeter 20 feet, find the lengths of the sides.
15. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and its area is 53 ths of an
equal triangle of the same perimeter ; prove that its sides are in the ratio
3 : 5: 7, and find the greatest angle ofthe triangle.
16. In a triangle the least angle is 45° and the tangents of the angles
are in A.P. If its area be 3 squareyards,prove that the lengths of the
sides are 3/5, 6/2, and 9 feet, and that the tangents of the other angles
are respectively 2 and 3.
15-2
228 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXV.]
17. The lengths of two sides of a triangle are one foot and 2 feet
respectively and the angle opposite the shorter side is 30° ; prove that
there are two triangles satisfying these conditions, find their angles, and
shew that their areas are in the ratio
√3 +1 : 3-1.
18. Find by the aid of the tables the area of the larger of the two
triangles given by the data
A= 31° 15′, a 5ins. and b =7ins.
199. On the circles connected with a given
triangle.
The circle which passes through the angular points of
a triangle ABC is called its circumscribing circle or, more
briefly, its circumcircle. The centre of this circle is
found by the construction of Euc. IV. 5. Its radius is
always called R.
The circle which can be inscribed within the triangle
so as to touch each of the sides is called its inscribed
circle or, more briefly, its incircle. The centre of this
circle is found bythe construction ofEuc. IV. 4. Its radius
willThe
be denoted by r.
circle which touches the side BC and the two
sides AB and AC produced is called the escribed circle
opposite the angle A. Its radius will be denoted by r₁.
Similarly r₂ denotes the radius of the circle which
touches the side CA and the two sides BC and BA
produced. Also r, denotes the radius of the circle touch-
ing AB and the two sides CA and CB produced.
200. To find the magnitude of R, the radius of the
circumcircle ofany triangle ABC.
Bisect the two sides BC and CA in D and E respec-
tively, anddraw DO and EO perpendicular to BC and CA.
 RADIUS OF THE CIRCUMCIRCLE. 229
By Euc. IV. 5, O is the centre of the circumcircle.
Join OB and OC.
A A A
B D EC
E 0 B 0 C
B D C
Fig. 1. Fig.2. Fig. 3.
The point O may either lie within the triangle as in
Fig. I., or without it as in Fig.II., or upon one ofthe sides
as in Fig. III.
Taking the first figure, the two triangles BOD and
COD are equal in all respects, so that
∠ BOD = ∠ COD,
∴∠BOD = ∠BOC =∠BAC (Euc. III. 20),
=A.
Also BD = BO sin BOD.
a
..
2 =RsinA.
IfA be obtuse, as in Fig. II., we have
<BOD = ∠BOC =∠ BLC = 180° -A (Euc. III. 22),
so that, as before, sin BOD = sin A,
a
and R=
2-sin A
IfA be a right angle, as inaFig. III., we have
R= OA = OC= 2.
a
2 sinA ' since in this case sinA = 1.
230 TRIGONOMETRY.
The relation found above is therefore true for all
triangles.
Hence, in all three cases, we have
R = 2sinA - 2sinb B2 sinC (Art. 163).
a C

201. In Art. 169 we have shewn that

sin A = 2 √s(s-a)(s -b)(s-c)= 2Sbc'c
-

where S is the area ofthe triangle.

Substituting this value ofsinA in (1), we have
R abc
4S '
giving the radius ofthe circumcircle interms ofthe sides.
202. To find the value of r, the radius of the incircle
of the triangle ABC.
Bisect the two angles B and C by the two lines BI
and CImeeting in I. A
By Euc. III. 4, I is the
centre of the incircle. Join F
IA, and draw ID, IE and E
IF perpendicular to the
three sides. I
-

Then ID=IE= IF=r. B D C

We have
area of △ IBC = ID.BC= ½r.a,
area of △ ICA = IE.CA = r . b,
and area of △ IAB = IF.AB = r.c.
 RADIUS OF THE INCIRCLE. 231
Hence, by addition, we have
r.a + ½r.b ++r.c = sum of the areas of the triangles
:
IBC, ICA, and IAB
= area of the ABC.
i.e. r
a + b + c = S,
2
so that r.s = S.
S
... r = - •

203. Since the angles IBD and IDB are respectively

equal to the angles IBF and IFB, the two triangles IDB
and IFB are equal in all respects.
Hence BD = BF, so that 2BD = BD + BF.
So also AE=AF, so that 2AE= AE+AF,
and CE=CD, so that 2CE = CE +CD.
Hence, by addition, we have
2BD + 2AE+2CE=(BD +CD)+(CE+AE) + (AF+ FB),
i.e. 2BD + 2AC = BC + CA + AB.
.. 2BD + 2b = a + b + c = 2s.
Hence BD = s - b = BF' ;
SO CE= s - c = CD,
and AF= s - a = ΑΕ.
ID B
Now BD = tan IBD = tan 2
.. r = ID = BD tan B2 5=(s-b)tan B2.
232 TRIGONOMETRY.
C
Sor= IE= CEtanICE=(s -c) tan 2'
and also r = IF= FA tanIAF= (s - a) tan A2 •

Hence r = (s - a) tan 2 A= (s-b)tanB2 =(s-c)tan 2C

204. A third value for r may be found as follows :
we have a = BD + DC = ID cot IBD+ ID cot ICD
= r cot B + r cot C
2
-

2
B C
COS
2 COS 2
= r +
sin B2 sin C2
,

...a sin 2B sin C2 =rrsin 2C COS B2 + COS C2 sin B2

-

= r sin ( + ) 「90°-= rsin 90° A2

C
= r cos 을A
sin B2 sin 2
..r = a
A
COS -
2
Cor. Since a = 2R sin A = 4R sin A- COS
2 2'
A

we have r = 4R sinA-2 sin 2

B
- sin C
2
205. To find the value of r₁, the radius of the escribed
circle opposite the angle A ofthe triangle ABC.
 RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 233
Produce AB and AC to L and M.
Bisect the angles CBL and A
BCM by the lines BI₁ and CI, 1
and let these lines meet in I₁. f

Draw I₁D1, IE₁, and I₁F 1

perpendicular to the three sides B D1 C
respectively. F1
The two triangles I₁D₁B and E1

ப
IFB are equal in all respects, L
so that I₁F₁ = I1D1. M
Similarly I₁E₁= I₁D1.
The three perpendiculars
ID , IE, and I₁F₁ being equal, the point I₁ is the centre
of the required circle.
Now the area ABIC is equal to the sum of the
triangles ABC and I₁BC; it is also equal to the sum of
the Hence
triangles IBA and ICA.
ABC + △I₁BC = ∆ICA + ΔΙ₁АВ. 1

.: . S + I₁D₁. BC= I₁E₁. CA + I₁F₁ .AB,1 1.

i.e. S + r₁.a = r₁.b + or₁.c.

.. S = r₁ b + 2c - a = 1 b + 2c + a -aa =r₁ (s - a).
1
-

S
.. r1 S-a
Similarly it can be shewn that
S S
ra = s - b' and r₂ =
2 3 0-1 •
234 TRIGONOMETRY.
206. Since AE₁, and AF₁ are tangents, we have,
1 1
as in Art. 203, AE₁ = AF₁.
Similarly BF₁ =BD₁, and CE₁ = CD1.
.. 2AE₁ =AE₁ + AF₁ = AB + BF₁ + AC + СЕ,
=AB+ BD₁ + AC + CD₁ = AB + BC + CA = 2s.
.. AE₁ = s = AF₁.
Also BD₁ =BF₁ = AF₁ - AB =s- C,
and CD₁ = CE₁ = AE₁ - AC = s - b.
1

.:. I₁E₁ = AE₁ tanI₁AE1,

i.e. r1 = s tan 2
A

207. A third value maybe obtained for r₁ in terms of

a and the angles B and C.
For, since I₁C bisects the angle BCE₁, we have
90° -- C2
<I₁CD₁= (180°−C)=90° -

B
So <I₁BD₁ = 90° - 2
.: a = BC= BD₁ + D₁C
=I₁D₁ cotI₁BD₁ + I₁D₁ cotICD1
=
1 (tan-+ tan C2
2
sin B sin 2
1
B+
COS - COS
,

2 2
 RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 235
B cos C = r
.. a cos
2 ;(sin 2 cos + cos B sin
B C
2 2
C
2
=rsin( +2)= sin(90° )= cos .
B
1

B
2
C
2
COS - COS -

2 2
.. γ₁1 = α A •

COS 2
Cor. Since a = 2R sin A = 4Rsin A2 cos A2',
we have r₁ = 4R sin A2 COS B2 COS C
EXAMPLES. XXXVI.
1. In a triangle whose sides are 18, 24, and 30 inches respectively,
prove that the circumradius, the inradius, and the radii of the three
escribed circles are respectively 15, 6, 12, 18, and 36 inches.
2. The sides ofa triangle are 13, 14, and 15 feet; prove that
(1) R=81 ft., (2) r=4 ft. , (3) r₁=10+ ft. ,
(4) 12=12 ft., and (5) 13=14 ft.
3. In a triangle ABC if a=13, b=4, and cos C= - 135 ' find
R, 7, 11, 12, and 13 .
4. In the ambiguous case of the solution of triangles prove that the
circumcircles ofthe two triangles are equal.
Prove that
5. 11+12+13- r=4R. 6. 1112+123+1'37'1=82.
A B C
7. 123=r³cot cot 2 cot 2 8. r111213=Sº.
9. 1+1+1_1=0.
12 T3
1
10. S= 2R2 sinA sinBsin C.
236 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVI.]
11. 4R sin A sinB sin C= acos A +b cos B +ccos C.
12. S= 4Rrcos A2 coscos
B
. 13. 12731=tan2A2
14. 11 (8(s - a) =12 (s – b) =13 (s - c) =rs=S.
-

15. a (rr1+ 1213) =6 (112 +1311)=c (rr3+1112).

16.2+2
2x + 2:222 + 1:322 = a²+b2+c2
111
1
2

S2
17. rr₁ cot A2=S. 18. (11 - r) (12-1) (13-1) =4Rr2.
19. ( 1+ 2)tan 2C=(13-1)cot C2 = c .
20. 1111
ab + bc +ca= 22Rr 21. bc ++
2 1 1
ca ab ==
3
r -2R

22. r²+r₁² +r2² + r32=16R2 – a2 – b2 – c2.

- -

208. Orthocentre and pedal triangle of any

triangle.
Let ABC be any triangle and let AK, BL, and CMbe
the perpendiculars fromA, B, and C A
upon the opposite sides of the tri- M
angle. It can be easily shewn, as L
in most editions of Euclid, that
these three perpendiculars meet in
ais common point P. This pointP B K C
called the orthocentre of the
triangle. The triangle KLM, which is formed by joining
the feet of these perpendiculars, is called the pedal
triangle of ABC.
209. Distances of the orthocentre from the angular
points of the triangle.
 PEDAL TRIANGLE. 237
We have PK = KBtanPBK=KBtan (90° − C) -

C
= AB cos B cot C = sinC cosBcos C
= 2R cos B cos C (Art. 200).
Again AP = AK - PK= csin B –PK -

= 2R sin C sinB- 2RcosB cos C

- =
2Rcos (B + C)
= 2R cos A (Art. 72).
So BP= 2RcosB, and CP= 2Rcos C.
The distances of the orthocentre from the angular
points are therefore 2RcosA, 2RcosB and 2R cos C; its
distances from the sides are 2R cosBcosC, 2RcosCcosA,
and 2R cos A cosB.
210. To find the sides and angles ofthe pedal triangle.
Since the angles PKC and PLC are right angles, the
pointsP, L, C, and Klie on a circle.
.: . ∠ PKL = ∠ PCL (Euc. III. 21)
= 90° - A.
Similarly P, K, B, and Mlie on a circle,and therefore
∠PKM= ∠PBM
= 90° - A.
Hence ∠MKL = 180° - 2A
= the supplement of 2A.
So ∠ KLM= 180° — 2B,-

and ∠LMK= 180° - 2C.

238 TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, from the triangle ALM, we have
LM AL ABcosA
sin A sinAML COSPML
ccosA ccosA
COSPAL sin C
.. LM= sinC C sinA cosA
= a cos A (Art. 163).
So MK= b cos B, and KL = c cosB.
The sides of the pedal triangle are therefore a cosA,
bcosB, and ccosC; also its angles are the supplements
oftwice the angles ofthe triangle.
211. Let I be the centre of the incircle and I1, I2 and
Is the centres of the escribed circles
which are opposite to A, B and C I3
respectively. As in Arts. 202 and A
205 IC bisects the angle ACB, and
I₁C bisects the angle BCM. Iz 2
.. ∠ICI₁=∠ICB + < I₁CB
1 B C
= ½ ∠ACB + ∠MCB
= 1 [∠ACB + ∠ MCB] M
= 1. 180° = a right angle. I1
Similarly ∠ ICI₂ is a right
angle.
Hence I₁CI, is a straight line to which IC is perpen-
dicular.
So I₂AI is a straight line to which IA is perpen-
2- 3
dicular,
dicular.
and IBI₁ is a straight line towhich IB is perpen-
 CENTROID AND MEDIANS. 239
Also, since IA and I₁A both bisect the angle BAC,
the three points A, I, and I₁ are in a straight line.
Similarly BII, and CII, are straight lines. Hence 111213
is a triangle which is such that A, B, and Care the feet
of the perpendiculars drawn from its vertices upon the
opposite sides and such that Iis the intersection of these
perpendiculars, i.e. ABC is its pedal triangle and Iis its
orthocentre.
212. Centroid and Medians of any Triangle.
If ABC be any triangle, and D, E, and F respectively
the middle points of BC, CA, and
AB, the lines AD, BE, and CFare A
called the medians of the triangle. 73

It is shewn in any edition of

Euclid that the medians meet in a
F E
G
common point G, such that B D C
AG = AD, BG = BE,
and CG = CF.
This point & is called the centroid ofthe triangle.
213. Length ofthe medians. We have, ifAD =x,
b² = AC = AD² + DC2 – 2AD . DC cos ADC
-

= x² + a24
= -
ax cos ADC,
and C2 = AB2 x² + α2
-

4 - ax cos ADB
=x² + a2
4 + ax cos ADC.
240 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by addition, we have
b² + c² = 2x² + a22 •

.. AD = x = √2b² + 2c² α². -

2

Hence also AD = √b² + c² + 2bccosA (Art. 164).

So also
BE= +√2c² + 2a² -b², and CF= + √2a² + 2b²- с².
214. Angles that the median AD makes with the sides.
Ifthe ∠BAD= B, and ∠CAD= y, we have
sin y =
DC =
a
sin CAD 2x
a sinC asinC
... sin y =
2x √26² + 2c² - a² 2

Similarly sin B √2b²asinB

=
+ 2c² - a² - 2
•

Again, if the ADC be e, we have

sin e AC Ь =
sin CAD X
•

.. sin 0 = b sin C 26 sin C

√2b² + 2c² - a² 2
•

The angles that AD makeswith the sides are therefore

found.
215. The centroid lies on the line joining the circum-
centre to the orthocentre.
 CIRCUMCENTRE AND ORTHOCENTRE. 241
Let O and P be the circumcentre and orthocentre
respectively. Draw OD and
PK perpendicular to BC. A
Let AD and OP meet in G.
The triangles OGD and F G L
PGA are clearly equiangular. 0 P
Also, by Art. 200, B C
OD = RcosA D K
and, by Art. 209, AP= 2RcosA.
Hence, by Euc. VI. 4,
AG AP = 2.
GD OD
The point & is therefore the centroid of the triangle.
Also, by the same proposition,
OG OD 1
GP AP- 2
The centroid therefore lies on the line joining the
circumcentre to the orthocentre and divides it in the ratio
1 : 2.
It may be shewn by geometry that the centre of the
nine-point circle (which passes through the feet of the
perpendiculars, the middle points of the sides, and the
middle points of the lines joining the angular points
to the orthocentre) lies on OP and bisects it.
The circumcentre, the centroid, the centre of the
nine-point circle, and the orthocentre therefore all lie on a
straight line.
216. Distance between the circumcentre and the ortho-
centre.
L. T. 16
242 TRIGONOMETRY.
If OF be perpendicular to AB, we have
∠OAF = 90° - ∠AOF = 90° — С. -

Also ∠PAL= 90° — С. -

.. ∠OAP = A - ZOAF- ∠PAL

A − 2 (90° – C) = A + 2C- 180°
-

= A + 2C – (A + B + C) = C - В.
Also OA =R, and, by Art. 209,
PA = 2Rcos A.
.: . OP2 = OA² + PA² - 20A .PA cos OAP
-

=
R²+ 4R² cos²A -4R² cosA cos (C-B)
=R² +4R² cosA [cosA - cos (C- B)]
=R²- 4R² cosA [cos (B + C) + cos (C-B)]
2

= R² - 8R2 cosA cosBcos C.

(Art. 72),
.. OP= R√1-8 cosA cosBcos C.
*217. To find the distance between the circumcentre
and the incentre.
Let O be the circumcentre and
OF Let
perpendicular to AB. A
I be the incentre and IE F E
perpendicular to AC. 0 I
Then, as in the last article, B C
∠OAF = 90° — С.
-

: . ∠OAI = ∠IAF - ∠OAF

= -(90° C)= 1 + C_A+B+
2
-
A + B + CCC-B
2 2 2
 CIRCUMCENTRE AND INCENTRE. 243
Also AI= IEA r =
A= 4Rsin 2B sinsin C (Art.204. Cor.).
-

sin이2 sin 2
.. OI2= OA² + AI2 - 20A.AIcos OΑΙ
sin B
= R² + 16R2 sin² C B sin
2 sin2 2 -8R2 sin-
2 sincosB.
ΟΙ2 = 1 + 16 sin² Bsin²
- C
..
2 sin²
-

R2
B
- 8 sinsin sing[cos cos +sin sin 2
COS B22 COS 2C B
2
= 1-8 sinsin C2
Bsin C
(c-

o s c
B+C
o s
B
-sin
COS 2 COS 2
sin
C
) 2
B -

2
= 1 - 8 sin 2 2 COS 2
B C A
= 1-8sinsinsin 2 (Art. 69).........(1).
-

.. OI = R 1 - 8sin 2B sin -sin

C A
2 sin ই - --

Also (1) may be written A B C

OI2= R2 - 2R x4Rsin4
× 4R sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 -

= R2 - 2Rr. (Art. 204. Cor.)

In a similar manner it may be shewn that, if I₁ be the
centre of the escribed circle opposite the angle A, we shall
have
1 + 8 sin A2 COS B C
OI₁= R
1
-

2 COS 2,
and hence OI,² = R² + 2Rr1.
1
2
(Art. 207. Cor.)
16-2
244 TRIGONOMETRY.
218. Bisectors of the angles.
If AD bisect the angle A and A
divide the base into portions x and
y, we have, Xby Euc.
AB C
VI. 3, δ
= =

Y АСБ θ
... x_ Y_
= x + y b+c
=
a
(1), B X DY C
C b_b + c ...

giving a and y.
Also, if 8 be the length of AD and the angle it
makes with BC, we have
ABD + △ ACD = ∆ABC.
... 21 cô sin A
22+ 1= bd sin A2 = 21 bebcsin A,
i.e. δ = b be sinA 2bc COS A
= -2 (2).
+ c sin Ab + c
... ...

2
Also 0 = 180° -- 2 = A + B A2 = A +22B (3). ...

We thus have the length of the bisector and its

inclination to BC.
EXAMPLES. XXXVII.
If I, I1, I2, andI be respectively the centres of the incircle and the
three escribed circles of a triangle ABC, prove that
A
1. AI=r cosec 2
=
B C
2. IA . IB.IC=abc tan A2 tantan .
3. AI₁=11 cosec A 4. II₁=asec A •
[Exs. XXXVII.] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 245
5. I2I3=a cosec A2 6. II.II.II3=16R2r.
7. 12132=4R(12+13). 8. 11112=B+C
2 •

9. II₁2+I2I2=II2²+I,I₁²=II,2+I1I22.
3
A B Cabc
10. Area of III=8R2 coscos
2 cos 2 = 2 -
•

11. 111.1213
•

sinA
112.1311113.1112
sinB sinC=
•

If I, O, and P be respectively the incentre, circumcentre, and ortho-

centre, and G the centroid ofthe triangle ABC, prove that
12. IO2=R2 (3-2 cos A-2 cosB-2 cos C).
13. IP2=272 -4R2 cosAcosB cos C.
14. OG2=R2- 91 (a²+b²+c²).
A-B
15. Area ofAIOP=2R2 sin B 2- CCsin 2-A sin4-5.2

16. Areaof IPG= 23 R2sin B 2- C sin C 2-A sin4-B.

2
17. Prove that thedistance ofthecentre of the nine-point circle from
theangleA is R2√1+8cosAsinBsinC.
18. DEF is the pedal triangle ofABC; prove that
(1) its area is 2ScosA cosB cosC, R
(2) the radius ofits circumcircle is 2'
and (3) the radius ofits incircle is 2RcosAcosBcosC.
19. 010203 is thetriangle formedbythe centres oftheescribedcircles
ofthe triangle ABC; prove that
A 4R cos B and 4R cos C
(1) its sides are 4Rcos 2' 2' 2'
(2) its angles are π
-

' -2'Band 22C '

A π π
-

and (3) its area is 2Rs.

246 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVII.]
20. DEF is the triangle formed by joining the points of contact of
the incircle with the sides ofthe triangle ABC; prove that
(1) its sides are 2r cos A2' 2 cos B, and 2r cos C ,
- A, 이이
(2) itsangles are 이이
π π B
- , and 22'C π
- -

2S3 i.e.s.
1r
and (3) its area is abcs -,
22R
21. D, E, and Fare the middle points of the sides of the triangle
ABC; prove that the centroid of the triangle DEF is the same as that of
ABC and that its orthocentre is the circumcentre of AВС.
In any triangle ABC, prove that
22. The perpendicular from A divides BC into portions which are
proportional to the cotangent of the adjacent angles, and that it divides
the angle A into portions whose cosines are inversely proportional to the
adjacent sides.
23. The median through A divides it into angles whose cotangents
are 2 cotA +cot Cand 2 cotA +cotB, and makes with the base an angle
whose cotangent is 1 (cotC-cotB).
24. The distancebetween the middle point of BC and the foot of the
perpendicular from A is b22a- c2
25. O is the orthocentre of a triangle ABC ; prove that the radii of
the circles circumscribing the triangles BOC, COA, AOB and ABC are
all equal.
26. AD, BE and CF are the perpendiculars from the angular points
of a triangle ABC upon the opposite sides ; prove that the diameters of
the circumcircles of the triangles AEF, BDF and CDE are respectively
acotA, b cotB, and ccot C, and that the perimeters of the triangles DEF
and ABC are in the ratior : R.
27. Prove that the product of the distances of the incentre from the
angular points of a triangle is 4Rr2.
28. The triangle DEF circumscribes the three escribed circles of the
triangle ABC ; prove that
EF FD DE
a cos A b cos B ccosC
[Exs. XXXVII.] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 247
29. If a circle be drawn touching the inscribed and circumscribed
circles of a triangle and the side BC externally, prove that its radius is
a
tan2 A
30. If a, b, c be the radii of three circles which touch one another
externally and r₁ and r₁₂ be the radii of the two circles that can be drawn
to touch these three, prove that
1
71 + 12 = ++ 2
a C

31. If Ao be the area of the triangle formed by joining the points of

contact of the inscribed circle with the sides of the given triangle, whose
area is A, and A1, A2, and A3 the corresponding areas for the escribed
circles, prove that A1 + A2+Δ3 - Δ =24.
32. If the bisectors of the angles of a triangle ABC meet the opposite
sides in A', B', and C' , prove that the ratio of the areas of the triangles
A'B'C' and ABC is
2sin A sinB- sin :cos4-Bcos B-CCOSC-A.
2 2 2 COS 2 2
33. Through the angular points of a triangle are drawn straight
lines which make thesame angle a with the opposite sides of the triangle;
prove that the area of the triangle formed by them is to the area of the
original triangle as 4cos²a : 1.
34. Two circles, of radii a and b, cut each other at an angle θ.
Prove that the length ofthe common chord is
2ab sin 0 •

a² + b² + 2ab cos e
35. Three equal circles touch one another; find the radius of the
circle which touches all three.
36. Three circles whose radii are a, b and c touch one another and
the tangents at their points of contact meet in a point ; prove that the
distance ofthis point from either of their points ofcontact is
(a+b+c) .
248 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVII.]
37. In the sidesBC, CA, ABaretaken threepointsA', B', C'such that
BA' : A'C= CB' : B'A=AC' : C'B=m : n ;
prove that if AA', BB', and CC' be joined theywill form by their inter-
sections a triangle whose area is to that ofthe triangle ABC as
(m-n)2 : m²+mn+n2.
38. The circle inscribed in the triangle ABC touches the sides BC,
CA, and AB in the points A1, B1, and C₁ respectively; similarly the
circle inscribed in the triangle A1B1C₁ touches the sides in A2, B2, C₂ 2
respectively and so on; if AnBnCn be the nth triangle so formed, prove
that its angles are
π
3 +(-2)- (4-1), +(-2)- ( -1),
π
π
3
π
3
π
π
3
and 3+(- 2)-n C 3-

Hence prove that the triangle so formed is ultimately equilateral.

39. A1B1C₁ is the triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpen-
diculars drawn from ABC upon the opposite sides; in like manner
A2B2C2
from A1,isB1,theand
triangle
C₁ onobtained by joining
the opposite sides andthesofeeton.of Find
the perpendiculars
the values of
the angles An, Bn, and Cn in the nth ofthese triangles.
 CHAPTER XVI.
ON QUADRILATERALS AND REGULAR POLYGONS.
219. To find the area of a quadrilateral which is
inscribable in a circle.
Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, the sides being a, b, c
and d as marked in the figure.
The area of the quadrilateral A
= area of △ABC+ area of ADC
d D
= absinB+ cdsin D(Art. 198.)
= (ab + cd) sinB, a
since, by Euc. III. 22, C
∠B = 180° - ∠D,
--

and therefore b
B C
sin B = sin D.
We have to express sinB in
terms of the sides.
We have
a² + b² - 2ab cos B = AC = c² + d² - 2cd cos D.
But cosD = cos (180° - B) = - cosB.
250 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
a² + b² - 2ab cos B = c² + d² + 2cd cos B,
cos B= a² + b² -c² - d²
2 2
so that
Hence
2 (ab + cd)
1- + b²-c²- 22)2
sin²B= 1 −- cos B= 1_(a²{2 (ab + cd)}2
{2 (ab + cd)}2 - {a² + b² - c² - d2}2
2

4 (ab + cd)²
{2 (ab +cd)+(a²+b²-c²-d²)} {2(ab + cd)-(a²+b²-c²-d²)}
4 (ab + cd)²
{(a²+2ab+b²)-(c²-2cd+d²)}{(c²+ 2cd+d²)-(a²+b²-2ab)}
4 (ab + cd)²
{(a + b)² - (c - d)2} {(c + d)² - (a - b)2}
4 (ab + cd)²
{(a + b + c - d) (a+b-c+d)} {(c+d + a-b)(c+d-a+ b)}
4 (ab +cd)²
Let
a + b + c + d = 2s,
so that
a + b + c - d = (a + b + c + d) – 2d = 2 (s - d),
a + b - c + d = 2 (s - c),
a - b + c + d = 2 (s -b),
and -a + b + c + d = 2 (s - a).
Hence
sin²B= 2 (s - d) x 2(s 4-c)(ab x+2(scd)2-b)x 2(s -a) ,

so that
(ab +cd) sin B= 2√(s - a) (s - b) (s – c)(s – d).
-

Hence the area of the quadrilateral

= + (ab + cd) sinB= √(s - a) (s -b) (s - c)(s - d).
 AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 251
220. Since cosB = a² 2+(ab
b² - c² - d² 2

+ cd) ‫د‬

we have AC²= a² + b² - 2ab cos B

= a² + b² – ab a² +abb² -+ cd
c² - d² 2
-

(a² + b²) cd + ab (c² + d²)

ab + cd
(ac + bd) (ad + bc)
ab + cd •

Similarly it could be proved that

BD2 (ab + adcd)(ac
+ bc
+ bd)
It follows by multiplication that
AC2 . BD2 = (ac +bd)²,
i.e. AC. BD = AB . CD + BC . AD.
This is Euc. VI. Prop. D.
221. If we have any quadrilateral, not necessarily
inscribable in a circle, we can express its area in terms of
its sides and the sum ofany two opposite angles.
For let the sum ofthe two angles Band D bedenoted
by 2a, and denote the area of the A d
quadrilateral
Then
by A.
a
D
= area of ABC + area of ACD C
= ab sin B + cdsin D, B C
so that b
4 = 2ab sinB + 2cdsin D...(1).
252 TRIGONOMETRY.

Also a² + b² - 2ab cos B = c² + d² - 2cd cosD,

so that
a² + b² - c² - d² = 2ab cos B - 2cd cos D ......(2).
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we have
1642 + (a² + b² - c² – d²)² = 4a²b² + 4c2d2
2 -
2

8abcd(cosBcos D-sinBsinD)
-

= 4a²b² + 4c²d² - 8abcd cos (B+ D)

= 4a²b² + 4c2d² - 8abcd cos 2a
= 4a²b² + 4c²d² - 8abcd (2 cos² a – 1)
so that
= 4 (ab + cd)² - 16abcd cos² a,
1642 = 4 (ab + cd)² - (a² + b² - c² - d²)² - 16abcd cos² a
2

....(3).
But, as in Art. 219, we have
4 (ab + cd)² - (a² + b²2 - C2c² -d2)2
2 2

= 2 (s - a) . 2 (s – b) . 2 (s - c) . 2 (s – d)
-

= 16 (s - a) (s -b) (s - c) (s - d).
Hence (3) becomes
A2 = (s - a) (s – b)(s - c) (s - d) – abcdcos² a,
- -

giving the required area.

Cor. 1. If d be zero the quadrilateral becomes a
triangle, and the formula above becomes that of Art. 198.
Cor. 2. If the sides of the quadrilateral be given in
length, we know a, b, c, d and therefore s. The area A is
hence greatest when abcdcos² a is least, that is when cos² a
is zero, and then a = 90°. In this case the sum of two
opposite angles of the quadrilateral is 180° and the figure
inscribable in a circle. (Euc. III. 22.)
 AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 253
The quadrilateral, whose sides are given, has therefore
the greatest area when it can be inscribed in a circle.
222. Ex. Find the area of a quadrilateral which can have a circle
inscribed in it.
If the quadrilateral ABCD can have a circle inscribed in it so as to
touch the sides AB, BC, CD, and DA in the points P, Q, R, and S, we
should have
AP=AS, BP=BQ, CQ= CR, and DR=DS.
.. AP+BP + CR +DR=AS + BQ + CQ +DS,
i.e. AB + CD =BC + DA,
i.e. a + c=b +d.
Hence S
a + b + c + d-= a + c = b + d.
2
..s - a =c, s - b =d, s - c = a, and s - d=b.
The formula of the last article therefore gives in this case
2 = abcd - abcd cos² a = abcd sin² a,
i.e. the area required=√abcdsina.
If in addition the quadrilateralbe also inscribable in a circle, we have
2a=180°, so that sin a=sin 90°= 1.
Hence the area of a quadrilateral which can be both inscribed in
a circle and circumscribed about another circle is abcd.
EXAMPLES. XXXVIII.
1. Find the area of a quadrilateral, which can be inscribedin a circle,
whose sides are
(1) 3, 5, 7, and 9 feet ;
and (2) 7, 10, 5, and 2 feet.
2. The sides of a quadrilateral are respectively3, 4, 5, and6feet, and
the sum of a pair of opposite angles is 120°; prove that the area of the
quadrilateral is 3/30 square feet.
3. The sides of a quadrilateral which can be inscribed in a circle are
3, 3, 4, and 4 feet; find the radii of the incircle and circumcircle.
254 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVIII.]
4. Prove that the area ofany quadrilateral is one-half the product of
the two diagonals and the sine of the angle between them.
5. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in one circle and circumscribed
about anothercircle, prove that its area is Jabed and that theradius of
the latter circle is
2/abcd
a+b +c+d
6. A quadrilateralABCD is described about a circle; prove that
AB sinA2 sinB2= CDsin -C2 sin .
7. a, b, c, and d are the sides of a quadrilateral taken in order, and a
is the angle between the diagonals opposite to bord; prove that the area
of the quadrilateral is 1
4 (a² -b² +c²-d2)tana.
2

8. If a, b, c, d be the sides and x and y the diagonals of a quadri-

lateral, prove that its area is
1
[4x2y2-(b2 + d2d2-- a2a² - c2)2] .2

9. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle,provethat the angle

between its diagonals is
sin-1 [2 (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) (s -d)÷(ac+bd)].
If the same quadrilateralcan also be circumscribed about a circle, prove
that this angle is then
cos-1 ас bd
-

ac +bd
10. The sides of a quadrilateral are divided in order in the ratio
m : n, and a new quadrilateral is formed by joining the points of division ;
prove that its area is to the area of the original figure as m²+n² to
(m+n)2.
11. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle, prove that the
radius of the circle is
41 /(ab+
(s -a)cd)(ac+ bd) (ad+bc)
(s -b) (s-c) (s-d) •
[Exs. XXXVIII.] REGULAR POLYGONS. 255
12. If a, b, c, d be the sides of a quadrilateral, taken in order, prove
that
d²=a² +b² +c² - 2ab cos a -2bccos ẞ - 2cacosy,
where a, and ydenote the angles between the sides a and b, b and c,
and cand a respectively.
223. Regular Polygons. A regular polygon is a
polygon which has all its sides equal and all its angles
equal.
If the polygon have n angles we have, by Euc. I. 32,
Cor., n times its angle +4 right angles = twice as many
right angles as the figure 2nhas-sides = 2n right angles.
Hence each angle = n right angles = 2n-n 4 × 2
4 π-

radians.
224. Radii ofthe inscribed and circumscribing circles
of a regular polygon.
Let AB, BC, and CD be three successive sides of the
polygon, and let n be the
number of its sides.
Bisect the angles ABC
and BCD by the lines BO
and CO which meet in O,
and draw OL perpendicular B
to BC.
A

W L
R

It is easily seen that O is the centre of both the

incircle and the circumcircle of the polygon and that
BL equals LC.
0

Hence we have OB = OC= R, the radius of the circum-

r
R
D

circle and OL = r, the radius ofthe incircle.

256 TRIGONOMETRY.

The angle BOC is 1 th of the sum of all the angles

n
subtended at O by the sides,
i.e. ∠BOC = 4 rightnangles 2πn
radians.
Hence ∠BOL = +∠ BOC = πn" .
If a be a side of the polygon, we have
a = BC = 2BL = 2RsinBOL= 2Rsin". n
α α π
R= 2 cosec n .........(1).
2 sin.π
n
-

Again,
= 2BL = 20L tan BOL = 2r tan n".
α=

a a π
..r =
2 cot n
-

(2).
2 tan π
n
-

225. Area of a Regular Polygon.

The area of the polygon is n times the area of the
triangle BOC.
Hence the area of the polygon
= n × 1OL.BC = n.OL.BL = n.BL cot LOB . BL
α2 cot π
n.
4 n ......
(1),
giving the area in terms of the side.
Also the area
π
= n.OL.BL = n.OL.OLtan BOL = nr² tan ...(2). n
 REGULAR POLYGONS. 257
Again, the area
= n.OL.BL = n . OBcos LOB . OB sin LOB
π π n 2π
= nR²
n cos -

n
sin -

n 2
Rª=sin n
-

.....(3).
226. Ex. The length of each side ofa regular dodecagon is 20feet ;
find (1) the radius of its inscribed circle, (2) the radius ofits circumscribing
circle, and (3) its area.
The angle subtended by a side at the centre of the polygon
360°=30°.
12
Hence we have 10= rtan 15°=R sin 15°.
r=10 cot 15°
10
=2-13 (Art. 101)
N
=10 (2 + 3)= 37.32... feet.
10 =10 × 2√2
Also R sin15°
-

3-1 (Art. 106)

=10.2 (√3 + 1) =10 (√6 + √2)
=10 (2.4495... + 1.4142...)=38.637... feet.
Again, the area =12 x r x 10 square feet
= 1200 (2 + 3)=4478.46... square feet.
EXAMPLES. XXXIX.
1. Find, correct to 01 of an inch, the length of the perimeter of a
regular decagon which surrounds a circle ofradius one foot.
2. Find to 3 places of decimals the length of the side of a regular
polygon of 12 sides which is circumscribed to a circle of unit radius.
3. Find the area of (1) a pentagon, (2) a hexagon, (3) an octagon,
(4) a decagon and (5) a dodecagon, each being a regular figure of side
1 foot.
4. Find the difference between the areas of a regular octagon and a
regular hexagon if the perimeter ofeach be 24 feet.
L. T. 17
258 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs.
5. A square, whose side is 2 feet, has its corners cut away so as to
form a regular octagon ; find its area.
6. Compare the areas and perimeters of octagons which are respec-
tively inscribed in and circumscribed to a given circle, and shew that the
areas of the inscribed hexagon and octagon are nearly as √27 to 32.
7. Prove that the radius of the circle described about a regular
pentagon is nearly ths of the side of the pentagon.
8. If an equilateral triangle and a regular hexagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : 3.
9. If a regular pentagon and a regular decagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : √5.
10. Prove that the sum of the radii of the circles, which are respec-
tively inscribed in and circumscribed about a regularpolygon of n sides, is
a π
2 cot 2η '
where a is a side of the polygon.
11. Of two regular polygons of n sides, one circumscribes and the
other is inscribed in a given circle. Prove that the three perimeters are in
the ratio
ππ
sec nn
: -
cosec πn- : 1,
π
and that the areas of the polygons are in the ratio cos²n :1.
12. Given that the area of a polygon of n sides circumscribed about
a circle is to the area of the circumscribed polygon of 2n sides as 3 : 2,
find n.
13. Prove that the areaofa regular polygon of2nsides inscribed in a
circle is a mean proportional between the areas of the regular inscribed
and circumscribed polygons of n sides.
14. The area ofa regularpolygon of n sides inscribed in acircle is to
that of the same number of sides circumscribing the same circle as 3 is to
4. Find the value of n.
15. The interior angles of a polygon are in A.P.; the least angle
is 120° and the common difference is 5° ; find the number of sides.
XXXIX. ] REGULAR POLYGONS. 259
16. There are two regular polygons the number ofsides in one being
double the number inthe other, and an angle of one polygonis to an angle
of the other as 9 to 8; find the number of sides of each polygon.
17. Show that there are eleven pairs of regular polygons such that
the number ofdegrees in the angle of one is to the numberinthe angle of
the other as 10 : 9. Find the number of sides in each.
18. The side of a base of a square pyramid is a feet and its vertex is
at a height of a feet above the centre of the base ; if 0 and 6 be respec-
tively the inclinations of any face to the base, and of anytwo faces to one
another, prove that
tan 0 2h
=
and tan Φ =
1+ 2h2a2
2

19. A pyramid stands on a regular hexagon as base. The perpendi-

cular from the vertex of the pyramid on the base passes through the
centre of the hexagon and its length is equal to that of a side of the base.
Find the tangent of the angle between the base and any face of the
pyramid and also ofhalf the angle between any two side faces.
20. Aregular pyramid has for its base a polygon of n sides, each of
length a, and the length of each slant side is l; prove that the cosine of
the angle between two adjacent lateral faces is
412 cos 2π
n
+a²2
412 - a2

17-2
 HAPTER XVII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. AREA OF
A CIRCLE. DIP OF THE HORIZON.

227. IF O be the number of radians in any angle,

which is less than a right angle, then sin O, O and tan e are
in ascending order ofmagnitude.
Let TOP be any angle which is less than a right
angle.
With centre O and any radius OP P
describe
in A.
an arc PAP' meeting OT
Draw PN perpendicular to OA T
and produce it to meet the arc of the 0
circle in P'.
N A

Draw the tangent PT at P to

meet OA in T and join TP'.
The triangles PONand P'ON are
equal in all respects, so that PN= NP' and
arcPA arc AP'.
=

Also the triangles TOP and TOP' are equal in all

respects, so that TP = TP'.
 SIN θ < θ < ΤΑΝ θ. 261
The straight line PP' is less than the arc PAP', so
that NP is < arc PA.
We shall assume that the arc PAP' is less than the
sum of PT and TP', so that arcPA < PT.
Hence NP, the arc AP, and PT are in ascending
order of magnitude.
Therefore NP arc AP PT
OP' OP and OP are in ascending
order ofmagnitude.
NP
But OP = sin AOP = sin 0,
arc AP
OP = number of radians in ∠AOP = 0 (Art. 21),
and PT = tan POT = tan AOP = tan 0.
OP
Hence sin θ, θ, and tane are in ascending order of
magnitude, provided that
θ< π

228. Since sin 0 < 0 < tand, we have, by dividing

each by the positive quantity sin 0,
1< sinθ < cos1 θ
Hence θsin always liesbetween 1 and cos1 θ
This holds however small e may be.
Now when e is very small cos e is very nearly unity,
and the smaller e becomes, the more nearly does cos1 θ
become unity, and hence the more nearly does cos θ
become unity.
262 TRIGONOMETRY.

Hence when e is very small the quantity sinθ lies

between 1 and a quantity which differs from unity by an
indefinitely small quantity.
In otherӨ words, when e issinmade indefinitely small the
quantitysind' and therefore θ'- , is ultimately equal to
unity, i.e. the smaller an angle becomes the more nearly
is its sine equal to the number of radians in it.
This is often shortly expressed thus ;
sin 0 = 0, when e is very small.
So also tan 0 = 0, when e is very small.
Cor. Putting ==,n'α it follows that, when e is indefi-
=-

nitely small, nαis indefinitely great.

sin n-

Hence α is unity, when n is indefinitely great.

n

Son sin αn = a, when n is indefinitely great.

229. In the preceding article it must be particularly
noticed that e is the number of radians in the angle
considered.
The value of sina , when a is small, may be found.
For, since πº = 180°, we have
C

α°=( 180) .
πα C πα
.. sin a sin 180
= =
180 '
by the result of the last article.
 RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. 263
230. From the tables it will be seen that the sine of
an angle and its circular measure agree to 7 places of
decimals so long as the angle is not greater than 18'.
They agree to the 5th place of decimals so long as the
angle is less than about 2°.
231. If o be the number of radians in an angle,02 which is less than a
right angle, then sin 0 is >O 403 and cos e is>
-

is > 1-
By Art. 227 wehave θ θ
tan 2-2
> •

.. sin 2-2 cos 2Ө

00
>

Hence, since sin 0= 2sin θ cos 2'θ ,

-

θ
wehave Cos 2' i.e. > 1 - sin2 2
sin 0> 0 cos2
But since, by Art. 227, 0 0
sin 2< 2'
02
therefore 1-sin1-( ),i.e. >1-
2
>
2
2
4
03
•

::sin00(1-0),i
..
.e. >0-
cos 0= 1-2 sin2
02
4
θ
4
Again,
therefore, since sin2 2θ <(%)*, 2
,

we have 1-2sin² 2
>1-2(2),i
Ө
2
It will be found in a later chapter that
. c . >1- 02
2

02 04
sin 0- 03
6' and cos 0 < 1 2+24
-
•

232. Ex. 1. Find the values of sin 10' and cos 10'.
Since 10' =6106. = 180×6' π
264 TRIGONOMETRY.

wehave sin 10' =sin(180×6)

3.14159265...
=180×6
C

180 × 6 = 0029089 nearly.

Also cos 10′ = 1- sin² 10'
=[1 – 000008468...]
-
•

= 1- 1 [ 000008468...],
approximately by theBinomial Theorem,
= 1-000004234...
= .9999958 ....
Ex. 2. Solve approximately the equation
sin 0= 52.
Since sin e is verynearlyequal to 12' e must be nearlyequal to π •

Let then 0 6+x, where x is small.

=

.: 52=sin(1+x)=sin
...
π

= cosx + √3 sinx.
1
cosx+cos π
6
π
6 sinx

2 2
Since x is very small, we have
cosx= 1 and sin x=x nearly.
...52==1√3
52= 1+ 2.
+
..x= 02 xXJ3 radians = √3
2
75 =1.32° nearly.
√3°
Hence 9=31° 19′ nearly.

EXAMPLES. XL.
Taking equal to 3.14159265, find to 5 places of decimals the
value of
1. sin 7'. 2. sin15". 3. sin 1'.
4. cos 15'. 5. cosec8". 6. sec 5'.
[Exs. XL.] EXAMPLES. 265
Solve approximately the equations
7. sin 0= 01. 8. sin 0= 48.
9. cos ( +0)= 49.
3 10. cos 0= 999.
11. Find approximately the distance at which ahalfpenny, which is
an inch in diameter, must be placed so as to just hide the moon, the
angular diameter of the moon, that is the angle its diameter subtends at
the observer's eye, being taken to be 30'.
12. Aperson walks in astraight line toward averydistant object and
observes that at three points A, B, and C the angles of elevation of the
top of the object are a, 2a, and 3a respectively; prove that
AB= 3BC nearly.
13. If o be the number of radians in an angle which is less than
a right angle, prove that
cos e is < 1- 022이 + 0416
14. Prove the theorem ofEuler, viz. that
sin 0= 0.cos 2θ COS 22
•
θ
cos θ ......ad. inf.

[Wehave sin 0=2 sin Ө2COS θ 5=22sin Ө22 COS 22 COS θ 2

0 COS θ COS COS θ θ
=23 sin 23 23 22 2 = ....

2n sin 2nӨ × COS θ • COS θ22 •

θ
cos 23 ......
θ
.cos 2nan •

Make n indefinitelygreat so that,byArt. 228 Cor. ,

θ θ.
2n sin 2n =

Hence cos .cos θ cos .....ad inf.

sin 0=0.cos
15. Prove that
(1-tan )(1-tana)(1-tan ).....adinf.
22
=0.cote .
23
266 TRIGONOMETRY.
233. Area of a circle.
By Art. 225 the area of a regular polygon of n sides,
which is inscribed in a circle of2πradius R, is
2 R2 sin 2ㅠ
n
n
Let now the number of sides of this polygon be inde-
finitely increased, the polygon always remaining regular.
It is clear that the perimeter of the polygon must more
and more approximate to the circumference of the circle.
Hence, when the number of sides of the polygon is
infinitely great, the area of the circle must be the same as
that of the polygon. 2π 2π
2π sin n sin n
Now n2-R² sin 2π
-

n
n
2 R2
=
n 2π = πR2 . 2π
n n
= R sinӨ where = 2π
•

n ,

When n is made infinitely great thesinvalue of becomes

infinitely smalland then,byArt. 228, θ is unity.
The area of the circle therefore = R2 = 7 times the
square of its radius.
234. Area ofthe sector of a circle.
Let O be the centre of a circle, AB the bounding arc
of the sector, and let ∠AOB = a radians.
By Euc. VI. 33, since sectors are to one another as the
arcs on which they stand, we have
area of sector AOB arc AB
area of whole circle circumference
Ra =
α
2π.R- 2π΄
 AREA OF A CIRCLE. 267
α
... area of sectorAOB = 2π × area of whole circle
α 1
2π × πR² = 2 R2 . α.

EXAMPLES. XLI.
1. Find the area of a circlewhose circumference is 74 feet.
2. The diameter of a circle is 10 feet; find the area of a sector whose
arc is 221°.
3. The area of a certain sector of a circle is 10 square feet ; if the
radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the angle of the sector.
4. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is 10 feet ; if the
radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the area of the sector.
5. A strip ofpaper two miles long and 003 of an inch thick is rolled
up into a solid cylinder ; find approximatelythe radius of the circularends
of the cylinder.
6. A strip of paper, one mile long, is rolled tightly up into a solid
cylinder, the diameter of whose circular ends is 6 inches; find the thick-
ness of the paper.
7. Given two concentric circles of radii r and 2r ; two parallel
tangents to the inner circle cut off an are from the outer circle ; find its
length.
8. The circumference of a semicircle is divided into two arcs such
that the chord of one is double that of the other. Prove that the sum of
the areas of the two segments cut off by these chords is to the area of the
semicircle as 27 is to 55.
[ㅠ=2 ]
22
7
9. If each of 3 circles, of radius a, touch the other two, prove that
the area included between them is nearly equal to 254 α2.
268 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLI.]
10. Six equal circles, each of radius a, are placed so that each
touches two others, their centres being all on the circumference of
another circle; prove that the area which they enclose is
2α² (3/3 – π).
-

11. From the vertex A of a triangle a straight line AD is drawn

making an angle & with the base and meeting it at D. Prove that the
area common to the circumscribing circles of the triangles ABD and
ACD is
1
4 (by + c² - 2bc sin 4) cosec² 0,
where ẞ and y are the number ofradians in the angles B and C respeс-
tively.
235. Dip of the Horizon.
Let O be a point at a distance h above the earth's
surface. Draw tangents, such as OT P 0 Q
and OT', to the surface of the earth. T A T
The ends of all these tangents all
clearly lie on a circle. This circle is
called the Offing or Visible Horizon. C
The angle that each of these tangents
OT makes with a horizontal plane POQ
is called the Dip of the Horizon.
Letr be the radius of the earth B

and let B be the other end of the diameter through A.

We then have, by Euc. III. 36,
OT2 = OA . OB=h (2r +h),
so that OT = √h (2r + h).
This gives an accurate value for OT.
In all practical cases, however, h is very small com-
pared with r.
[r= 4000 miles nearly and his never greater, and
generally is very considerably less, than 5 miles.]
 DIP OF THE HORIZON. 269
Hence h² is very small compared with hr.
As a close approximation we have then
OT=√2hr.
The dip = ∠TOQ
= 90° - ∠COT = ∠ OCT.
Also tan OCT = CT r OT √2hr = √2h
=
r ,

so that, very approximately, we have the angle

OCT=√2h
V radians --

r
2h 180 ° 180 × 60 × 60 2h //
=
r π π r

236. Ex. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles, find the dip
at the top of a lighthouse which is 264 feet above the sea and the distance
of the offing.
Here r=4000 miles, and h=264 feet = 201 mile.
Hence h is very small compared with ", so that
1
OT= 10 ×4000=√400=20 miles.
2h radians = 1
Also the dip 200 radian
=
--

=(200 x180x60) = (54) =17′ 11″ nearly.

EXAMPLES. XLII.
1. Find in degrees, minutes,and seconds the dip of the horizon from
the
feet.
top of a mountain 4400 feet high, the earth's radius being 21x106
2. The lamp of a lighthouse is 196 feet high ; how far off can it be
seen?
270 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLII.]
3. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, find the height of a
balloon when the dip is 1º.
Find also the dip when the balloon is 2 miles high.
4. Prove that, if the height of the place of observation be n feet, the
distance that the observer can see is 3η 2 miles nearly.
5. There are 10 million metres in a quadrant of the earth's circum-
ference. Find approximately the distance at which the top of the Eiffel
tower should be visible, its height being 300 metres.
6. Threeverticalposts are placedatintervals of amile along a straight
canal each rising to the same height above the surface of the water. The
visual line joining the tops of the two extreme posts cuts the middle post
at a point 8 inches below its top. Find the radius of the earth to the
nearest mile.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.

237. IF sin = a, where a is a known quantity, we

know from Art. 82, that e is not definitely known. We
only know that e is some one of a definite series of
angles.
The symbol " sin-¹a" is used to denote the smallest
angle, whether positive or negative, that has a for its sine.
The symbol " sin-¹a " is read in words as " sine minus
one a," and must be carefully distinguished from sin1 a
which would be written, if so desired, in the form (sina)-¹.
It will therefore be carefully noted that "sin¯¹ a " is an
angle and denotes the smallest numerical angle whose
sine is a.
So " cos-¹a " means the smallest numerical angle
whose cosine is a. Similarly " tan-¹a," " cot-1 a," "co-
‫دو‬

sec-1 a,” “sec-1 a," " vers-1 a," and "covers-¹ a," are defined.
Hence sin-¹a and tan-¹a (and therefore cosec-¹ a and
cot-¹ a) always lie between - 90° and + 90°.
But cos- a (and therefore sec-¹a) always lies between
0° and 180°.
272 TRIGONOMETRY.
238. The quantities sin-¹a, cos- a, tan-1 a, ... are
called Inverse Circular Functions.
The symbol sin-¹a is often, especially in foreign
mathematical books, written as " arc sin a" ; similarly
cos-¹ a is written " arc cos a," and so for the other inverse
ratios.
239. When a is positive, sin-¹ a clearly lies between
0°0°. and 90° ; when a is negative it lies between - 90° and
Ex. sin-1 =30°; sin-1-13= -60°.
2 2

When a is positive, there are two angles, one lying

between 0° and 90° and the other lying between - 90°
and 0°, each of which has its cosine equal to a. [For
example both 30° and -30° have their cosine equal to
√3 .] In this case we take the smallest positive angle.
2
Hence cos-¹ a, when a is positive, lies between 0° and 90°.
So cos-¹ a, when a is negative, lies between 90° and
180°.
1
Ex. cos-1
√2 =45 °; cos -1 (-1) =120°.
When a is positive, the angle tan-¹ a lies between 0°
and 90° ; when a is negative, it lies between - 90° and 0°.
Ex. tan-1√3 = 60° ; tan-1 ( -1) = − 45°.
-

240. Ex. 1. Prove that sin-1 53 - cos-1 12 16

13= sin-1 65 •

Let sin-1 53=a, so that sinsina=3,

a= 5'3
and therefore COS a=
9 4
1- 25-5 .
 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 273
Let cos-1 12
13=8, so that cos β=1213 '
144 5
and therefore sinẞ=√1-
16
16913
16
-
=
•

Let sin-1 65=7, sothat siny = 65

We have then to prove that
α-β=γ,
i.e. to shew that sin (a– ẞ)=siny.
Now sin(a-ẞ)=sinacosẞ-cosa sin β
3 12 4 5 36-20 ==siny.
16
513-51365 65
Hence the relation is proved.
Ex. 2. Prove that 2 tan-1 31 + tan-1 7-4
1 π=

Let tan-1 =a, sothat tan a= 1,

and let 1
tan-1==β,
7 so that tan ẞ = 71
We have then to shew that
π
2α+β=
tan 2a= 12-tan a
Now tan² a
2
363
1 184
-
19

tan2a+tanẞ
Also tan(2a+3)=1-tan2atanp
31
+
47 21+4 25 π
31-28-325 = 1] =tan 4
1- 47
エ・テ π
.. 2α+β= 4
L. T. 18
274 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Prove that
63+2 tan-1 1= sin-1 3 .
cos-1 65 5
Let cos-1 63 63
65=a, so that cosa=65'
and therefore sin a= 1- 632
652
652-632 16
65 = 65 •

1
Let tan-1 =ẞ, so that tan β= 5'1
and therefore (as inArt. 32),
1
sinẞ=ẞ=126
√26 and cospβ ==126 •

Also let sin-1 3

5=y, so that siny= 3
Wehave then to prove that
α+2β=γ.
Now sin (a+23) =sinacos2ẞ +cos asin28
=
65
16
×(cos²ẞ- sin²β)+ 6365×2sin ẞ cosβ
16 X 25-1
==
65166×× 24 +6326× 10+ 6366×
65 X
2 ×1 × 5
26
1014 3 × 338 3 × 13 3 =sin y.
35

= =
65x 26 65 × 2665 x 26 65
Hence a+ 2β=y, so that the relation is proved.
Ex. 4. Prove that
4tan-1 51 - tan-1 2394
1 π =

Let 1
tan-1==a, so that tana= 1 .
2
Then tan 2a= 1 2tana 5 5
- tan² a 1 1 12 '
-

25
10
and tan4a= 1225 = 120
1 144 119 '-

π
so that tan4a is nearlyunityand 4a therefore nearly
 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 275
π
Let 4a=7+tan-1x.
120 π 1 +x
..
119 =tan 144
+ tan-1 x =
1 -х (Art. 100).
..x=2391
Hence 4tan-1 1 tan-1 2394
-
1 π

Ex. 5. Prove that

a+ b
tan-1 a + tan-1b =tan-1 1- ab
Let tan-1a=a, so that tana=a.
Let tan-1b=ẞ, so that tanẞ=b.
a+b
Also let tan-1 1- ab =y, so that tany=1a+ b
We have then to prove that
α+ β=γ.
Now tana+tanẞ a+ b =tany,
tan(a+3)=1-tanatanp 1-ab
so that the relation is proved.
The above relation is merely the formula
tan x+tan y
tan (x +y) = 1-tanxtany'
expressed in inverse notation.
For put tanx=a, so that x=tan-1 a,
and tany=b, so that y=tan-1b.
a+b
Then tan(x+y)=1-ab
a+ b
..x+y=tan-1 1-ab '
i.e. a+b
tan-1 a+tan-1b=tan-1 1-ab
18-2
276 TRIGONOMETRY.

In the abovewe have tacitlyassumedthat ab <1, so that 1a+- abb is posi-

tive, and therefore tan-1 1a+- abb lies between 0° and 90°.
Ifhowever ab be>1, then 1a+- abb and therefore according to our defini-
tion tan-1 1a+- abb is a negative angle. Here y is therefore a negative angle
and, since tan(π+y)=tany, theformula should be
tan-1 a +tan-1b = + tan-1 1a+- abb
Ex. 6. Solve the equation
Here we have
tan-1 x+1
x -1 + tan-10-1=tan-1(-7).
X

α+ β=γ,
x+ 1
where a=tan-1 x+ 1
x -1 and hence tan a = x - 1'
β=tan-1 XX 1 and hence tanẞ= x-X 1
-

and y=tan-1 (-7) and hence tany= -7.

Since tan (a+3) =tan y,
tan a+tanẞ
..
1- tan a tanẞ -7, =

x+ 1 + х- 1 --

x- 1 X
i.e.
1 x+ -
1 x - 1 = -7,
x- 1 X
2x² - x + 1
i.e. 1 - х : -7,
so that x=2.
This value makes the left-hand side of the given equation positive, so
that there is no value of x strictly satisfying the given equation.
The value x=2 is a solution of the equation
tan-1 x+ 1
x- 1 +tan-1-1= +tan-1(-7).
X
 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 277
EXAMPLES. XLIII.
Prove that
= 77
1. sin-1 53+sin-1 178 =sin-1 85 •

5 +sin-1 7 = cos-1
2. sin-113+ 253
25 -

325
cos-11 +tan-15-tan-127
3. cos- 4 3=
4. cos-15+cos-1 12 33

44
13=cos-1 65
5. cos-lx= 2 sin-1 1 2- x=2 cos-1 1 2+ x •

3 +cot-1 16 1 cos-1 7 =π.

6.2cos-1 √13 63 +2 25
+tan-1!31== sin-1√51 +cot-13=45°.
7. tan-1 +tan-11
8. tan-1 1 tan-11=tan-1= 9. tan-1 32- tan-112.5
7+tan-1 13
-129
10. tan-1 41 +tan-1 21 cos-1 3
+ tan 92
= -
•

11. 2tan-1 15 +tan-1 71 + 2tan-118-4 =

π

3
12. tan-1-+ 3 8 π
4 tan-1 5 tan-1 19-4 =
-

13. tan-1 13++tan-1 1 +tan-171 +tan-18-4

1 π =

1 π
14. 3tan-1 41 +tan-1 20-4=
4-tan-119851
1 π
15. 4tan-1 51 - tan-1 701 +tan-1 99-4
16. tan-1 120 5
119 = 2 sin-1 13
m-n
17. tan-1 -tan-1m+n m
=
π
4 •

2t =tan-1 3t- t³
18. tan-1t+tan-1 1-t2 1-3t2 '
1
if t</and="+tan-13-3 ift √3
278 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIII.]
19. tan-1 a (a+b+c)
bc +tan-1
b (a + b+c)
ca

+tan-1 c(a+b+c) =π.

ab
20. cot-1 ab+1 bc+ 1 ca+1
a - b + cot-1 b - c + cot-1 c- a =0.
21. tan-1n+cot-1 (n+ 1)=tan-1 (n²+n+1).
22. cos (2tan-171 =sin 4 tan-1 1

23. 2tan-1 tan(45°– a) tan β2 =cos-1 1tan2a+cos

n-1[tan(45°-a) +tan2acosẞ
β
24. tan-1x= 2 tan-1 [cosectan-1 x-tan cot-1 x].
[tan
26. Shew that
tantan 2β =tan-1 sinsinacosβ
25. 2tan-1 tant π
-

ẞ + cos a •

cos-1 a-x x - b = cot-1 а- х

a - b = sin-1 a-b х- б
=-sin-12/(a-a)(
a- b a -b)
(x •

27. Ifcos-1 хa + cos-1 b = a, prove that

x2 2xy y2
a2 ab cos a+ =sin² a.
-

Solve
28. tan-1√1+22-√1-22
√1+x2+√1 - x2 =β.
29. tan-12x+tan-13x=1.4 30. tan-1-1+
π
x- 2 tan-1 x+2-4
+ tan-1x+1 π
•

31. tan-1 (x+ 1) +cot-1(x - 1) =sin-1 45 + cos-1 53

20

32. tan-1x+tan-1 (x- 1)=tan-1 8

8
31°
33. 2tan-1(cosx)=tan-1 (2 cosecx) .
[Exs. XLIII.] INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 279
34. tan-1 x + 2 cot-1 x = 2 π. 35. tan cos-1 x= sin cot-1 21
36. cot-1x - cot-1 (x + 2)=15°.
37. cos-1 x²-1 2x 2π
x²+1 + tan-1 2-1-3 =

38. cot-1x + cot-1 (n2 - x + 1) =cot-1 (n - 1).

39. sin-1 x + sin-12x= π3 40. sin-1 +sin-112 .х
=

41. tan-1 +tan-10 + tan-10- + tan-1d

X х X X
=
π
2
42. sec-1 sec-1 万 =sec-1b- sec-la.
a
-
X

43. cosec-1 x = cosec-1 a + cosec-1 b.

44. 2tan-1 x=cos-1 1- a2 11-62
1 + a2 cos-1 1+62
-

•
 CHAPTER XIX.
ON SOME SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES.

241. To find the sum ofthe sines ofa series ofangles,

the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
Let α, α + β, α + 2β, ..... {α + (n − 1)β}.
S= sin a + sin(a+3) +sin(a+ 2β) ... +sin {a + (n - 1) β}.
By Art. 97 we have
2 sin a sin β2 = COS α -
β2 -
COS (a+ 2β
2sin (a +β) sin β = COS a + β2O s ( a+32).
-
3β COS ‫د‬

2sin (a +23)sin 2 = COS

..
cos(a + 3β -cos(a + 5β2).
2 ,

β {a+(n-2)3}
2sin{a+(n-2)ẞ} sin==cos {a + (n-1) }--cos
cos{a+ (n-2)β},
{a+(n-2)β},
2
and
2sin{a+(n-1) }sin==cos{a+(n-2)B}-cos{a +(n-1)B}.
By adding together these n lines, we have
2sin .S=cos(a-2)-cos{a+(n −+)3},
 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 281
the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one
another.
Hence, by Art. 94, we have
β
2sin2.S=2sin n
sin ηβ
-

2 2 ,

i.e. S=
sina + n 1
-

2
22
ẞsin ηβ
2
sin β
Ex. By putting ẞ=2a, we have
sin a + sin 3a +sin 5a+ ... +sin (2n- 1) a
sin{a+(n-1)a}
sina
sinna sin²na
sina •

242. To find the sum of the cosines of a series of

angles, the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
Let
α, α + β, α+ 2β, ... α + (n − 1) β.
S= cosa+ cos (α+β) + cos(a+23) + ... + cos{a + (n -1)β}.
By Art. 97, we have
22

2 cos a sin 2β =sin(aa + β -sin(a β),

+

sin β2
2 cos (a+β) sin = sin (a + 3β38) -sin(a+2),
2 ‫ر‬

2 cos(a + 23) sin β2 =sin((a ++ )-sinsin(a+

21 (4+ 3β2),
2cos {a+(n-2)β}sin =sin{a+(n-2)3}-sin{a+(n-1) },
282 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
2cos{a+(n-1) }sin β =sin{a+(n-1) }-sin{a+(n-1) }.
By adding together these n lines, we have
2S × sin 2β sin {a + (n - 1) 3} - sin α β)
=
2
-

the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one

another.
Hence, by Art. 94, we have
2S × sin β2 = 2 cos a + n 2 1 B sin ηβ
{a -

,
2

i.e. S
n- 1
COS α+ 2 βBsinsinn2
sin 2B
243. Both the expressions for S in Arts. 241 and 242
vanishwhen sinηβnß2 is zero, i.e. when ηβnB2 is equal to any
multiple of π, ηβ ρπ,
i.e. when 2
=

where p is any integer, 2π

i.e. when βρ..
n
Hence the sum of the sines (or cosines) of n angles,
which are in arithmetical progression, vanishes when
the2πcommon difference of the angles is any multiple
of n
•

Exs. cos a+ cos (a+2) +cos(a+1 )+... to n terms=0,

2π 4π
 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 283
and (a+1)+sin(a+1)+
sina+sin
244. Ex. 1. Find the sum of
4π 8π + ... to n terms=0.

sin a - sin (a +3) +sin (a + 23) -- . ... to n terms .

We have, by Art. 73,
sin (α+β + π)= − sin (α+β),
sin (a+ 2β+2 ) =sin (a+2β),
sin (a+ 3β+ 3 )= − sin (a+3β), -

Hence the series

=sin a+sin (a+β+ π) + sin {a+2 (β + π)}
+sin {a +3 (β +π)} + ...
sin a+ n-12 (β +π)} sinn(β2+π)
{sin β +π
byArt. 241, ,

2
sin {a+ 1 (β+π)
α
(β +π)
2 sin η(β+π)
2
22

COS β
Ex. 2. Find the sum of the series
cos³ a+ cos3 2a +cos3 3a + ...... to n terms.
By Art. 107, we havecos3a=4 cos³ a -3cosa,
so that 4cos³ a= 3 cos a+ cos 3α.
So 4cos³ 2a= 3 cos 2a +cos 6α,
4cos³ 3a= 3 cos 3a +cos 9a,
Hence, if S be the given series, we have
4S== (3 cos a+cos 3a)+(3 cos 2a+cos 6a) +(3 cos 3a+cos 9a)+ ...
=3 (cos a+cos2a+cos3a+ ...)+(cos 3a+cos 6a+cos 9a+ ...)
1
fa+ n n- 1
a sinna2 + {3a+ .3a sin η .23α
-

cos 2 • COS
2
=3
sin 2α sin За
2
3(n+1) Зпа
2 asin 2
COS 2
n+ 1 asinna COS
2
3 + •

sin α sin За
12

2
284 TRIGONOMETRY.
In a similar manner we can obtain the sum of the cubes of the sines
of a series of angles in A.P.
Cor. Since
2sin² a=1 - cos2a, and 2cos² a=1 +cos 2a,
we can obtain the sum of the squares.
Since again 8sin a=2 [1 -cos 2a]2
2-4 cos 2a+2 cos² 2a= 3-4 cos 2a + cos 4a,
we can obtainthe sum ofthe 4th powers of the sines. Similarly for the
cosines.
Ex. 3. Sum to n terms the series
cos a sin ẞ + cos 3a sin 2ẞ + cos 5a sin 3ẞ+ to n terms.
...

Let S denote the series.

Then
2S= {sin (a+ẞ) – sin (a–β)} + {sin (3a+23) –sin(3a– 2ẞ)}
+ {sin (5a+3β) – sin (5a – 3β)} + ..
= {sin (a+ẞ) + sin (3a+23) + sin (5a +33) + ...}
- {sin (a-ẞ) +sin(3a – 2ẞ) +sin (5a – 3β) + ...}
sin (a+3) + n-2 1 (2a + β) sin n 2α+β
2
sin 2α+β
2

sin (a -3)+21(2a--β-3)}sinn2a-B
β)
sin 2α2
-
2-β byArt. 241,
,

sin na+ n+2 1 B

fra+ sin η (2α+β)
2
sin 2α+β
2
sin {na sin β) βsinn(2α-β)
-
n+ 1
2
2α -
η
2

2
 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 285
Ex. 4. A142...An is a regular polygon ofn sides inscribed in a circle,
whose centre is O, and P is any point on the arc AnA₁ such that the angle
POA₁ is 0 ; find the sum of the lengths of the lines joiningP to the angular
points of the polygon.
Each of the anglesA10A2, A20A3,...AOA₁ is 2πn ,so that the angles
POA1, POA2,... are respectively
2π 4π
0,0,0 , ...
Hence, if r be the radius of the circle, we have
PA₁=2rsin POA1=2rsin 2',
PA2=2r sin POA2
2
= 2r sin θ + n

PA3=2r sin POA3

2
= 2r sin θ + 2π
n
..

Hence the required sum

=2r[sin +sin( +1)+sin( 2)........ n terms
2
θ
2
n π
+
2π
n

2r
sin 2 + 2 sin 2n (Art. 241)
-

π
sin -

2n
π
=2r cosec 2n
θ π
π
sin[ + ]
=2r cosec--
2η COS 22η

EXAMPLES. XLIV.
Sum the series :
1. cos + cos 30+ cos 50 + ... to n terms.
2. cos A2 +cos 2A + cos 7A
2 + to n terms.
...

3. sin acos+ sin 2a + sin 3a+ ... + sin na tan n + 1 α.

a + cos 2a + ... + cos na 2
286 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIV.]
4. sin a+sin 3a +sin 5a+ +sin (2n - 1) a
cosa+cos 3a+cos5a+ ...+cos(2n- 1) a =tan na.
...

π 3π 5π
5. cos 2n+ 1 + cos 2n + 1 + cos 2n + 1 + ... to n terms.
6. COSa-cos (α+β)+cos (a+ 23) - ... to 2n terms.
7. sin a-sin (a +3) +sin (a+23) + ... to n terms
cosa-cos (a+β)+cos (a+ 23) + ... to n terms
=tan {a +2=1(π +β)}.
n- 1

8. sin + sin nn 42 0+sin nn--62 0 + ... to n terms.

- -

9. cos x+sin3x+cos 5x+sin 7x+ ... +sin (4n – 1) x.

10. sin asin 2a+sin2asin 3a+sin 3a sin4a+ to n terms. ...

11. cos a sin 2a+sin 2a cos 3a+cos 3asin 4a

+sin 4a cos 5a + ... to 2n terms.
12. sin a sin 3a+sin2a sin4a+sin 3asin5a+ to n terms. ...

13. cos acosẞ+cos 3a cos 2ẞ+cos 5a cos 3β... to n terms.

14. sin2 a+sin² 2a+sin² 3a+ to n terms.
...

15. sin20+sin2 (0+ a) +sin2 (0 +2a) + ... to n terms.

16. sin³ a +sin³ 2a+sin³ 3a + to n terms.
...

17. sin a +sin42a+ sin 3a+ to n terms.

...

18. cos4a+cos42a+cos 3a+ to n terms.

...

19. cos e cos 20 cos 30 +cos 20 cos 30 cos 40 + ... to n terms.

20. sinasin(α+β) – sin(α+β) sin (a+ 2β) + ... to 2n terms.
21. From the sum of the series
sin a +sin 2a+sin3a + ... to n terms,
deduce (by making a very small) the sum ofthe series
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n.
22. From the result ofthe example of Art. 241 deduce the sum of
1 + 3 + 5... to n terms .
2π
23. If α=
17 '
prove that 2 (cos a+cos2a+cos 4a+cos5a)
and 2(cos 3a+cos 5a+cos 6a+cos7a)
are the roots of the equation x² + x - 4=0.
[Exs. XLIV.] SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 287
24. ABCD... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a
circle, whose centre is O andwhose radius is r, and P is anypoint on the
arc AB such that POA is 0. Prove that
PA . PB + PA.PC + PA . PD+PB . PC+ ...
2 2 cos2 Ө π π
2 2η cosec22η n
- - -

25. Two regularpolygons, each of n sides, are circumscribed to and

inscribed in a given circle. If an angular point ofone of them be joined
to each of the angularpoints of the other then the sum of the squares of
the straight lines sodrawnis to the sum of the areas of the polygons as
2 : sin 2π
n
•

26. A1, A2...A2n+1 are the angular points of a regular polygon in-
scribed in a circle and O is any point on the circumference between A₁
and A2n+1 ; prove that
OA₁ + OA3+ ... + OA2n+1 = OA2 + OA4+ ... + OA2n
27. If perpendiculars be drawn on thesides of aregularpolygon of n
sides from any point on the inscribed circle whose3 radius is a, prove that
‫ابع‬

2
n Σ
Σ () 2
=3, and n2 Σ a
=5.
 CHAPTER XX.
ELIMINATION.

245. IT sometimes happens that we have two equa-

tions each containing one unknown quantity.
relation
In this
between the
case there must clearly be a
constants of the equations in order that the same
value of the unknown quantity may satisfy both. For
example, suppose we knew that an unknown quantity
x satisfied both of the equations
ax + b = 0 and cx² + dx + e = 0.
From the first equation we have
-
b
a
and this satisfies the second if

i.e. if
c(-b²c -) abd+a(-1)+e=0,
C
2
+d
+ a²e = 0.
This latter equation is the result of eliminating a
between the above two equations, and is often called their
eliminant.
 ELIMINATION. 289
246. Again, suppose we knew that an angle
satisfied both of the equations
sin³ 0 = b, and cos³ 0 = c,
so that sin 0 = b , and cos 0 = c .
Now we always have, for all values of 0,
sin² 0 + cos² 0 = 1,
so that in this case b3 +c
+c = 1.
This is the result ofeliminating θ.
247. Between any two equations involving one
unknown quantity we can, in theory, always eliminate
that quantity. In practice a considerable amount of
artifice and ingenuity is often required in seemingly
simple cases.
So between any three equations involving two un-
known quantities we can theoretically eliminate both
of the unknown quantities.
248. Some examples ofelimination are appended.
Ex. 1. Eliminate efrom the equations
a cos +b sin 0=c,
and b cos 0+ csin 0= a.
Solving for cose and sine by cross multiplication, or otherwise,
wehave
cos θ sin = 1
c2- aba²-bc ас -62
.. 1=cos² +sin2 0 =(c2-ab)2+(a²–bc)2
(ас-62)2
2 -

i.e. (a² -bc)2 +(c² - ab)²=(b2 – ас)2.

L. T. 19
290 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 2. Eliminate e between
ах by
cos 0 sin θ =a² -b² (1),
2 ..

ax sin by cos e ...(2).

and cos2 0 + sin² 0 =0......
From (2) we have ax sin³ 0 = - by cos³ θ.
..
sin =
cos θe sin20 + cos2 θ
-

(by) (ax) √(by) +(ax)

(Hall and Knight's Higher Algebra, Art. 12)
1 •

(by) +(ax)
Hence 1
sin
√(by) +(ax)៖ ,
(by)
and 1
cos θ
√(by) +(ax) ,
(ax)
so that (1) becomes
1 1
a²-b²= √(by) +(ax) [ax.((ax)&x) -by-
32
-by (by)
=
√(by) +(ax) {(ax) +(by) }
={(ax) + (by) } ,
i.e. (ax) + (by) = (a² -b²) .
The student who shall afterwards become acquainted with Analytical
Geometrywill find that the above is the solution of an important problem
concerning normals to an ellipse.
Ex. 3. Eliminate ofrom the equations
X
cos θ -
Y sin0=cos 20 .. (1),
a b
X
and -

a
sine + cos 0 = 2 sin 20 ...(2).
 ELIMINATION. 291
Multiplying (1) by cos 6, (2) by sin e, and adding, we have
X
a
=cos e cos 20 +2 sin 0 sin 20
=cos 0+ sin e sin 20=cos 0 + 2 sin2 0 cos 0...............(3).
Multiplying (2) by cos 0, (1) by sin 0, and subtracting, we have
Y=2 sin20cos 0 - cos 20 sin e
b
= sin 20 cos 0+ sin 0 = sin 0 + 2 sin 0 cos2 0...........(4).
Adding (3) and (4), we have
X
a + b = (sine +cos 0)[1+ 2 sin e cos 0]
-

=(sin 0+ cos 0) [sin² 0+cos2 0 + 2 sin e cos θ]

=(sin 0+ cos θ)3,
13

so that sin 0+ cos 0= X

a
Y ...
.............
(5).
Subtracting (4) from (3), wehave
X
a - ==(cos
(cos θ0 - sin 0) (1–2 sine cos 0)
=(cos 0 – sin 0)3,
-

so that =( - )
cos θ sin 0 =
-

Squaring and adding (5) and (6), we have

... (6).
= X
a
+ +( X
a
-

EXAMPLES. XLV.
Eliminate e from the equations
1. acos 0 + b sin 0=c, and b cos θ -a sin 0=d.
2. x=a cos ( -a), and y=b cos (0– β).
3. a cos 20=b sind, and csin 20 =dcos 0.
4. a sin a - b cos a =2b sin 0, and asin 2a - b cos 20= a.
5. x sin e −y cos e= x²+y², and sin²a2 0 + cos²b2θ = x2x²+y²•
-
1
y2
19--2
292 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLV.]
x cos θ + y sin 0 =1,
6. a b
and x sin e − y cos 0= a² sin² +b² cos2 0.
7. sin - cos =p, and cosec -sin 0=q.
8. If m=cosec - sin 0, and n=sec - cos θ,
prove that m +n3=(mn)- .
9. Prove that the result of eliminating e from the equations
x cos (0 + a) +y sin (0 +a) =a sin20,
and ycos (0+ a) -xsin (0 + a)=2acos 20,
is (x cos a +ysin a) + (x sin a−y cos a) =(2a) .
-

Eliminate 0 and 6 from the equations

10. a cos² +b sin20 =c, bcos² + a sin² =d,
and a tan 0=btan 4.
11. cos +cos =a, cot + cot =b, and cosec +cosec =c.
12. a sin 0=b sin φ, a cos +bcosp=c, and x=y tan (0 + 4).
13. a cos0+ sin0=1, cos + b sin = 1,
a

and a² sin 2 sin Φ + b² cos 2 cos =c2

 PART II.
ANALYTICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
 CHAPTER XXI.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC SERIES.

249. In the following chapter we are about to obtain

an expansion in powers of a for the expression ax, where
both a and x are real, and also to obtain an expansion for
loge(1 + x), where x is real and less than unity, and e
stands for a quantity to be defined.
250. Tofindthevalueoftheq qu +1)
uantity(1+
n becomes infinitely great and is real.
2) , when
n

Since 1= < 1, we have, by the Binomial Theorem,

n
1\n
1+n(n-1) 1 + n(n-1)(n-2)
1+ n/. = 1 + n. n + 12 n2
1
1.2.3 n³ + 3 ...

1-1 1-1)((1- 2 +
n n n
- -
1 1- 2 1. 3
n
--

n
-

n
-

=1+1+ 2 + 3• 4
+ ......

This series is true for all values of n, however great.

Make then n infinite and the right-hand side
1 1 + 1 + ... ad inf.
1/4

= 1 + 1 + 2+
12 83 4
压+
296 TRIGONOMETRY.

n is infinite,of(1 + 1\n
Hencethelimitingvalue,whenu -
+n
is the sum of the series
11 1 + ... ad inf.
1 + 1 +++
B+4 -

The sum of this series is always denoted by the

quantity e.
Hence we have
Lt(1+1)
n=8 =e,n
where Lt stands for " the limit when n 8 .‫دو‬
n=8
1
Cor. By putting n = m' it follows (since m is zero
-

when n is infinity) that 1

Lt(1+ m) =Lt(1+1) =e.
m=0
-

n=8 n
n

251. This quantity e is finite.

For since 1< 1
-

<-
1
32.222 ,
1< 1 1
42.2.2 < 23 '
-

we have
111
< 1 + 1 +++ - ......
ad inf.
23
1
< 1+ 1-
< 1 + 2, i.e. < 3.
Also clearly e > 2.
 THE QUANTITY e. 297
Hence it lies between 2 and 3.
By taking a sufficient number ofterms in the series, it
can be shewn that
e = 2.7182818285...
252. The quantity e is incommensurable.
For, ifpossible, supposeit to be equal to a fraction q ,wherep and q
are whole numbers.
We have then
1 1
2=1+1+ 2+ 13++ .... + 1q +
q+ 1 + q+2 + ... ......(1).
Multiply this equation by q, so that all the terms of the series (1)
q Hence we have
become integers except those commencing with q+ 1
•

2 + + + ...
pq- 1=whole number + q+1 q+ 2 q+ 3
i.e. an integer= q+11 + (q+1)(g+2)+
9+1 (q +1) (q+2) (q +1)(q +2)11 (q +3) +... ...(2).
1

But the right-hand side of this equation is > 9+1 ', and
1 1 1
<q+1 + (9+1)2+ (9+1)3 + ...
i.e. is
i.e. is
< +1=(1-1),
1
÷ (: ,

q
1
Hence the right-hand side of (2) lies between q+1 and q1, andis there-
fore a fraction and so cannot be equal to the left-hand side.
Hence our supposition that e was commensurable is incorrect and it
therefore must be incommensurable.

that
253. Exponential Series. When x is real, to prove
ex = 1 + x + 23
+
13+ ...
ad inf.
298 TRIGONOMETRY.
and that
ax =11 + x logea + x22 (logea)²2 + ... ad inf.
When n is greater than unity, we have

= 1 + пх n- +
{(1 + )* }*=(1+1)^
-

^
1 пх(пх - 1) 1 пх(пх– 1)(пх– 2) 1
1\ nx
-

1.2 n2 + 1.2.3 n³ + ...

X X
1 X X -
1
-
-
2
n n n
= 1 +x+ 1.2 + 1.2.3 + ...

In this expression make n infinitely great. The left-

hand becomes, as in Art. 250, ex.
The right-hand becomes
1 + x + 202 203 + ...
Hence we have
2+13
3
ex = 1 + x + 2 + 3 + ... ad inf. ......
(1.).
Let a = e , so that c = logea.
... ax = ecx = 1 + cx + C2x2
23 + C3x3 + ... ,
-

bysubstituting cæ for x in the series (1).

.. ax = 1 + xlogea+ X22(loge
(logea)²+ 3 (logea) + ... ad inf.
3

...
(2).
254. It can be shewn (as in C. Smith's Algebra, Art. 274) that the
series (1), and therefore (2), of the last article is convergent for all real
values of x.
 EXPONENTIAL THEOREM. 299
255. Ex. 1. Prove that 2
1(0-1) =1+1+1+
e
e 35 + ... ad inf.
By equation (1) of Art. 253 we have, byputting & in succession equal
to 1 and -1, 1
e=1 ++++
2 4 + ... ad inf.
-

and e-1= 1 1 1 1 1
ad inf.
Hence, by subtraction,
1+2 13 + 4 -
...

e-e-2=2(1+++...) , 3 ,

i.e. 1
2 ( - )=1+++
e
+ ...

Ex. 2. Find the sum of the series

1+ 1 +221
+ +|3
2 + 31
+ + 2 +43 +4 + ... ad inf.
- -

The nth term 1+2+3+...+n 1on(n+1)

n
-
n
1 (n - 1) +2
1-2

=
1 n+1 =
1 + 2
,
2n - 1 2 n-1 n -2 n 1 -

provided that n > 2.

Similarly 2
the (n - 1)th term= 12 n
1
-

3+ n -
2 ,

..

1 1 2
the 4th term =223.
+ ,

1 1 2
the 3rd term==21 2 +]
Also the2ndterm=1 [1+ 1],
2
2
,

and the 1st term = 21 2

1
300 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by addition, the whole series
= [1++++...adinf.]
2 12 3

+1.2[1 ++++...adinf.]
1 3e
23
= 2.e+ e= 2 .
256. Logarithmic Series. To prove that, when y is
real and numerically < 1, then
loge(1 +y)=y- 1 y + 1y²- 1 y² + ... ad inf.
In the equation (2) ofArt. 253, put
and we have
a = 1 + y,
(1 + y) = 1 + x loge (1 + y) + |2X2 {loge(1 +y)}² + ...(1).
But, since y is real and numerically < unity, we have
(1 +y) = 1 +x+y + x(x1.2- 1) y²+x(x -1)(
-

1.2.3x -2)y²+..
- –

...............(2).
The series on the right-hand side of (1) and (2) are
equal to one another and both convergent, when y is
numerically < 1. Hence we may equate like powers ofx.
Thus we have
=Y- 1.22 (-1)(-2)
loge(1 +y) =y 1.2.3 y³ ++1.2.3 + (-1)(-2)(-3)y4 1.2.3.4
+ ... ad inf.,
i.e. logo(1 + y) =y - y + 31y²
11
4 +......(3).
3
 LOGARITHMIC SERIES. 301
257. If y= 1, the series (3) ofthe previous article is equal to
+ 11
1- 23 - +...
which is known to be convergent.
111
If y= -1, it equals -1--23 -44 which is known to bedivergent.
...

In addition therefore to being true for all values ofybetween - 1 and

+1, it is true for the value y=1 ; it is not however true for the value
y= -1.
258. Calculation of logarithms to base e.
In the logarithmic series, ifwe put y= 1, we have
log2= 1 - 111 + -+ (1). .......

1
If we put Y = ดู,
we have
loge3 - loge2 = loge 3 =loge(1+
= (1 +1)
+2
=1_1.1+11_11
2-2.223.23-12+ ...(2).
1
If we put Y = 3'
we have
loge4-loge3=loge(1+ )= 111
1111 11
3 2323 33 434
...............(3).
+ -
+

From these equations we could, by taking a sufficient

number of terms,calculate loge2, loge3, and loge4.
It would be found that a large number ofterms would
have to be taken to give the values ofthese logarithms to
the required degree of accuracy. We shall therefore
obtain more convenient series.
302 TRIGONOMETRY.
OMETRY.
259. By Art. 256 we have
loge(1 + y) = y- 1 + 1 - 1 + (1),
and, by changing the sign ofy,
loge(1 -y)=-y- 1 - २1.८३ - 1 Y² + ... (2).
2 -

In both these series y must be numerically less than

unity.
By subtraction, we have
loge (1 +y)-loge (1 -y)=loge 1+1=2[y++........(3).
1-y +...] 1
-
3 1
5
m -
n
Let Y m + n'
=

where m and n are positive integers and m > n, so that

1+y =
m
•

1-y n

The equation (3) becomes

+ 31 /m-n
m+n)3 + 15m+n
/m-n
*+...] . .(4).
m-n 5
loge mn 2 m+n
- = -

Put m= 2, n= 1 in (4) and we get loge 2.

Put m= 3, n = 2 and we get loge3-loge2, and there-
fore loge 3.
By proceeding in this way we get the value of the
logarithm of any number to base e.
260. Logarithms to base 10. The logarithms of
the previous article, to base e, are called Napierian or
natural logarithms.
 LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10. 303
We can convert these logarithms into logarithms to
base 10.
For, by Art. 147, we have, ifNbe any number,
loge N= log10N× loge10.
1
... log10N=logeN× loge10 •

Now1loge10 can be found as in the last article and

then
loge10 is found to be 4342944819...
Hence log10 N= logeN× 43429448...,
so that the logarithm of any number to base 10 is found
by multiplying its logarithm to base e by the quantity
43429448.... This quantity is calledthe Modulus.
EXAMPLES. XLVI.
Prove that
1 1 1
1. 21 (e+e-2)=1++++...
2. (1+1/+1 1
+ 13+ ... 1- 1 12 131 + ... )=1.
1+ -

3. (1+) ++.. ) *=1+= 1+(1++++...) .

1++ 1
24 16
2 3 4
2
35
6
2

+ + +
4. 1+ 1357 e
2 5. 23 + 154 ++ ... =e-1.
-
-

1+1 1
24 6 + ... e-1
6. -
13

1+ + 1 + ... e+1°
135
7. 1+23
1+ 2323
+ 33 + 43 + ... =5e.
4-

-
304 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLVI.]
Find the sum of the series
11
8.1- 23
+ - 4+ ....
…

9. 111-

22 223 •
11 11
+ 23 424 + ....
•

Prove that
10. aa-b1 /a a- b 1 /a a- b3
2
+ ( - )*+...-... = logea- logeb.
1 1
1 . logo1+ =2(x+ 3+ 5+...) .
1 -x
x+ 1
12. loge -1==2 (1 +33++...
1
.) , if x>1.
X

13. loge(1 + 3x + 2x²)=3x- 5x2

2 + 9x33-4
17x4
+...
+(-1)n-12n+1 xn + ... ,
n
provided that 2x be not > 1.
2logexx -loge(x + 1)-loge(x-1)= 12+ 241 + 36+...,
14. 2logex-1 1
if x> 1.
1
= 1 + 3.4
15. loge22-1.2 + 5.61 +...
16. loge2-212-1.2.3 1 1
+ 3.4.5 1
+ 5.6.7+... ……
π
1 tan3 0+ 1...tan50+...= 1 COS
17. tan0+0+3tan³ 5 log cos 0++4 if <π
π

4
π
18. If o be 2 and <π, prove that
>

(1) sin + 31 sin³ 0++ 15 sin5

sin 0 + ... ad inf.

=2[cotcot + cot + cot 2+...adinf.],

1
1
2
1
1
and (2) sin20+1sin
sin² 0 + - sin40 + sin60 + ... ad inf.
4 6

=2[tan2 +=tan62+ tan10 +...ad inf.]

θ 1
23
0 1
5
θ
2
[Exs. XLVI.] LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10. 305
19. If tan" <1, prove that
tan20- 1 tan40
tan40++ 13tan60 - ... ad inf.
= sin20 + 21 sin40 + 1 sinº 0 +... ad inf.
20. Prove that, if 20 be not1 a multiple of π,
log cot =cos 20+ 3 cos³ 20 + 51 cos5 20+ ad inf. ...

21. Prove that the coefficient of " in the expansion of

{loge(1+x)}2
is 2( 1) ² [1+1 +1 +... +1].
-

n
n

2 3 +-
n
•

22. Use the methods ofArts. 259 and 260 to prove that
log102= 30103...
and log103= 47712....
23. Draw the curve y=logx.
[If x be negative, y is imaginary ; when x is zero, yequals - ∞ ; when
x is unity, y is nothing; when x is positive and >1, y is always positive ;
when a is infinity, y is infinity also.]
24. Draw the curve y=log10x and state the geometrical relation
between it and the curve of the last example.
[UseArt. 147.]
25. Draw the curve y=ax.
261. The two following limits will be required in the
next chapter but one.
262. To prove
infinite, is unity.
that thevalue of(cosa) COS
α n
‫و‬ when nis
α=
We have COS -

n
-
sin² nα
1
n n
sin2nα
.. COS

L. T.
α
-

n *=(1-sin ) =[(1-sin
n
2 α2 α sin2 nα
n
-

20
306 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now, by putting
-
sin² αn = m,
-

we have
1
α
1
Lt
n=8 {1-s i n
2α
*} sina==Lt{1 + m}m= e.
Also, by Art. 228,
n
m=0
-

(Art. 250, Cor.)

nsin²
2 a -

n
2
sin nα-

α2
X
2η = 1 × 0 = 0,
n

when n is infinite.
Hence, when n is infinite,
n
COS -

n
= eº = 1.
Aliter. This limit may also be found by using the
logarithmic series.
For,putting(cos ) = u, we have
n

logeu=nlogecos nα n loge cos²=nα

-
=

n α
=
loge(1-sin² -

1 1
=-2 (sin + sin + sin (Art.
2
+...)256.)
.
2
 TWO IMPORTANT LIMITING VALUES. 307
The series inside the bracket lies between sin² Nα and -

the series
sin² + sinsina- + sin - +
α
n n
α
n
...
ad inf. ,
i.e. lies between
α
α
sin2n
sin and -

n
1- sin² nα'

i.e. lies between sin²αn and tan nα -

•

Hence -log u lies between

2 sina and 2 tana
n
n
n
•
.(1).
But

Lt n2 α
sin² = Lt
/sin α
-

n
2

α2
n=8 n n=8 α
-
X
2n =1 ×0 = 0. (Art. 228.)
n
And 2
sin nα -

1 α2
Lt n2-tan² nα = n=8
n= 8
-

Lt α
X
α
X
2n = 1 × 1 ×0=0.
-
COS2 n
n
(Art. 228.)
Hence in the limit both quantities (1) become 0, so
that log u becomes zero also, and therefore, in the limit,
u = 1.
20-2
308 TRIGONOMETRY.
α n
sin n -

263. To prove that the limiting value of α ,

n
when n is infinite, is unity.
We have shewn, in Art. 227, that sin θ, θ and tan e are
in ascending order of magnitude.
αα
Hence sinn'n'-

and tan nα -

are in ascending order.

α
n 1
Hence 1,
sin α'
, and COS
α
-

n n

are in ascending order. n

α-

Therefore n
lies between 1 and 1 n
SO
,
α α
sin n -

COS -

n
α n
sinn
that α
-

n
lies between 1and (cos )”. COS
α n

αn
But, by the last article, the value of COS -
n is unity,
when n is infinite. n
sin nα
Hence, when n is infinite, the value of α
n
is unity.
 CHAPTER XXII.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM.
264. Complex quantities. The quantity x+y√-1,
where x and y are both real, is called acomplex quantity.
A complex quantity consists therefore of the sum of two
quantities, one of which is wholly real and the other of
which is wholly imaginary.
265. A complex quantity can always be put into the
form r (cos + √-1 sin 0), where rand are both real.
For assume that
x+ y√-1= r (cos + √-1 sin 0)
= r cos + √-1.rsin 0.
Equating the real and imaginary parts on the two
sides of this equation, we have
rcos e = x ... ....(1),
and r sin e = y ... ..............(2).
Hence, by squaring and adding, we have r² =x² + y²,
so that r = √x² + y².
310 TRIGONOMETRY.
It is customary to take the positive square root of
x² + y² and hence r is known.
From (1) and (2) we then have
cos θ =
X and sin e = Y •

√x² +y² √x² +y² 2

of e,Whatever
and onlybeonethevalue,
valueslyingof xbetween
and y, there is one value
- radians and
+ ㅠ radians which satisfies these two equations.
The quantity x +y√- 1 can therefore always be
expressed in the form r (cos +/- 1 sin 0).
Def. The quantity +√x² +y² is called the Modulus
of the complex quantity, and that value of 0 (lying
between ㅠ and + π) which satisfies the relations
-

X
cos θ = and sin 0 =
+√x² + y² + √x² + y²
is called the principal value of the Amplitude of
x +y -1.
266. Ex. 1. Εxpress in the above form the quantity 1 + √-1.
Here 1+ √-1=r (cos +/-1 sin 0),
so that rcos 0 = 1,
and r sin 0= 1.
We therefore have r= + √1+1= +√2,
and then 1 and sin 0 = 1
cos 0=J2
√2'
so that 0=π
4
Hence 1+/-1=√2[cos
/2 COS + √-1
π
-1sin ,
π
4 4 ,

so that 2 is the modulus and 4 is the principal value of the amplitude

of the given expression.
 COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 311
Ex. 2. Quantity-1+√-3.
Here -1 + √-1√3 = r (cos + √-1 sin 0),
so that rcos 0 = -1, and rsin0 =√3.
.. r = + √1 +3= + 2,
and then cos 0 = - 12 and sind 2 ,
= -

so that 02.
0= 3

.: -1+ +√-3=2[cosCOS 2π
3 +√-1 sin 2π3
Ex. 3. Quantity -1--3.
Here r cos = -1, and rsin 0 = -3,
so that r= + √1+3= + 2, cos = 21 and sin
- -
√32 •

Hence (since we choose for e that value which lies between - and
2π
+π) we have 0= -
3
2π 2π
-1--3=2 cos -

3 isin -

267. In Art. 265 the equations

cos e = Х
and sin e = Y
+ √x² + y² 2
+ √x² + y²
are satisfied by more than one value of 0. For the cosine
and sine of an angle repeat the same values when the
ifanglee denote
is increased by any
the value multiple
between of 2 + radians,
- π and so that,
ㅠ satisfying the
above relations, the general solution is
2ηπ + θ,
where n is any integer.
This is expressed by saying that the amplitude of a
312 TRIGONOMETRY.
complex quantity is many-valued. The principal value
is πand
-
that particular
+ π.
value ofthe amplitude that lies between
If to the principal value of e we add any multiple of
27 we obtain one of its many values.
To sum up; If o be that value, lying between -
π
and + ", which satisfies the equations
X Y
cos θ
√x² + y² and sin 0 = √x² + y² (1),
=
......
2 2

then
x+y√ -1 = √x²+y² [cos(2ηπ +0) + √√-1 sin (2ηπ + θ)].
The quantity 2ηπ + 0 is called the amplitude and e is
called its principal value.
For brevity we often write equations (1) in the form
tan0=2, i.e. 0= tan-17,
but itmust be understood that here the angle denoted is
the one that satisfies the conditions (1).
268. De Moivre's Theorem. Whatever may be
the value of n, positive or negative, integral or fractional,
the value, or one ofthe values, of
(cos 0 + √−1 sin 0)n is cos no + √−1 sin nθ.
- -

Case I. Let n be a positive integer.

By simple multiplication we have
[cosa+ √-1 sina] [cos3 +√-1sinβ]
=cosacos β-sin a sin ẞ + √-1 [sin acos β + cos a sin β]
= cos (α+β) +√-1 sin(α +β).
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 313
So
[cosa +√-1sina] [cos +√-1sinẞ][cos y+√- 1 sin y]
=[cos (α+β)+ √- 1 sin (a + 3)] [cos y + √- 1 siny]
=[cos(α+β)cos y-sin(a +3) sin y]
+√-1[sin(α+ β)cosy+ cos (α + β) sin y]
= cos(α+ β + γ) +√-1 sin(α+β + γ).
This process may evidently be continued indefinitely,
so that
[cosa+√-1sina][cosẞ +√-1 sinẞ][cos y+ to√-1n factors
......
sin y]
=cos (α + β + y + ... to n terms) + √-1 sin [α +β + y +...
to n terms].
In this expression put
so that we have
α=β =γ = ...... = θ,
[cos 0 + √-1 sin 0]n = cos no + √–1 sin ηθ.
-

-
Case II. Let n be a negative integer and equal to
m.
We have, by the ordinary law ofindices,
(cos + √- 1 sin 0) = (cos + √ - 1 sin 0)-m
=
1 1
(cos + √- 1 sin 0)m cos me + √-1 sin mθ '
cos me - √-1 sin me
by Case I,
(cosme+ √- 1 sin me) (cos me – √ – 1 sinme)
- -

cos me - √ - 1 sinme = cos me - √ - 1 sin me

cos² me + sin² тө
cos ( m) 0 + √ - 1 sin (– m) 0
cos nθ + √- 1 sin ηθ.
314 TRIGONOMETRY.

Case III. Let n be fractional and equal to 2,where

q
q is a positive integer and p is an integer, positive or
negative.
By the previous cases, we have
[cos: +√-1 sin =cos(q
COS
Ө
q
072
-

q )+√-1sin(q.
COS

cos e + √ - 1 sin θ.
)
Therefore cos Ө+ √-11 sin Ө is such that when multi-
-

q q
plied by itself q times it gives cos 0 + √-1 sin 0.
Hence cos qӨ- +/-
+ √- 1 sin qӨ is one of the qth roots of
cos 0 + √- 1 sin 0,
i.e. COS Ꮎq + √- 1 sin Өq
- -

is one of the values of 1

(cos + √-1 sin 0 . •

Raise each of these quantities to the pth power.

We then have that one of the values of
[cos +√-1sin0]º is (cos q +/-1sin
P
√-1 q -

i.e. is COS po +√-1 sinpo

ρθ
q q
•

269. The quantity i is always used to denote √- 1

and will be often so used hereafter. The expression
cos + isin e therefore means cos 0+ √-1 sin 0.
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 315
Ex. 1. Simplify
(cos 30+ i sin 30)5 (cos 0 – i sin 0)3
-

(cos 50+ i sin 50)7 (cos 20 – i sin 20)5

-

We have cos 30+ isin 30== (cos + i sin 0)3,

cos - i sin e = cos ( 0) + i sin ( - 0)= (cos +i sin 0)−1,
cos 50+ i sin 50= (cos + i sin 0)5,
and cos 20 - i sin 20 =cos ( -20) + i sin ( -20)=(cos + i sin 0)-2.
The given expression therefore
- (cos +i sin 0)15 (cos + isin 0)-3
(cos + i sin 9)35 (cos + i sin 0)-10
= (cos + isin 0)-13= cos 130 – i sin 130.
-

Ex. 2. If = x + 1= and 2 cos p=y+1

2 cos 00=x+ Y'
1
prove that 2cos(mx2o+np)=xmyn+xmyn•
We have - 2x cos 0 = – 1.-

.. (x cos 0)2= 1 + cos² 0 =

- - -

sin² 0.
.. x=cos θ + i sin 0,
so that xm =cos me + i sin me,
1
and xm = cos mb - i sin mθ.
Similarly y=cos + i sin 4,
so that yn=cos np + i sin np,
and 1
yn== cos np – i sin1 np.
.. xmyn+ xmyn
=(cosme +i sinme) (cos np+ isin np)
+(cos me– i sinme) (cos np – i sin np)
-

=cos (m + np) + i sin (mθ +пф)

+cos (m +n ) – i sin (me + nφ)
=2 cos (mθ + пф).
Similarly it could be shewn that
xm
yn
Yn =2 cos (mθ –пф).
In + xm
316 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. If sin a +sin ẞ +sin y=cosa + cos β + cos y=0,
prove that cos 3a + cos 3ẞ+ cos 3y=3 cos (α +β + γ),
and sin 3a +sin 33+ sin 3y=3 sin (α+β+γ).
This is an example of the many trigonometrical identities which are
derived from algebraical identities.
For we know that if a + b + c=0,
then a³ + b³ + c² =3abc.
Let a=cos a+ i sin a, b=cos ẞ + isinß, and c=cos y+ i sin y,
so that we have a + b + c= 0.
.. (cosa+isin a) +(cos + i sinẞ)3 +(cos y+isiny)³ 3

=3 (cosa+ isin a) (cos +i sin ẞ) (cos y+ i sin y),

so that, by De Moivre's Theorem,
(cos 3a+cos 33+ cos 3y) + i (sin 3a+sin 38+sin 3y)
=3 cos (α+β+ γ) + 3i sin (α +β + γ).
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have the required
results.

EXAMPLES. XLVII.
Put into the form r (cos + i sin0) the quantities
1. 1+i. 2. -1-1. 3. -√3 +1.
4. 3+4i. 5.1 + 2 +i. 6. 2-3 +1.
Simplify
7. (cos 0 – isin 0)10 8. (cos a+ i sin a) (cos +i sin β)
-

(cosa+isina)12 •

(cosy+isiny) (cos d+ isin d) •

9. (cos 20 – isin 20)7 (cos 30+ isin 30)-5

-

(cos40+ isin40)12(cos50 – isin 50)-6

-

11
COS π6 isin π 2
16

10.
cos π6 + i sin 6
•
11. (cosa+isina)*
(sinẞ+i cos ẞ)5
12. {(cose - cosp) +i(sine – sinp)} + {cos0 - cosp− i(sine – sin p)}n -
[Exs. XLVII.] DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 317
13. Prove that
(sinx + i cos x) =cos n ( ~*) +isinn( -x),
π
2 2

andthat (1+1+1+sinsin +i cosφ

-

icos p
n
== ηπ
COS 2 -
пф +isin ( - ).
2
If x, y, z and u stand respectively for
cosa+isin a, cosẞ +isin ẞ, cosy+i sin y, and cos8+ i sin d,
prove that
14. (x+y) (z +u)= 4 cos α-2β- COS γ-2 δ COS α+ β + γ+ δ
2
β γ+ δη
+isina+++57. 2
1
15. (x -y) (z -u) 1 α-β
4cosec 2
-

cosecY=0 [cosa+B+r+8
γδ
2 COS α+β + γ+ δ
2
-i sin a+ β+2 γ+ δ
16. xy + zu= 2 cos α+β2-γ- δ [cos α+β + γ+ δ +isina+B+v+0].
2
α β γ+ δη
2
17. From the identity
(a² -b²) (c2 - d²)=(c²(c²-b²)
– b²) (a²– d²) + (a² – c²) (b2 – d²)
prove, by putting a=cosa+isina and similar expressions for the other
letters, the identity
sin (a-β) sin (y– d)=sin (a– d) sin (y-3) +sin(a–y) sin(β– δ).
- - -

18. From the identity

(x-b) (x−c) , (x − c) (x- a) (x- a) (x- b) =1
-

(a−b)( a -c) + (b-c)(b-a) + (c -a)(c-b) =1

deduce, by assuming x= cos 20+ i sin 20 and corresponding quantities for
a, b, and c, that
sin (0 – β) sin (0 –γ) sin2 (0 – a) +two similar expressions=0.
sin (a -ẞ) sin (α-γ)
Similarly, deduce identities from the identity
1 =
1 1
(x − a) (x- b) (a - b)(x - a) (a -b) (x - b)
318 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLVII.]
19. Prove that
m m m
n
= (a²+ b²)2n cos n-tan-1 b
(a+ bi) +(a - bi)nIn =2 a
20. If 2 cos 0 =x+ X1=,
prove that 2 cos rθ =x²+1xr •

21. If 2 cos 0=x + X1= , 2 cos = y+y1 .......

1
prove that 2 cos (0 ++ ...) =xyz... + xyz... •

π
22. If x =cos +/-1sin ;
prove that X1 X2 X3 • ... ad inf. =cos π.
23. Using De Moivre's Theorem solve the equation
x4 - x³ + x2 -x + 1=0.
270. In Art. 269 we have only shewn that
Ө
COS +√- 1 sin
Ө
q
is one of the values of 1
(cos + √ -1
- 1sin 0)º.
The other values1 may be easily obtained. For 1
(cos +√-1 sin 0)º
θ)º = [cos(2n +1) + √√-1 sin(2ηπ+ 0)]q,
where n is any integer, and one of the values of the latter
quantity is 2ηπ + θ
COS
q
+√-1 sin 2ηπq + θ
By giving n the successive values 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (q – 1), -

we see that each of the quantities

COS Өq + √-1 sin qθ
-- -

‫و‬
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 319
2π + θ 2π + θ
COS
q +/-1 sin q ,

COS
4π + θ +/-1 sin 4π + θ
-

q q
6π + θ +√-1 sin 6π + θ
COS
q q ....(1),
is equal to one ofthe values of 1
(cos +/-1 sin 0)º.
The highest value that we need assign to nisq - 1 ;
for the values q, q + 1, q + 2,... will be found to give the
same result as the values 0, 1, 2,....
Also no two of the quantities (1) will be the same.
For all the angles involved therein differ from one another
byless than 27 and no two angles, differing by less than
2π, have their cosines the same and also their sines the
same.
To sum up; By giving to n the successive values
0, 1, 2, ... q - 1 in the expression
COS
2ηπ + θ2+ √-1 sin 2ηπ + θ
q q
we obtain q, and only q, different values for
1
(cos +/-1 sin 0)º.
271. By the use ofthe last article we can now obtain
trigonometrical expressions for any root of a quantity of
the form x + yi.
320 TRIGONOMETRY.
For we proved in Art. 267 that
x + yi = p [cos (2ηπ + 0) + √√ - 1 sin (2ηπ + 0)],
where p = + √x² + y²,
and e is such that
cos θ0 = х and sin 0 .
ρ
Hence
1 1
q
[
(x+yi) = ‫ م‬COS 2ηπ + θ +√=1 sin 2ηπ+θ
q
q
By giving n in succession the values 0, 1, 2, ... q - 1,
-

7.
we obtain the q required roots.
272. Ex. 1. Find the values of
π π
COS
3
+
√ - 1 sin 3 •

We have
(cos +√+/-1sin ) =[cos(2n2ηπ +1)+√=1sin(2n +1)] ,
COS
π
3
π
3
π
-
π

where n is any integer,

= COS
2ηπ +
4
π
12) + -
1sin 2ηπ
4+12π
Giving n in succession the values 0, 1, 2, and 3we have as our answers
the quantities
cos12+√-Isin
π 7π
1 12 , cos 12+ √-1sin127π
π

12 +√-1sin 12 , andcos 19 +/-1sin197

COS
13π 13π 19π •

12
The studentwill note thatthe value n=4willnot give us an additional
value. For it gives
COS(2 +1)+/-1sin(2 +1),
Cos 2π π
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 321
π π
which is the same as cos 12 +/-1sin ,

andthis is the first ofthe quantities alreadyfound. Similarly the values

n=5, n=6, n=7 would only give respectively the remaining three quan-
tities, and so on.
Ex. 2. Find all the values of(-1) .
Since COS π= -1, and sin r=0,
wehave (-1) =(cos + √- sin )
π

=[cos (2ηπ + π) + √-1 sin (2ηπ+π)]

COS
2ηπ+π+√-1si
3
n2ηπ+π
3
Giving n the values 0, 1, and 2, the required values are
cos 3+√
π
+/-1
√-1sin 3 , COS
cos π +/-1sin 1 5π ,
, and cos 5π3+√-Isin
i.e. 1+√-3, -1,and1--3.
2 2

EXAMPLES. XLVIII.
Find all the values of
1. 1 . 2. ( -1) . 3. ( -i) .
4. (-1) . 5. (1 + √-1) . 6. (1+ √-3)11.
7. (1-3) . 8. (√3+√-1) . 9. (√3 - √-1) . •

10. 164. 11. 32 . 12. (1+ √-3)10+(1-3)10.

13. Simplify COS 2+isin2
3
2π

and express the results in a form free from trigonometrical expressions.

14. Find the continued product ofthe four values of
COS π3+i sin π
15. Prove that the roots ofthe equation x10+ 11x5-1 =0 are
√5-1[cos
2 risin 5
2υπ •

16. Solve the equation x12-1=0 and find which of its roots satisfy
the equation x² + x² +1=0.
L. T. 21
322 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLVIII.]
17. Prove that Ja+bi+ Ja-bi
has n real values and find those of
3/
1+√3+√1-√-3.
18. Prove that the n nth roots ofunity form a series in G.P.
19. Find the seven7th roots ofunity andprove that the sumof their
nth powers alwaysvanishesunless nbe a multiple of 7, n being an integer,
and that then the sum is 7.
273. Binomial Theorem for Complex Quantities.
It is known that for any real values of n and z, provided
that z be less than unity, we have
(1 +z)n= 1+nz+ n(n-1)
1.2 22 + n(n-1.2.3
1)(n-2) 23+ ...

... ....
(1).
When z is complex (= x + y √-1) and n is a positive
integer, the ordinary proof applies and the theorem (1) is
still true.
When z is complex, and n is a fraction or negative, it
can be shewn that
1 + nz + n (n1.2- 1) 22 + .. ...
(2)
is one of the values of(1 + z)",provided that the modulus
ofz, i.e. √x² +y², is less than unity. When this modulus
is equal to unity, the theorem is only true (1) when n is
positive, and (2) when n is a negativefraction and z is not
equal to - 1.
The proof is difficult and beyond the range of the
present book. We shall therefore assume the result.
The student may hereafter refer to Hobson's Trigo-
nometry, Arts. 211 and 212.
 CHAPTER XXIII.
EXPANSIONS OF sinnd AND cosηθ. SERIES FOR sin
AND COSO IN POWERS OF 0.
274. By the use of De Moivre's Theorem we can
obtain the expansion of cosne and sinne in terms of the
trigonometrical
For we have
functions of θ.
cos nθ + isin nθ = (cos + i sin 0)n.
Since n is a positive integer, the Binomial Theorem
holds for (cos + i sin 0)n.
Hence, by expanding, we have
cos no + i sin nθ = cos" θ + n cosn-10 . i sin 0
+ n(n-1)
1.2 cosn-20. i2sin20+ n(n-1)(n-2)cosn-30.isin
1.2.3 0.. 3

Hence, since
we have
22 =
1, i³=- i, i = 1, i = i, ...
-

cos no + i sin nθ = cos" θ- n(n - 1) cosn-2 O sin² θ

1.2
+ n (n - 1.2.3.4
1)(n- 2)(n-3)cosm-40sin² 0θ + ...

ηcosm-10sinn(n 1.2.3
+ incosn-10 - 1)(n-2)cosm-30 sin30+0+...
-

0 + ...] .
21-2
324 TRIGONOMETRY.
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have
and
cos ne = cosη θ -

n(n-1)
1.2 cosm-20sinº0 +......(1),
-

sinnθ = ncosn−1 0sin0_n

θ (n 1.2.3
- 1)(n- 2)cosn-s 0 sin³0θ
+ n (n -1)(n-
-

2)(n-3)(n- 4)cosm-50sin50 - .....(2).

1.2.3.4.5
The terms in each of these series are alternately
positive and negative. Also each series continues till one
of the factors in the numerator is zero and then ceases.
275. From equations (1) and (2) of the last article
we have, by division, sin ηθ
tan ηθ cos ηθ -
-

n cosn-1 O sin 0 n (n1.2.3

- 1) (n - 2) cosn-30 sin³ 0 + ......
-

cos" θ n(n - 1) cosn-20 sin² 0 + n(n- 1)(n−2)(n−3)cosn-40sin*.......

-

1.2 1.2.3.4
Divide the numerator and denominator of the right-
hand member of this equation by cos" e, and we have
tan no = :

ntan0_n(n-1)(n-
1.2.3
2)tan30+ n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)(n-4
5
)tan5O .........

1 -
n(n - 1) tan² 0 + n (n -1)(п – 2) (n - 3) tan⁴ 0 ......
-

1.2 4-

276. The values for cos no and sin ne in Art. 274 may also be
obtained, by Induction, without the use ofimaginary quantities.
For assume (1) and (2) to be true for any value of n. Then, since
cos (n + 1) =cos ne cos 0 - sin ne sin 0,
 TANGENT OF A SUM OF ANGLES. 325
we obtain thevalue of cos (n+1) 0, which, after rearrangement, is found
to be obtained from (1) by changing n into (n+1).
Similarly for sin (n+ 1) 0.
Hence, ifthe formulæ (1) and(2) are true for onevalue of nl, they are
true for the next greater value.
But it is easy to shewthat they aretrue for the values n= 2 and n=3.
Hence, by Induction, they can beproved to be true for all values of n.
277. From De Moivre's Theorem may be deduced
expressions for the sine,cosine and tangent of the sum of
any number of unequal angles in terms ofthe tangents of
these angles.
For we have
cos (α+β + γ+ ...) + isin (α + β + γ + ...)
=(cosa+ isina)(cosβ + isinβ) (cos y + i sin y)...(1).
Now cos a+ isin a= cosa[1 + itana],
cosB+isinB = cos β (1 + i tanẞ),
...

Hence (1) may be written

cos(α +β + y+ ...) + isin (a + β + γ + ...)
=cosacosẞcos y... (1 + itana)(1 + itan 3)(1 + itany)...
=cosacosẞcosy...[1 + i(tana + tanẞ + tany + ...)
+i² (tan atanẞ +tanẞtany+ ...)
+ (tanatanẞtany+tanẞtanytand...)
+ ......]............ .........(2).
Using the notation of Art. 125, this equation may be
written
cos(α+ β + y + ...) + isin(a + β + γ + ...)
=cosacosẞcos y ... [1 + is₁ - S2 - iS3 + S4 + is - S6 ...]
326 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence equating real and imaginary parts, we have
sin(α+β+γ...)=cos acosẞcos y ... [S1 - S3+ S5- S7 ...] ...(3),
and
cos(α+β+γ...)=cosacosBcos y...(1 -S2+84 -86...)...(4).
Hence, by division, S5 S7 ...(5).
tan(a+ βb+ y+...)= S11-5 S₁-S3+
- S3 55-
+ S4 - 57...
1 - S9 +S S ...
-

The signs in the expressions on the right hand of (3)

and (4) are alternately positive and negative.
The relation (5) was shewn, by Induction, to be true
in Art. 125.
278. Ex. Prove that the equation
a² cos² 0 +b2 sin20 +2gacos 0 + 2fb sin 0 + c=0
has 4 roots, and that the sum of the values of which satisfy it is an even
multiple of w radians.
θ
Let t = tan 2
2 tan 2Ө 1- tan2 2θ
Then since (Art. 109), sin θ and cos 0 =
1 + tan2 2 1 + tan2 θ'
2
the equation above becomes
1- t2 2+62 2t 2
a2 1+t2 1- t2
1+t2 +2ga 1+ t2 1+2tt2 + c=0,
+2fb 1+t2
or, on reduction and simplification,
t* (a²- 2ga + c) + 4fbt³ +t2 (462-2a² + 2c) + 4fbt+ a2 + 2ga +c=0......(1).
This is an equation having 4 roots.
Also s₁=sum of the roots= a² - 4fb
-

2ga + c '
2

s2=sum taken two at a time = 4b²a² -- 2ga

2
2a² + 2c
+c ,

s3=sum taken three at a time = a² -4fb

-

2ga +c '
and a² +2ga +c
s4=sum taken four at a time= a² - 2ga+c
 EXPANSIONS OF SIN ηθ AND COS ηθ. 327
Since 8₁=83, it follows, by the last article, that
tan 101+02+03+04
2
=
81-83
1-82+ 84 =0=tan ηπ.
[The denominator 1-82+84 does not vanish unless a²-b².]
:: 01+ 02+ 03+ 64=2.nㅠ radians
=an even multiple of radians.
EXAMPLES. XLIX.
Prove that
1. cos 40= cos4 0 - 6 cos² 0 sin² 0 + sin4 0.
2. sin 60=6cos5 0 sin 0 – 20 cos³ 0 sin³ 0 + 6 cos e sin5 0.
-

3. sin70=7 cos60 sin 0 – 35 cos40 sin³ 0 +21 cos² 0 sin5 0 – sin7 0.

-- -

4. cos 90=cosº 0 - 36 cos70 sin² 0 + 126cos5 0 sin4 0

-
84 cos³ e sinº 0 + 9 cos e sin³ 0.
5. cos80=cos 0-28cos e sin20 +70 cos 028sin4cos²0 e sin6 0 + sin8 0.
-

Write down, in terms of tan e, the values of

6. tan50. 7. tan 70. 8. tan90.
9. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for cos 110 and
sin 110 are
-
11 cos e sin100 and - sin11 0.
10. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for sin 80 and sin 90
are - 8 cos e sin 0 and sinº 0 respectively.
11. When n is odd, prove that the last terms in the expansions of
sin ne and cos no are respectively
n-1 n-1
(-1) sin" and n ( -1) cos e sinn-1 θ.
2 2

12. When n is even, prove that the last terms in the expansion of
sin ne and cos no are respectively
n-2 n

n (-1) cos esin2-10 and (-1)2sin" 0.

2

13. If α, β, and y be the roots of the equation

x³ +px² +qx +p=0,
prove that tan-1 a+tan-1β +tan-1y=nw radians,
except in one particular case.
328 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIX.]
14. Prove that the equation
sin 30 = a sin + b cos + c
has six roots and that the sum of the six values of e, which satisfy it, is
π
equal to an evenmultiple of 2radians.
15. Prove that the equation
ah sec 0 - bk cosec = a² – 62
-

has four roots, and that the sum of the four values of 0, which satisfy it,
is equal to an odd multiple of radians.
16. If α, β, γ,... be the roots ofthe equation
sinmx - nxcosmx=0,
prove that tan-1 +tan-12β +...+tan-1 =0.
EXPANSIONS OF THE SINE AND COSINE OF AN ANGLE IN
SERIES OF ASCENDING POWERS OF THE ANGLE.
279. As in Art. 274 we have
cosno= cosn θ _n(n- 1)
1.2 cosn-2 O sin² θ
-

+ n(n-1)(n- 2)(n- 3) cosm-40sin 0 -.. .

1.2.3.4
-

Put ne = a, and we have

cos a = cos" θ – 1.2
-
( -1) cosn-2 O sin² θ
α α

+ ( -1)( -2)( -3)

1.2.3.4 cosn-4 O sin4 0 - ...
1.2θ) cogn-20 θ
α(α-
Cosn θα(α-
=
' sin \2

+ α(α-θ)(1.2.3.4
α - 20)(α-30)con-40(sinθ ) ......(1).
– -

-
 SIN a AND COS A EXPANDED IN A SERIES. 329
In equation (1) make e indefinitely small, a remaining
constant and
sin
therefore n becoming indefinitely great.
Then θ is, in the limit, equal to unity and so is
every power of (sin ). (Art. 263.)
•

Also cos e is, in the limit, equal to unity and so also is

every power of cos θ. (Art. 262.)
Hence (1) becomes a4 αβ6
cos a = 1 α2 4 6
-

2+ -
... ad inf.
-,

280. To expand sin a in terms ofa.

As in Art. 274, we have
sin ne = n cosn-1 O sin e (n 1.2.3
-
-1) (n -2) cosn-30 sin³
n
+ ...
As before put ne = a, and we have
ανα -1 α
θ -2 cosn-3 O sin³ θ
- -

α
sin a = Ө cosn-1 O sin –-

1.2.3

+
( -1)( 2)( 3)( -4) cosn-50 sin5 θ ...
α

1.2.3.4.5
α α

α(α-θ)(α-20) cosn-3 0
= a cosn-1 θ . θ -

1.2.3 (sin ) ....

As in the last article make eindefinitelysmall,keeping
a finite, and we have
sin a = a α3 α5 α + ... ad inf.
3+ 5
-
-

-
7
330 TRIGONOMETRY.
281. There is no series, proceeding according to a
simple law, for the expansion of tane in terms of 0,
similar to those of Arts. 279 and 280.
We shall find the series for tane as far as the term
involving 05. 03 05
For tan 0 = sin
-

3+15 -
...

cos θ 1 -
62
+
04
24 -

05 02 04 -1
= Ө -
3

6+ 120 -
... 1 - -

2
-

2404 + ...)]
=(0-120-...) [1+( -12 +...)
6+
05
24
02 04 2
+ -

2 24
-

... ...
,

by the Binomial Theorem,

03 05 02 04 04
=(0 6++ 120
-

= -

224 ... ... +4 -

...
,

neglecting 06 and higher powers of θ,

=( - +120-...) (1+2+ 200...)
3

6
5 5
24 04
= 0 + 03
0315 2
+ 205,
on reduction and neglecting powers of above θ5.
A similar method would give the series for tane to
as many terms as we please. The method however soon
becomes very cumbrous and troublesome.
282. In Arts. 279 and 280 we tacitly assumed that
awas equal to the number of radians in the angle con
 SIN a AND COS A EXPANDED IN A SERIES. 331
sidered. For, unless this be the case, the limit of sinӨ is
not unity when e is made indefinitely small.
When the angle is expressed in degrees we proceed as
follows.
Let a° = x radians, so that
α Х
180 π΄,
π
and hence =
180 α.
Then cosa -
cos x
1 x2 X4 6
= -

2+14 6+
+ ...
-

1 πα² 1 πα4
-

1 πασ
44
1 -

21802 + 41804618
-
06 + ....

So also
sina sin x = x 3
= -

B+ 5 ...
1-5

πα 1 πα 3 πα 5

180 3 180
-

(180 +
15180 ....

283. Sines and cosines of small angles. The

series of Arts. 279 and 280 may be used to find the sines
and cosines ofsmall angles.
For example, let us find the values of sin 10" and
cos 10".
Since 10" = 6 ×160180/
60
π
×180) radians
=(64800);
332 TRIGONOMETRY.
we have
π
sin 10" = 64800 1 π 3+ 1 Π 5
364800 564800)
- -
...

cos 10" = 1 - 1 1
π 2 4
and
π
2 (64800/ 4 (64800,
+ -

....

Now 64800 = 000048481368...,

2

64800) = 0000000023504...,
π 3
and 64800) ='000000000000113928....
Hence, to twelve places ofdecimals, we have
sin 10" = '000048481368,
and cos 10" = 1- 0000000023504
2
= 1 - 000000001175
= 999999998825.
284. Approximate value of the root of an
equation. The series of Art. 280 may also be used to
find an approximate value of the root of an equation.
The method will be best shewn by examples.
Ex. 1. If sinθ 0 1350,provethat
1349
the angle o is very nearly equal to
1
15thth radian.
We know that, the smaller o is, the more nearly is sinθ equal to
unity. Conversely in ourcase we see that e is small.
 SINES AND COSINES OF SMALL ANGLES. 333
In the series for sin6 (Art. 280) let us omit the powers of above the
third, and we have
0 03
-

13 1349=1 -
1
θ 1350 1350
..
6
02 13502251
- -

Hence = 15' 1 so that the angle is 1

15 of a radian nearly.
If we desire a nearer approximation, we take the series for sin e and
omit powers above the 5th. We then have
03 05
θ 3 + 15
=1 1
θ 1350
120 20
This gives 04-2002= 1350 225
-
-
-

Hence, by solving,
02=10+√22480_150–
15
149-933312...
15
-

066688
15
1.00032
152
θ 1.00016 radian.
15
1
This differs from the first approximation by about 6000thpart.
Ex. 2. Solve approximately the equation
cos( +0)= 49.
COS
3

Since 49 is very nearly equal to 2'1 which is the value of cos 3' it
π

follows that e must be small.

The equation may be written
1 cos θ √3 sin049- 1 1
2 2
-
=
2 100 = (1).
..

For a first approximation omit squares and higher powers of d. By

Art. 280 this equation then becomes
1.1-3.01 1
2 202-100'
334 TRIGONOMETRY.
so that
0= 2 1 2/3 3.4641... = 011547... radian.
=
=

√3100300 300
For a still nearer approximation, omit cubes and higher powers of θ.
The equation (1) then becomes
1
2 (1-0-100
02
2 2 0= 2 ,

i.e. 02+2/30=1004 •

.. 0= -√3+ √304=
10 0115086.. radian.
The first approximation is therefore correct to 4 places of decimals.
The angle o is therefore very nearly equal to 0115 radian, i.e. to
about 40'.
The accurate answer is found, from the tables, to be 0115075...
radian.
285. Evaluation of quantities apparently inde-
terminate. We often have to obtain the value of quan-
tities which are apparently indeterminate.
Suppose we required the value of the expression
3 sin 0 - sin 30
when e is zero.
θ (cos e− cos 30) ' -

If we substitute the value 0 for d, we have

0-0
0x0 '
which is apparently indeterminate.
The expression however, for all values of 0,
3 sin 0 – (3 sin 0 – 4 sin³0)
-
4 sin³
=

0 {cos 0 – (4 cos30 – 3 cos 0)} - {4 cos 0 – 4 cos³0}

- -

sin³ sin 1 sin

O cos e sin²θ θ cos θ cos θ X θ •
 INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 335
Now, the smaller o is, the more nearly do both
1 sin
cos θ and Ө
approach to unity. Hence, when e is actually zero, the
given expression = 1 × 1 = 1.
Such an expression as the one we have discussed is
said to be indeterminate. We should more properly say
that the expression is "at first sight" indeterminate.
286. In many cases the real value is very easily
found by using the series for sine and cose. The method
is shewn in the following examples, of the first of which
the example in the preceding article is a particular case.
Ex. 1. Find the value of
n sin - sin ηθ
The expression
θ (cos 0− cos nθ) ·
05 η3θ3 + η505
n( - + -...) . 3

02 + 04
- -

13 15
1 η202 + η404
...

0[(1 24 -

-
...
- -

2 4 ...

n³-n03_n5-n05+higherpowers
3
3 -

5
-n
of
0 n² 2- 19202 n14- 1 04+higher powers of
-

n3 -n n5 U-

=
3 15 02 +higher powers •

n2-1 n4-1
12 14 -

02+higher powers
When e is zero, this expression
n3 -
n n²- 1 n
13 123
336 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 2. Find the value, when x is zero, of the expression
cosx - loge(1 +x) +sinx - 1
ex - (1+x)
Since loge (1 +x) =x - 21= x²+ 31 x303-24...,
1x4

and ex=1 +x + x2 + x33 + X4 (Arts. 253 and 256),

234 ...

this expression
(1 1- x22 +T4
x4 1 1
...
-

X -

2 x²+ 3= x3 )+(x |3 + …)-1

...
-

...

1 + x + x22 + 3 x3
+...)-(1 +x)
x3 X
2 +higher powers of x 2 +powers of x
-

x2 1
12 +higherpowers ofa x 2 +powers of x
When x is zero, thislatter expression
0
===0.
1
Ex. 3. Find the value, when x is zero, of
1
tanxx
х
00

When x is zero, this expression is ofthe form

x3
1
(8)*.
x ++
3 ...
But it also =
X (Art. 281).
Now, by Art. 250, the value of 3
1+ x2x2
is e, when x is zero. 0
Hence the expression =e3= °= 1.
The value of the expression may be also found by finding the value of
its logarithm.
 SINES AND COSINES OF SMALL ANGLES. 337

EXAMPLES. L.
sin 0 1013
1. If 1014 '
prove that is the number of radians in 4° 24' nearly.
2. If sin 0 863
θ 864'
prove that e is equal to 4° 47' nearly.
sin 0 = 5045
3. If θ 5046 '
prove that the angle 0 is 1° 58′ nearly.
sin 0 2165
4. If θ 2166 '
prove that e is equal to 3° 1' nearly.
5. If sin 0 19493
θ 19494 '
prove that is equal to 1º nearly. 1
6. If tan 0=15 ,
find an approximate value for θ.
Find the value, when x is zero, of the expressions
x2
X sinx 9. sin ax
-

7. x3 • 8. 1 - cosmx sinbæ •

10. tanxsin³sinx 11. tan 2xx3- 2 sin x 12. versin ax

-

x versin bx
13. mmsin x sinmx -

14. a² sin ax - b2 sinbx

(cosx−cosmx) betan ax -artanbx
b2sin2 ax -a2 sin2 bx
15. b2 tan² ax - a2 tan2bx 16. xloge(1+x)
1 - COS X •

17. ex - 1 +loge(1 -x)

sin³ x 18. 2 sin x -sin 3x
x+
x +tanx -tan2x
19. sin x+ sin
205
6x- 7x 20. sin21nx-sin2px
- cospx
•

L. T. 22
338 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. L.]
-e θ sin² √mn0 – sinme sinne
-

21 . 041 sinθ 0 + e -2]. -

20 22. (1−cosme) (1− cos ηθ)

-
•

23. 3 sinх-x-sinx
sin 3x •

2
sinx 2 sin X2 + (1 −cos x)³
-

24.
sin X234 sin4 x
sin x sin 2x – 8 cos x sin?
-

25. ах - вх
X
m
X
26. (tan ) x x2

27. cos +sinx

m m

Find the value, when x equals , of

(cosx+ sin 2x+ cos 3x)2
28. (sinx+2cos2x– sin 3x)3 -
•

29. (sin )tan •

30. secx-tanx.
Find the value, when n is infinite, of
31. (cos )". 32. (cos ) . 33. 2

1
X \ n3

34. If n be > 1 and 0= nearly,prove that (sin )" is very nearly

equal to
π

(n - 1)+ (n + 1) sin 0
(n+1) +(n- 1) sin 0
35. In the limit, when ẞ=a, prove that
a sin β- β sin a
acosβ-β cos a =tan (a - tan-la).
36. Prove that 1 π =tan-1 1
4tan-1 5-4 239
and deduce that in a triangle ABC, in which Cis a right angle and CA is
five times CB, the angle A exceeds the eighth part of a right angle by
3'36", correct to the nearest second.
[Exs. L.] SINES AND COSINES OF SMALL ANGLES. 339
37. Find a and b so that the expression a sinx+b sin 2x may be as
close an approximation as possible to the number of radians in the angle
x, when x is small.
38. If y=x- esin x, where e is very small, prove that
and that
tantan
2
X
2 (1-e+ sin2 ),
=tan
X
tan==tan
2 (1+e+ecos2 Y
where powers of e above the second are neglected.
2 ,

39. If in the equation sin(w- 0)=sinwcos a, e be very small, prove

that its approximate value is
2tanwsin (1-tansin a
2
40. If be known bymeans of sin & to be an angle not > 15', prove
that its value differs from the fraction
28 sin 24+ sin 46
12(3 + 2 cos 2φ)
by less than the number of radians in 1'.

22-2
 CHAPTER XXIV.
EXPANSIONS OF SINES AND COSINES OF MULTIPLE ANGLES,
AND OF POWERS OF SINES AND COSINES.

[On a first reading ofthe subject the student is recommended

to omit from the beginning ofArt. 293 to the end ofthe chapter.]
287. In this chapter we shall shew how to expand
powers ofcosines and sines of an angle in terms of cosines
and sines of multiples of that angle, and also how to
express cosines and sines of multiple angles in terms of
powers of cosines and sines.
288. Let x = cos θ + i sin 0, so that
1 =
1 cos - i sin e = cos 0 – i sin θ.
-

X cos 0 + i sin cos² + sin²θ

2
Hence x + X1=
= = 22 cos θ,
and -
1 = 2i sin θ.
X

Also, by De Moivre's Theorem, we have

xn = cos nθ + i sin nθ,
 EXPANSION OF COS" θ. 34.
and 1
= cos nθ – i sin nθ,
их
1
so that xn + 2cos ηθ,
=

их
and -
1 = 2i sin ηθ.
их их
289. To expand cos"O in a series ofcosines ofmultiples
of0, n being a positive integer.
From the previous article we have
(2 cos 0)n =
(= +∞) + (n1.2- 1) xn-2.2+
= xn + nan-1 X1n 1
...
n(n-1) ² . xn-21 + nx . XN-11
+ 1.2
-

+
1
-

XN
= xn + nxn-2 + (n-1)
1.2 an-4+ ...
n

n (n1.2.
- 1) xn-4
1 + n . xn-2
1
+ 1 ..... ... (1).
.........

+
Taking together the first and last of these terms, the
second and next to last, and so on, we have
(2cos θ)η anxn + 1
n = 1
xn-2
+ n (n
n(n -1)(2n-6+- 1) 1
( = + = +....
+г-гих)и+ готов1.2
But by the last article we have
xn + 1 = 2 cos nθ, 1
их
αn-2 + on-2 = 2cos(n-2)0,....
 42 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
2n cosn 0 = 2.cos nθ + n . 2 cos (n − 2) θ -

n(n-1).2cos(n −4)0΄ + ......,

+ 1.2 -

i.e. 2n-1 cosn θ = cos ne + n cos (n- 2) θ

+ n (n - 1)
1.2 cos (n − 4) θ + (2). ... ...

If n be odd, there are an even number of terms on the

right-hand side of (1), so that the terms take together in
pairs and the last term contains cos θ.
If n be even, there are an odd number of terms on the
right-hand side of (1), so that after all the possible pairs
have been taken there is a term left not containing a.
This term will, when divided by 2, form the last term on
the right-hand of (2).
290.. Ex. 1. Expand cosse in a series ofcosines
8
ofmultiples of 0.
We have (2 cos 0) = X+- (x+1) 1+1
=x8 + 8x6+ 28x4 + 56x² +70+56 . x21 +28 . 241 + 8 . 6

1
=(2 + )+8(2 + )+28( +2)+56(2 +2)+70
1 1 1
x4 +56x² + x2
=2.cos 80 + 8.2cos 60 + 28.2 cos 40+56.2 cos 20 +70,
.. 27 cosº 0= cos 80 +8 cos 60 +28 cos 40 +56 cos 20 + 35.
Ex. 2. Expand cos e in a series ofcosines ofmultiples of 0.
1\7
We have (2 cos 0)7= x+ X

=x7 + 7.x5 + 21x3 + 35x+35. X1 + 21 . 13+7 . 15 + 1

=(x=2.cos+1)+7(2 + )+21(
21 ( x²++ )+35( +1)
70+7.2 cos 50+21.2 cos 30+ 35 . 2 cos 0,
26 cos70= cos 70 +7 cos 50+21 cos 30 +35 cos 0.
 EXPANSION OF SINN θ. 343
291. To express sinn e in a series ofcosines or sines of
multiples of e according as n is an even or odd integer.
By Art. 288 we have 1
2i sin e= a -
so that 2n in sinn 0 = (x -1)1\n...........(1).
.........

Case I. Let n be even, so that the last term in the

expansion is 1 n
+ and in = (-1)2.
১

The equation (1) is therefore

2n(−1)2 sin" 0 = xnan –-nan-1 X1 n (n1.2- 1) xn-2 1x21
n
- -
•
+- •
....

+ n (n -1)
1 пх . 1 1
1.2 Nx. 2n-1 + χη2η (2)
•
n-2
-
......

(xn + xn1 -

(xn-2 + 1-)+n(1.2
n
:

n -1)( + 1 )
-2
......

=
2.cos no - n.2 cos (n - 2) θ + n(n-1).
1.2 2cos(n −4)θ
-
......,
as in Art. 289.
n

... 2n-1 (-1)2 sin" θ = cos n − n cos (n - 2) θ

+ n(n - 1)
1.2 cos (n - 4) 0 - ... ...(3).
Since n is even, there are an odd number of terms in
(2), so that there will be a middle term which does not
contain x. This term, on being divided by 2, will be the
last term in equation (3).
344 TRIGONOMETRY.
Case II. Let n be odd, so that the last term in the
expansion (1) will be n- 1
-
1
- , and in = i . in-1 = 1(−1) 2 •

The equation
n- 1
(1)then becomes
1 n (n - 1) xn-2. 1
(-1)1) 2.sin"
2η.ί . (- 2 sinn 0=
θ = xnn - nxn--1 -+
X 1.2 02
n (n - 1) 1 1 1
xn-2 + nx.-xn-1
- - -
......
1.2 xn
= -
1
-

-n
1
xn-2- xn-2 n (n - 1) xn-4 -
1 ...

xn 1.2 xn-4
(4).
Now, by Art. 288,1
xn - - -

n = 2isin nθ,
1
xn-2
xn-2 = 2i sin (n - 2) θ,
-

Hence (4) becomes

n- 1
2n.i. (- 1) 2 sin" 0 = 2i sin ne -n . 2isin (n – 2) 0 -

+ n (n1.2
- 1) . 2i sin (n − 4) 0 - ...,
-

n- 1
so that 2n-1 (-1) 2 sinn e
= sin ne - n sin (n − 2) 0+ n(n1.2-1) sin (n − 4)0 -......
- -

..........(5).
Since n is in this case odd, there are an even number
of terms in (4), so that (4) can be divided into pairs of
terms, and there is no middle term. The last term in (5)
therefore contains sin θ.
 EXPANSION OF SINN θ. 345
292. Ex. 1. Expand sine in a series ofcosines ofmultiples of 0.
We have 26i6 sin60=(x-1) 1/6

=x6 - 6x4 + 15x² - 20+15 . x21 -6 . x41 + 2616 ',

so that -2 sin =(2+ )-6( + ) +15( + )-20
26 0 1

=2 cos 60-6.2cos40 + 15.2cos 20 – 20. -

.. -
25 sin5 0 cos 60 - 6 cos 40 +15 cos 20 – 10. -

Ex. 2. Expand sin e in a series ofsines ofmultiples of 0.

27 i7 sin7 0= 1\7
We have X -

=x7 - 7x5 + 21x3 - 35x +35 X1 21 . 1 +7 . 1 1

•
- - -

=( - )- ( - )+21(2- )-35( - ).
x7 1
- 27.i.sin70 = 2i sin 70–7.2i sin50+21.2i sin 30-35 . 2i sin θ.
1 1

.. -
26 sin70=sin 70 - 7 sin50+21 sin 30 – 35 sin 0. -

Ex. 3. Expand cos e sin e in a series ofsines ofmultiples of0.

We have
25 cos50=(x+1),and2717sine=(x-1). i7 0 X
1\7
X

Hence 212.17.cos50sin7 0=(

0=(x2 - ) ( - ) 1 5
2
1\ 2

=
x10 - 5x6 + 10x2 – 10 5
x2 + 6
- - -
1
10 x2 − 2+
-
1
2 + x2
=(2-1)-2(20-10)-4(2-2)+10(2 ) -
1
6

Hence, as before, we have

+5( - )-20( - ).
x4
1 1
x2
-
211 cos5 0 sin7 0 = sin 120 – 2sin100 – 4 sin 80 +10 sin 60+5 sin 40
- -

-
20 sin 20.
346 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. LI.
Prove that
1. sin50= 161 [sin 50 - 5 sin 30 + 10 sin 0].
1
2. cos = 256 [cos 90 +9 cos 70+36 cos 50+84cos 30 +126 cos θ].
3. cos100=
5121 [cos 100+10cos 80 +45 cos 60+ 120 cos40+210 cos 20+126].
1
4. sin80=128 [cos 80 -8 cos 60+28 cos 40 -56 cos 20+35].
1
5. sin90= 256 [sin 90 - 9 sin 70+ 36 sin 50 - 84 sin 30+126 sin 0]..

**293. To express sinηθ

sin o in a series of descending
powers ofcos 0.
If x be < 1, we have
sin
1 - 2x cos θ + x² = sin 0 + x sin 20 + x² sin 30 + ...
+ xn-1 sin nθ + ... ad inf. .........(1).
This may be shewn by multiplying each side by
1 - 2x cos 0 + x²,
when it will be found that the right-hand member will
reduce to sin θ.
Another proofwill be found in Art. 358.
Equating
sin ηθ
coefficients of an-1 in (1), we have
sin = coefficient of an-1 in [1 - 2x cos 0 + x²]-1
= coefficient of an-1 in [1 - x (2 cos 0 – x)]-1-

= coefficient of an-1 in
1 + x (2 cos θ - x) + x² (2 cos θ – x)² + ......
-

+ xn-3 (2 cos θ - x)n-3 + an-2 (2 cos θ- x)n-2

+ xn-1 (2 cos θ - x)n-1 + xn (2 cos 0 – x)n + (2). ......
 SIN ηθ IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COS θ. 347
SIN 0
Now coefficient of
xn-1 in xn-1 (2 cos θ - x)n-1 = (2 cos θ)n-1,
coefficient of an-1 in xn-2 (2 cos θ - x)n-2
=
coefficient of a in (2 cos 0 – x)n-2 -

= - (n - 2) (2 cos θ)n-s,
coefficient of an-1 in xn-3 (2 cos θ - x)п-з
= coefficient of x² in (2 cos —х)п-з
(n-3)(n-4)(2cos
1.2 0)n-5,
and so on.
Hence, from (2) picking out in this manner all the
coefficients of an-1, we have
sin ηθ = (2 cos θ)n-1 – (n - 2) (2 cos θ)n-3
-

sin
+ (n - 3)1.2(n −4) (2 cos θ)n-5
-
(п – 4)(п1.2.3
-

– 5) (n − 6) (2 cos 0)n-7 +
-

.....

n-1
2
If n be odd, thelast term couldn
be proved to be (-1) ; if n be even,
-1
it could be shewn to be (-1) (n cosθ).
**294. To express cos ne in a series of descending
powers ofcos θ.
If x be < 1, we have
1 -x²
1 - 2x cos + x² = 1 + 2x cos0 + 2x² cos 20 + 2x³ cos 30+ ...
... + 2xn cos nθ + ...
ad inf. ......(1).
This may be shewn by multiplying both sides by
1 - 2x cos + x²,
348 TRIGONOMETRY.
when it will be found that all the terms on the right-hand
side will reduce to 1 - х².
Another proof will be found in Art. 358.
have
Equating coefficients of an on the two sides of (1), we
2 cos ne = coefficient of x in (1 - x²) [1 – 2x cos O + x²]-1
=
coefficient of xn - coefficient of xn-2 in
[1 -x (2 cos 0 – x)]-1
-

= coefficient of xn - coefficient of xn-2 in

1 + x (2 cos θ – x) + x² (2 cos θ –x)²+ ...

...
+ xn-2 (2 cos 0 – x)n-2 + xn-1 (2 cos 0 – x)n-1
+ xn (2 cos θ - x)n + xn+1 (2 cos θ – x)n+1 +
-
....

Picking out the required coefficients as in the last

article, starting with the term
we have 2 cos ηθ
xn (2 cos θ – x)",
= (2 cos θ) – (n - 1) (2 cos 0)п-2+ (n-2)(n-3)
-

1.2 (2cos θ)n-4

-
(n-3)(n-4)(n-5)(2cos0)n-6+
1.2.3 ......
-

(2 cos θ)n-2 – (n − 3) (2 cos θ)n-4

-

(n −4)1.2(n −5) (2 cos θ)n-6 –

+ ....

=(2cose) -n(2cos0)n-2+ (n-2)(n-3)

1.2 +(n-3) (2cose)n-4
-[(n -3)(n =4)(n −5) + (n-4)(n-5) (2cos0)n-6+ . . ,
-

1.2.3
- -

1.2
 COS ne IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 349
so that, finally,
2 cos nθ = (2 cos θ)n – n (2 cos θ)n-2 + n(n1.2-3) (2 cos 0)n-4
-

-
n(n −4)(n-5)(2cos0)n-6+
1.2.3 (2 cos θ)n-6 + ... ......(2).
1

The last term could be shewn to be

n-1 n

(−1) 2 .n . (2cose) or (-1) 2,

according as n is odd or even.
**295. To expand sinηθ
sin in a series of ascending
powers ofcos 0.
As in Art. 293, we have
sin ηθ
sin = coefficient of xn-1 in [1 - 2x cos θ + x²]-1
= coefficient of xn-1 in [1 + x (x - 2 cos 0)]-1
= coefficient of an-1 in
1 -x (x – 2 cos θ) + x² (x - 2 cos θ)² - 2 ......

+(- 1) x (x - 2 cos 0)" + ......(1).

......

Case I. Let n be odd, so that (n - 1) is even.

The lowest term in (1) which gives any coefficient of
xn-1 is then that for which
r = "-1.
2
Hence, in this case,
sin ηθ = coefficient of an-1 in 1 − x (x – 2 cos θ) + ...
- -

sin
n- 1 n - 1 -
n+1 n+1 n+1
+(-1)n+3 n+3( -2cos0) 2+(-1)
2 X2
n+3
2 X
2 (x-2cos0) 2
+(-1) 2 x 2 (x - 2 cos 0) 2 +......
+ (- 1)n-1 xn-1(x - 2 cos 0)n-1 + ...
350 TRIGONOMETRY.

have
Picking out the required coefficients as in Art. 293, we
n+1 n -1
n- 1 n+1
sin =(-1) +(-1)
sinn 2 2
2 2
2
1.2 (-2 cos 0)2
n+3
n+3 n+1 n-1 n -3
+(- 1) 2 22 2 2 (-2 cos 0) +
1.2.3.4
4 ...

+(2 cos 0)n-1.

Hence,
n-1
finally, when n is odd, we have
(-1) sinne
sin
2 = -
- 12 cos² θ + (п²2 – 12)(п²- 32) cos40
1 n²1.2 4
_
-
(п²–12)(п²-32)(п²–52)
2 -

6
2
cos60- 2 -

......

n- 1
+(- 1) 2 (2 cos 0)n-1.........(2).
Case II. Let n be even, so that n - 1 is odd.
The lowest term in (1) which gives any coefficient of
xn-1 is then that for which
n
r= 2
Hence, in this case,
sin ηθ
sin = coefficient of an-1 in 1 − x (x – 2 cos θ) + ...
n n n n n

+(-1) (x - 2 cos ) +(-1) +1 2+1+1 (x − 22coscos 0)2

n n
2

n
-
+1

+ (−1)2+2x2+2(x(x -2 cos0)2 + ...

+ (- 1)n-1 xn-1 (x – 2 cos 0)n-1 + ....
 SIN ηθ
SIN 0 IN ASCENDING POWERS OF COS θ. 351
Picking out the required coefficients, we have
sin ηθ n-
n
sin ) =(-1)2.2(-2cos0) •

n n

+(-1) +1 ( +1)1.2.3 2/2 -

n

(- 2 cos 0)
n n n /n (n
2 +2 2 +1 2 1 2 2
- -

n
+(-1)2+2 1.2.3.4.5 (-2 cos 0)5
+ ..... ...... + (2 cos θ)n-1.
Hence, finally, when nis even, we have
(-1)*2+1sinne
sin
ηθ
n

n cos θ -
n (n² - 22) cos³ θ + n(n²–22)(п.2 - 42) cos50
2 -

3 5
- ......
+(-
+(−1)2**(2
1) +1 cos0) -1............(3).
N.B. It will be noted that equations (2) and (3) of this article are
simply the series of Art. 293 written backwards. This is clear from the
method ofproof, or the statement could be easily verified independently.
**296. То еxpand cos ne in a series of ascending
powers ofcos 0.
As in Art. 294, we have
2 cos ne = coefficient of xn - coefficient of an-2 in
(1 2x cos θ + x²)−1
-
-1

= coefficient of an coefficient of an-2 in

-

1 - x (x – 2 cos θ) + x² (x - 2 cos 0)² -

-

:
2 ......

as in Art. 295.
+ (- 1)" х" (x - 2 cos 0) + ......(1),
352 TRIGONOMETRY.
Case I. Let n be odd, so that n - 1 is even.
The lowest term in (1) which will give any of the
coefficients we want is that for which
r=
n-1
2
Hence 2 cos ne = coefficient of xn - coefficient of an-2
in n -1 n- 1 n-1
1 − xn+(x1 –n +12 cos θ) + ... +n+1(-1) 2 n+3 n+3(x-2 cos θ)
-
X 2 2
n+3
+(-1) 2 x 2 (x-2cos0) 2 + (-1) 2 x 2 (x -2 cose) 2
+ .........n-1+ (-1)n xn (x – 2 cos θ) ......
n- 1
= (-1) 2 -2 --

(-2 cos 0)
+(- 1) +(- 20cm )-
+ (- 1) 2
n+ 3
n+3 n+1 n-1
22 2
cos

(- 2 cos 0)
1.2.3
n+ 1 n -1 n - 3
1.2.3 (-20%cos )3) ]
n + 3n + 1n - 1n - 3n - 5
2 2 2 2 2
1.2.3.4.5 (- 2 cos 0)5
+
n- 1
+ (2 cos θ)n.
... ( - 1) 2.2 cos ηθ
=cost[(n-1)+(n+1)]- (n+1)(n-1)
3 cos30[(n-3)+(n+3)]
+ (n + 3)(n + 1)(n -1)(n -3) cos5 0 [(n − 5) +(n + 5)] + ....
-

|5 n -1
+(- 1) 2 (2 cos θ)n.
 COS ήθ IN ASCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 353
Hence, finally, when n is odd,
n- 1
(-1) 2 cos ne
2 12
= ncos θ _ n (n²-1º)
-

3 cos³ +
n(n²–12)(n2–32)cost
5 0
-

n-1
-
......
(-1) 2n-1 cosn θ......(2).
2 •

Case II. Let n be even.

The lowest term in (1) which will give any of the
required coefficients is that for which
r
n- 2
2
Hence we have
2 cos nθ = coefficient of xn - coefficient of an-2 in
n- 2 n-2 n-2
1 - x (x- 2 cos θ) + ... + ( -1) 2 x 2 (x - 2cos 0) 2
nn n n+2n+2 n+2
+ ( − 1)² x² (x - 2 cos θ)² + ( −1) 2 X 2 (x- 2cos 0) 2
-

+ .... ...... + (-1)nxn (x – 2 cos 0)n + ......

n-2
nn - 2
=(−1) 2 [-1] + ( −1)2
n
1 -
22 (-2 cos )2
1.2
n+2
n+2 n
•
-

+(-1)212-2cos0)
( −2 2
n+2 n n-2 n-4
-
2222
1.2.3.4 (-2 cos 0)4
L. T. 23
354 TRIGONOMETRY.

n+4
n + 4 n + 2nn- 2
+( - 1) 2 2 222 ( -2 cos 0)
1.2.3.4
n + 4n + 2 n n - 2 n - 4 n - 6
22 2 2 2 2 ( − 2 cos 0)•

- 6
-

16
+ ..... ...

n
+ (2 cos θ)n.
... ( - 1)2.2 cos nθ
=[1 +1] -cos²0[n(n-
2 2)+ (n+ 2).n]
+ cos44 θ [(n + 2).п.(n - 2)(n - 4) +(n +4)(n+ 2).п.(n-2)]
n
+ ..... + (−1)2 . (2 cos θ)n.
Hence, finally, when n is even,
n

(−1)2cos ηθ = 1- n² cos² |2
θ + η² (п² —22) cos4θ
44

-
n2(n²-22)(n²-42)cosº0
n²
6
2 - θ + ...
n

+( − 1)22n-1 cosn θ.
-

(3).
N.B. As before, the equations (2) and (3) of this article are only the
series (2) ofArt. 294 written backwards.
**297. From equation (2) of Art. 295 and equa-
tion (2) of Art. 296 we have, if n be odd,
n² - 12 cos² + (п²- 12)(п²-32) cos4 θ
(−1)2 sinn
-

sin =1-
-
2 2
4

|2
- (п²– 12)(п²–32)
2 -

| 6 (п²–52) cos60 +.......

2 -

-
- -

n- 1
+( - 1) 2 (2cos 0)n-1 + ......(1),
 EXPANSIONS IN POWERS OF SIN θ. 355
n-1
and (-1) 2 cosne= ncosθ _n (n²-12)cos³θ
3
-

-
-

+ п(п² – 12) (п² – 32) cos5 0 + .. +(- 1)n2- 1 2n-1 cosnθ

n 2 - -

......

5
......(2).π
In these equations change into 3-0,
cos e into sin θ.
2 and therefore
Then sin ne will become
n- 1
( ηθ),θ), ίi.εe. (−1)
sin 2 -
(-1) 2 cosηθ,
and cos ne will become
n- 1
cos( π-ηθ), i.e. (-1) 2 sin ηθ.
2
On making these substitutions we shall have, if n be
odd,
cosne=cos
ηθ 0 {1 -
n²2- 12
2 sin²0 + (n²-12)(n²-3*
2

4
32
) sin40 -...
+(-1)n-12 .2n-1 sinn-1 Ө ...
...(3),
and
sinnθ= nsin 0 –n(n²–3 12)sin30 + n(n²-12)(n²-32)sin50
-
2 -
2 2
5

n-1
+ ...... +(-1) 2 2n-1 sin" .......(4).
**298. Again from equation (3) of Art. 295 and
equation (3) of Art. 296 we have, if n be even,
(-1) +1sinηθ=
sin ncosθ_n(n²-22)cos3θ
3
-
-

+ n(n²-22)(n²-42)cos50+
5
2 2
cos5 0 + ...... + (-1)
(-1)2 +1* (2 cos θ)n-1
......(1),
23-2
356 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
(−1)2 cosn = 11 - n22 cos² 0 + п² (n²4- 22) cos4 θ
n 2
-

44
...

+(- 1)2 2n-1 (cos" θ)...... (2).

In these equations change into 2 -0, and therefore
cos e into sin θ.
Then sin ne will become
( –ηθ),θ), i.e. (−1)
sin ηπ
2
-

(-1) 2 +1sinnd,ηθ,
n

and cos ne will become

n
COS ( ηθθ), i.e. (-1) cos ηθ.nd.
ηπ
2
-
,

On making these substitutions we have, if n be even,

sin ηθ = n sin θ n(n²-22)sin³θ
-
+ n(n²-22)(n²-42)sin50.
2
.
cos θ 3 |5
and
+ (−1)2+1(2sin 0) -1......(3),
cos nθ = 1 - n22sin20+ n2(n2-22)sin4θ
4
n

+ ...... (-1)2 2n-1 sinn 0......(4).

**299. Equations (1) and (2) of Art. 297 and equa-
tions (1) and (2) of Art. 298 give the expansions of sinne
and cos ne in ascending powers ofcos e for the cases when n
is even or odd. Equations (3) and (4) of the same two
articles give the expansions of the same two quantities in
terms of sin θ.
 EXPANSIONS OF SIN ηθ AND cos ηθ. 357
EXAMPLES. LII.
1. sin 70= 7 sin 0 – 56 sin³ 0 +112 sin5 0 – 64 sin7 0.
- -

2. cos 70=64 cos7 0 - 112 cos5 0 +56 cos³ 0 -7 cos θ.

3. sin 80= sin 0 [128 cos7 0 – 192 cos5 0 +80cos³ 0 - 8 cos θ].
-

4. cos 80= 1-32 sin2 0 + 160 sin40 – 256 sin6 0 + 128 sin8 0.
-

5. sin 90=sin 0 [256 cos8 0 - 448cos6 0 + 240 cos40 -40cos² 0 +1].

6. Express cos 60 in terms of cos e only and verify for the cases
π π
0=0, 0= 2
respectively.
7. Prove the algebraic identity
pn+ qn=(p + q)n - n (p + q)n-2pq+ n (n-3)
1.2 (p+ q)n-4p2q2 + ....
Deduce that
2 cos nθ== (2 cos θ)n n (2cos 0)n-2+ η(n1.2-3) (2 cos 0)n-4 – ....
-

* 300. Ex. Prove that the roots of the equation 1

8x3 - 4x2 - 4x+ 1=0

are cos , cos 3π7 and cos 5π ,
π

and hence that Cos COS 3π + cos 5π 21 ,'

COS π + cos =

π 3π + cos 3π COS 5π + cos 5π π= - 1

COSCOS
7 7 7 7 COS = -2
and COS
π COS 3π COS 5π 1
7 7 7= -
.8
On putting n=7 in equation (2) ofArt. 294, we have
7.4 7.3.2
2cos70=(2 cos0)7–7(2cos0)5+
cos0)5+1.2(2cos0)3-1.23(2cos0),
i.e., on reduction,
cos 70= 64 cos7 0 - 112 cos5 +56 cos³ 0 - 7 cos 0..........(1).
Now put cos 70= -1, so that
θ π 3π 5π
7 , or 7 .......
=

7'
358 TRIGONOMETRY.
Equation (1) then becomes
64 cos7 0 - 112 cos5 0 +56 cos³ 0 – 7 cos 0 + 1 =0............(2),
-

and its roots are

cos , cos 3π , cos 5π, cos 7π , cos
π
cos 11π7 and cos 13π7.
COS 9π , COS
Now
cos = -1, cos 13π7 =cos 7', cos 11π7= cos 3π, and cos 9π7=cos 5π .
7π π
COS

The roots of (2) are therefore --1, and cos , COS 3π and cos 5π
π
7, , the
latter three roots being twice repeated.
Writing c, for shortness, for cos e, the equation (2) may be written
(c+ 1) (8c34c² -4c+1)²=0.
Hence cos 7, COS 3π7' and cos 5π7 are the roots of the equation
π

We therefore have
8c3 – 4c2 – 4c + 1 =0........
- -
..........(3).
5π 4 1
COS + Cos 3π
π
7 + Cos === =- ,

cos π cos 3π + cos 3π COS 5π+cos 5π COS π -4 = - 1

7 7 7 7 7 8 2'
and π 3π
COS COS COS
5π -1 1
7 7-8 8.
1
In equation(3),putting 1=x,andtherefore c=Jr,itfollowsthatthe
quantities sec , sec² 3π7' and sec2 5π7 are the roots ofthe equation
π

4 4
8.0J -1-1
xxx √x + 1=0,
or, on rationalizing, x² - 24x² + 80x - 64=0..... ...(4).
Again, putting x= 1 +y, then, since sec² 0=1 +tan20, it follows that
tan , tan 3π7' and tan2 5π〒
π

are the roots of the equation

(1+y)³3 - 24 (1 +y)² +80(1 +y) – 64=0,
i.e. of у³-21у²+35у - 7=0.
 EXAMPLES. 359
Aliter. Without assuming the series ofArt. 294, which is difficult to
remember,
Theorem.
the equation (2) may be deduced directly from De Moivre's
For the equation (cos +isin0)7= − 1...... ..........(5),
i.e. cos 70+ i sin 70 = – 1,
is clearly satisfied when o has either ofthe values
3π 5π 7π 9π 11π and 13π
ㅠ,π‫י‬ㅠ,
‫די‬ㅠ,
‫די‬ㅠ,‫די‬ㅠ,
‫ י‬ㅠ 7
........... ...
(6).
Writing c for cose and s for sin0, the equation (5) onbeing expanded
by the Binomial Theorem becomes
c7 + 7ics - 21c5s2 – 35ic4s3 + 35c384 + 21ic2s5 – 7cs6 – is7= – 1.
- - -

Equating the realparts oneach side, wehave

c7- 21c5s2 + 35c3s4 - 7cs6 + 1=0.
Putting s²=1 -c², we see that the cosineof each ofthe angles (6) satisfies
the equation 64c7-112c5 + 56c3 - 7c + 1=0.
But this is equation (2).
* 301. Ex. Find the value of
4π + ... to n
sec + sec 0+ 2π
:

n
+ sec
-

n terms,
sec20 + sec2 2π + sec2 0+ 4π + ... to n terms.
-

n n

From equations (2) and(3) ofArt. 296, we know that

n-1
nc- n(n2–12)c3+n(
3
-
-

n2–12)(n2-32)c5+.
5
–
-
. +(-1)2 2n-1cn
n-1
=(-1) τος ηθ..............................(1),
2

when n is odd,
and that
n n

1212 + 22(n2-22)c4+...+(-1)22n-1cm (-1) cosnonθ ....... (2),

1 n2 C2
-
(n² – c²+ 2
......
4
when n is even,
where in each series c stands for cos θ.
360 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ifcosno be nowgiven, the equations (1) and (2) give cos 0.
But since cos nθ=cos (nθ + 2 )=cos (ηθ +4π)
........

these equations would also give

COS + 2π
-

n
, COS 0+ 4π
n
-

‫ و‬..

Hence, in eachcase, the roots are

cos e, cos (0+2), ( + )
, COS to n terms.

In (1) and (2) put c= y1 and multiplyby yn.

=
Wehave then the equations
n-1
(−1)2 cosnoxyn-n.yn-1+n(n2–12)yn-3-............(3),
3
when n is odd, n
and [(-1)2 cos nθ-1 |yn+n2 yn-20 ...............(4),
when n is even.
The roots of these equations are respectively
sec e, sec 0+ 2π
n
4π
n
‫ و‬....

Call these Y1, Y2, ..., Yn

Then
Y1+Y2+ ... +Yn=sum of the roots n-1
n
n-1 =(- 1) 2 nsecnd, when n is odd,
(-1) cosηθ
2

and =0, when n is even.

Also
Y₁2+Y22+ ... +Yn²=(Y1+Y2+ ...+Yn)² - 2(Y1Y2+Y2Y3+ ...)
2

n2
cos2ηθ =n2 sec² nθ, when n is odd,
=

n2
and -2 . 2 n2 , when n is even.
22

n
-

-12cos ηθ-1 1-(-1) cosne

: EXAMPLES. 361

EXAMPLES. LIII.
1. Prove that
х- 2 cos 2π X -
2 cos 4π X - 2 cos 5
- x- 2 Cos8π
5 5 5
=x² + 2x3 - x2 – 2x + 1.
-

2. Prove that the roots of the equation

4π 6π
8x3 + 4x2 - 4x - 1 =0 are cos 2π7 , COS
7 , and cos •

3. Prove that sin 2π7 ' sin 4π 8π

7 and sin 7 are the roots of the equation
-

-
√72+
2
√78 =0.
Prove that
1 1 1 =1.
4. 2π + 4π +
4- sec² 7 4- sec2 7 4- sec2 6π 7
π 2π 3π 4π 19
5. cos49+ cos 9+ cos4 9 + cos4 9 16
=

6. sec4 π + sec4 2π + sec4 3π

9 9
-

9 + sec 9
4π =1120.

π 3π 5π + COS 7π
9π 1
7. cos 11+ cos 11 + cos 11 11+ cos112 =

8. Form the equation whose roots are

tan211, tan22 ,tan237113π ' tan2 114π and tan2 115π°
π

[Commence with equation (3) ofArt. 277.]

2π +cot2 3π
9. cot2 11+ cot2 11
π 4π 5π
11 +cot2 11 + cot2 11 =15.
2π
10. sec2 11 + sec2 11
π 3π
+ sec2 11 4π + sec2 5π=60.
+ sec² 11 11
Prove that
- + cos + cos 18π /13-1
2π 6π
11. COS 13 13 13 4 •
362 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LIII.]
10π 14π 22π -13-1
12. COS
13 + cos 13 + cos 13 4
13. π
COS 15 + cos 15 11π
7π+ cos + cos 13π 1
15 15 = -2 •

π
14. Prove that sin 14 is a root of the equation
64x6 – 80x² + 24x² - 1 =0.
-

Find the value of

15. cos θ COS 0+22π)cos
n
0+ 4π
n
......cos 0+(n -1) 2πn -
•

(0+2)sin(
16. sin e sin 0
17. cosec² + cosec² ( +2)
+ )0+
{0+(n-1)2
sin 30+ (n- 1) 4π .......

+cosec² 0+ 4π -
......
to n terms.
•

18. tan2 tan2(0+2 )+tan (0+ )

0+ 2π ......

[For the following 5 questions commence with equation (5) of Art.

to n terms.

277.]
19. tan 0+tan )+tan(0+2)
1π
n
...... to n terms.
20. cot + cot n)+cot(0+ n)
0+ 1π -
2π
-
...... to n terms.

21. tantan(0+1)tan(0+2 )π 2π
...... to n factors.
22. tan20+tan2 (0+1)+ (0+ 2 )+ + tan²2 2π + ..... to n terms.
n
-
......

23. If n be odd, prove that S=3C=n2-1, where

S=sec² n+ sec2 2πn +sec2 3π + ...... to n - 1 terms,
π
-

and C=cosec² πn + cosec2 2π

n
+ cosec2 3π
n
+ ...... to n- 1 terms.
24. Find the sumof the products,taken two at a time, ofexpressions
of the form sec (0+2 ) , where r has all values from zero ton 1. -
 CHAPTER XXV.
EXPONENTIAL SERIES FOR COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCU-
LAR FUNCTIONS FOR COMPLEX ANGLES. HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS.

302. WHEN x is a real quantity we haveproved in

Art. 253 that
ex = 1 + x + 20212+ 203
23 + ad inf...............(1).
When a is not real but is complex, i.e. of the form
a+ b/-1, the expression et has nomeaning at present.
Let us so define it that for all values of x (whether
real or complex) it shallmean the series
2
1+x+ + + ad inf..............(2).
23
-

303. We can easilyshew that this seriesisconvergent

when x is complex.
For let x = r (cos + √ - 1 sin 0).
364 TRIGONOMETRY.
2
Then ex = 1 + x ++ X3 +......ad inf.
23
= 1 + r (cos + i sin 0) + r² (cos 20 +2 i sin 20)
+ r³ (cos 30 + i sin 30) +......ad inf.
3
r³ cos 30
= 1 + r cos + r2 cos2 20 + 3 +......
-

+√-1
The quantity
[rsin
r sin 0 + r² sin 20 + r³ sin330
|2 +...... •

1 + rcos0 + γ2 cos 20 + | 3 cos 30 + .....

12 2
is <1 +r+ 2 + 3 + ……………
......

and is therefore convergent since this series is convergent

for all real values of r. (Art. 254.)
Similarly the quantity
γ2
12
r sin 0 + 2 sin 20 + ......
is convergent.
Hence the series for ex is always convergent.
304. When x is a complex quantity the quantity ex
is then a short way ofwriting
1 + x + X223X3
++ ......

Unless x be real, the e in ex does not mean the series

1 + 1 + 1231
+ + ......
 COMPLEX QUANTITIES. EXPONENTIAL SERIES. 365
When x is complex, ex stands for a series of the same form
as that series which, when x is real, has been proved
to be equal to
(1+1+1+1 +....... ......
x

Instead of ex theexpressionsE(x) and exp (x) aresometimesused.

305. By a proof similar to that of Art. 300, C.
Smith's Algebra, it may be shewn that
ex . ey = ex+y,
whether x and y be real or complex quantities, so that
the functions ex and ey obey a law of the same form as
the index law.
306. If x be put equal to θi, where e is real, we
then have
εθί = 1 + θί + 022 033 +
2+3 ......

= 1 02 044 066 + ......

-

12+ -

+ ίθ 03 + 05 -

35
--
- ......

= cos + i sin θ. (Arts. 279 and 280.)

So e-oi == cos 0 - isin θ.
Hence, by addition, we have
cos θ εθί +2ε-θί ,

and, by subtraction, eoi e-oi

-

sin 21
366 TRIGONOMETRY.

Circular functions of complex angles.

307. When æ is a complex quantity, the functions
sin æ and cos x have at present no meaning.
For real values of x we have already shewn in Arts.
279 and 280 that
sin x = X X3 + X5 x7 + ......ad inf.
- -
:

35 7
cos x = 1 X2 +
6
and
|2 14-16 ++ ......ad inf.
-

Let us define sin x and cos x, when a is complex,

sovalues
thatofthese relations may always be true, i.e. for all
x let
X3 x7
sin x X -

B + 5- 7+
3
...... ...... ..
(1),
and cos x = 1 X224
+
-
X4 -

6+ ......
(2).
When a is complex, the quantities sina and cos x are
then only shortways of writing the series on theright-hand
sides of (1) and (2).
308. We have then, for all values of x, real or
complex, X2
cos x + i sin x = 1 + xi - 2-3 + 4 ......

= 1 + xi + (xi)2 + (xi)3 (xi)4

3 + 4
|2 -
......

So
exi
cos x - i sin x = e-xi (Art. 302.)
 COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 367
Hence for all values ofx, real or complex, we have
COS X
exi + e-xi , and sin x еxі — е-хі -

2 2i
These results are known as Euler's Exponential Values.
309. We can now shew that the Addition and
Subtraction Theorems hold for imaginary angles, i.e. that,
whether x be real or complex, then
sin (x + y) = sinæcosy + cos æ siny,
cos (x + y) = cos xcos y- sin asin y,
sin (x -y) = sinæ cosy cosxsin y,
-

and
Since
cos (x -y) = cos x cosy + sin asin y.
COS X
exi + e-xi and sin x = exi - e-xi
--

2 2i ,

we have sin x cos y + cos x siny

exi - e-xi eyi + e-yi + exit e-xi eyi - e-уі
2i 2 2 2i
exi . Zeyi - e-xi. 2e-yi e(x+y)i - e-(x+y)i
4i 2i (Art. 305)
sin (x + y).
Similarly the other results may be proved.
310. It follows that all formulæ which have been
proved for real angles and which are founded on the
Addition and Subtraction Theorems are also true when
we substitute for the real angle any complex quantity.
For example, since
cos 30 = 4 cos³ 0 - 3 cos θ,
368 TRIGONOMETRY.
where e is real, it follows that
cos 3 (x + yi) = 4cos³ (x + yi) – 3 cos (x + yi).
Again, since, by De Moivre's Theorem, we know that
cos nθ + i sin nθ
is always one of the values of
(cos + i sin θ)η,
when e is real and n has any value, it follows that
cos n (x + yi) + i sin n (x + yi)
is always one ofthe values of
[cos (x +yi) + isin (x + yi)]n.
311. Periods of complex circular functions. In
equations (1) and (2) ofArt. 309 let x be complex and let
y=|= 2π.
Then sin(x+ 2 ) =sin x cos 2ㅠ + cos x sin 2ㅠ
=sin x,
and cos (x + 2 ) = cos x cos 2 - sinx sin 27
= COS X.
Hence sin x and cos x both remain the same when x
is increased by 27. Similarly they will remain the same
when a is increasedby
4π, 6π, 2ηπ.
Hence, when a is complex, the expressions sin a and
cos x are periodic functions whose period is 27.
This corresponds with the results we have already
found for real angles. (Art. 61.)
 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 369

EXAMPLES. LIV.
Assuming that cosx= exi +2e-xi and sinx exi - e-xi
2i prove that, for
all values of x, real or complex,
1. cos²x +sin2x=1. 2. cos ( -x) =cos x.
3. sin (-x)=sinx. 4. cos 2x= cos2x - sin2x=1- 2 sin² x.
5. sin 3x=3 sin x-4 sin³ x. 6. cosx cos y=2 sin x+y Y-х
2 sin 2
-
•

7. sinx- siny=2cos2 x+y sinx-y2 •

Prove that
8. {sin(a+0)-eaisin0}n=sinnae-noi.
9. sin(a +ηθ) – eaisinno=e-noi sin a.
10. {sin (a– b)+e±aisin 0}n=sinn-1 a {sin (a--no)+e±ai sinno}.
312. In the formulæ of Art. 308 if x be a pure
imaginary quantity and equal to yi, we have, since
2 = - 1,
cos yi eyi.i+2e-yi.i ey 2+ ey ey +2e-y
=
,

and
sin yi= eyi.i -e-yi.i_e-y-
21
eyer -6ey =
2i 2(-1)
ey e-y
-

2 •

313. Hyperbolic Functions. Def. The quantity

ey - е-у
,
2
whether y be real or complex, is called the hyperbolic
sine ofy and is written sinh y.
L. T. 24
370 TRIGONOMETRY.
Similarly the quantity
еу + е-у
2
is called the hyperbolic cosine ofy and is written
cosh y.
[It will be observed that the values of sinhy and coshy are obtained
from the exponential expressions for siny and cosy by simply omitting
the i's.]
The hyperbolic tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent
are obtained from the hyperbolic sine and cosine just as
the ordinary tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent are
obtained from the ordinary sine and cosine.
Thus tanhy= sinh
coshyy = ee -+ey'
ey
1 2
cosechy = sinhyeu-e
1 2
-y "

sech y = cosh y¯ey + e-y'

=

and 1 ey + e-y
cothy= tanhy = eve -

The hyperbolic cosine and sine have the same relation

to the curve called the rectangular hyperbola that the
ordinary circular cosine and sine have to the circle.
Hence the use of the word hyperbolic.
314. From Arts. 312 and 313 we clearly have
cos (yi) = cosh y,
and sin (yi) = i sinh y.
So tan (yi) = itanhy.
 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 371
315. Corresponding to most general trigonometrical
formulæ involving the ratios of angles there are formule
involving the hyperbolic ratios.
For example, we have, for all values ofthe angle x,
cos² x + sin² x = 1,
so that cos² (yi) + sin² (yi)= 1,
and hence, by the last article,
cosh² y-sinh² y = 1.
[This may be deduced independently from the definition of the hyper-
bolic functions . For
coshy-sinh y=(a+c )²-(º¨¯º¯)*
ev e-yy2
2
ey -e-v2
2
e2y+2 +e-2y e2v - 2 +e-2y =1.]
4 4
Again, for all values of u and v we have
sin (u + v) = sin u cos v + cos u sin v.
Put u= xi and v = yi,
so that
sin [(x +y) i] = sin (xi) cos (yi) + cos(xi) sin(yi).
The expressions ofthe last article then give
isinh(x + y) = isinh æcosh y + cosh x x isinhy,
.. sinh (x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.
[Directly from the definition of the hyperbolic ratios we have
sinh xcoshy+coshxsinhy
ex - e-xey + e-y + exte-x ev - e-v 2ex+y - 2e-(x+y) ,
2 2 2 2 4
on multiplication, =sinh (x+y).]
24-2
372 TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, for all values of 0, we have
tan 30 = 3 1-3
tan 0 - tan
tan² 0
Put then 0 = xi, and we have
tan (3xi) = 3 tan1-3
(xi) - tan³ (xi)
tan² (xi) •

Hence the substitutions ofArt. 314 give

itanh (3x) = 3i tanh x - i tanh³ x
1 - 32 tanh² x
3i tanh x + i tanh³ x ;
1 + 3 tanh² x
so that tanh (3x) = 3 tanh x + tanh x
1 + 3 tanh² x •

As before, this may be easilyproved from the definition

of tanh x.
316. In general it follows from (1) of Art. 314 that
any general formula which is true for cosines of angles is
also true if instead of cos we read cosh.
From (2) ofthe same article, since
sin² (yi) = - sinh²y,
it follows that any general formula involving the cosine
and square of the sine of an angle is true if for cos we
read cosh and for sin² we read - sinh².
Similarly from (3) we may turn a formula involving
tan² into another by writing for tan the quantity -tanh².
In this manner formulæ and series involving the
hyperbolic functions may be obtained from Arts. 241,
242, 274, 275, 277, 289, 291, and 293-298.
 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 373
317. From the values in Art. 313 it follows, by
Art. 302, that
1 x + e-x)
coshx= 2(e
= 1 + 2 + X44 + + ......”
2

16
1
sinh x = 2=[ex- e-x]
X5 07
= x+ + + +
357
-
..

These are the expansional values ofcosh & and sinha.

*318. Periods of the hyperbolic functions.
For all values of e, real or complex, we have cos di=cosh 0.
Hence
cosh (x+yi) =cos { (x +yi) i} =cos (xi - y)=cos [ − 2 +xi- y] (Art. 311)
=cos [(2πί+ x+yi) i]=cosh [2πί+ x+yi]
=(similarly) cosh [4πί+x +yi]= ......
Hence the hyperbolic cosine is periodic, its period being imaginary
and equal to 2πί.
Again, since sinh 0= isin di, we have
-

sinh (x+yi) = - i sin {(x +yi) i} = − i sin [xi-y]

= i sin [ − 2 + xi –y]= – i sin {[2πί+x+yi]i}
-

= sinh [2πί+x +yi],

so that the period of sinh (x+yi) is 2πί.
Similarly it may be shewn that the period of tanh (x+yi) is πί.
The hyperbolic functions therefore differ from the circular functions
in having no real period ; their period is imaginary.
319. Ex. 1. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
sin (α+βί).
374 TRIGONOMETRY.
We have sin (a +ẞi)=sin a cos ẞi+cos a sin ßi
epte -B + cos a е -в - ев
= sin a 2 2i

= sin a eB+e- B +i cos a ев - е- в

2 2
sin a coshẞ+ i cos asinhß.
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
tan (α+βί).
Wehave sin (α +βί)
tan(a+ẞi)=cos(a+βi)
= 2 sin (a+ẞi) cos (a–βί)
2cos (a+ẞi) cos (a-ẞi)
sin 2a +sin 2βί
cos2a+cos 2βί
sin 2a+i sinh 2β (Art. 314.)
cos 2a+cosh 2β
Aliter. Let tan (a+ẞi) =x +yi, so that tan (a – ẞi)=x - yi.
-

x= [tan (α +βi) +tan (α – βί)]

..

sin(a+ẞi) cos (a-ẞi)+cos (a+βί) sin (α–βί)

2 cos (a+ẞi) .cos (a–βί)
sin2a sin 2a
cos 2a+cos2βί cos 2a + cosh 2β '
1
Also y=2;[tan(a+ẞi)–tan(a–ẞi)]
2i
= 1 sin (a+ẞi) cos (a–ẞi) -cos (α+βi) sin (α – βί)
2i cos (a+ẞi) cos (α–βί)
1 sin2ßi sinh 28
i cos 2a+ cos 2βί cos2a+cosh2β΄
..
tan (a+ẞi)= sincos2a+cosh
2a+isinh2β
2β •

Ex. 3. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
cos h (α+βί).
 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 375
Bi (Art. 313)
We have cosh (α+βi)=ea+Bi+e-a-
2
ea.eBite-a.e-Bi_ea(cos +isinß)+e-a(cosβ-isinβ)
2 2 (Art. 308)
_cosẞ(ea+e-a)+isinẞ(ea-e-a) =cos ẞ cosha+isinßsinha.
2
Aliter. cosh (a+ẞi)=cos {(a+ẞi) i} (Art. 313)
=cos {ai -β}
=cos (ai)cosẞ+sin (ai) sinβ
=cosh a cos ẞ +isinh a sin β.
EXAMPLES. LV.
Prove that
1. cosh 2x=1 + 2 (sinh x)²=2 (cosh x)² - 1.
2

2. cosh (a+3)=cosh a cosh ẞ +sinh a sinhβ.

3. cosh(a+β) – cosh(a–β)=2 sinh asinh β.
- -

tanha +tanhβ
4. tanh (a + β) = 1+tanh a tanhβ΄
5. cosh 3x= 4 cosh³ x -3coshx.
6. sinh 3x= 3 sinh x + 4 sinh³ x.
7. sinh (x+y) cosh (x -y) = (sinh 2x+sinh 2y).
8. cosh 2x+cosh 5x+cosh 8x+ cosh 11x
=4 cosh 13x 3x
2 cosh 3x cosh
9. coshx+cosh (x+y) +cosh (x+2y) + to n terms......

cosh x+ n2 1 ny2
y)sinh my
-

) sinh
10. sinhx+sinh (x +y) +sinh (x+2y)+ ... ...... to n terms
sinh x+ n 2- 1 sinhny2
9/2

sinh
376 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LV.]
11. sinh x+ nsinh2x +-n (1.2
n - 1)sinh3x+...... to (n+1) terms
=2n coshn X2 sinh n+1 X.

12
12. sinhẞ sına+icoshẞ cosa=icos (α + βί).
13. sin2a+i sinh 2ẞ=2 sin (a+iẞ) cos (a – іβ).
14. cos (a+ iβ)+ isin (a +iẞ)=e-B (cos a +isina).
15. If tany=tanatanhẞ, and tanz=cotatanhẞ, then prove that
tan(y+z) =sinh2ẞcosec2a.
16. If u=log tan 4 2θ prove that tanhU2 tan θ
π
, =

Separate into theirreal and imaginary parts the quantities

17. cos (α+βί). 18. cot (α+βί).
19. cosec (α+βί). 20. sec(α + βί).
21. sinh (α+βί). 22. tanh(α+βί).
23. sech(α+βί).
24. Prove that tan u+2iv sinu + i sinh v
cos u + cosh v •

25. If sin (A + B) =x +iy, prove that

x2 y2 x2 y2
+
cosh²Bsinh²B =1, and sin²A cos²A =1 .
-

26. If sin (0+ pi) =cos a + isina, prove that cos² = ± sin a.
27. If sin (0+pi) =p (cosa +isina), prove that
p²= [cosh 2 -cos20] and tana=tanh cot 0.
28. If cos (0+ φί)=R(cosa+ isin a), prove that:
= log sin (0 – a)
-

sin (0 + a)
α
29. If tan(0+pi)=tana+iseca, prove that e2 = =cot , and that
π
20=ηπ + 2 + α.
30. If tan (0+pi) =cos a+ isina, prove that
0=ηπ2 + , and $= log tanlog tan( + ) α
[Exs. LV.] INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 377
31. If A +iB=ctan (x+ iy), then
2cA
tan 2x= c2 -A2-B2
32. If tan (0+ pi)=sin (x + iy), then
cothysinh24=cot x sin20.
33. If tan (a+ iβ)=i, a and ẞ being real, prove that a is indeter-
minate and ẞ is infinite.
Prove that
34. (sinh x+sin x) =x + 25 x9
15 + 19+......adinf.
24 .8
35. (cosh x+ cos x) =1 +14+18
+ 48 + ..... ad inf.
*320. Inverse Circular Functions. When a
and ẞ are real and a = cos β, we defined, in Art. 237, the
inverse cosine of a to be that value of ẞ which lies
between 0 and 7, and it was pointed out that B was a
many-valued quantity.
If now x + yi = cos (u + vi),
then similarly u+ vi is said to be an inverse cosine of
х+уі.
But since
x + yi = cos (u + vi) = cos [2ηπ + (u + vi)] (Art. 311)
it follows that 2n + (u + vi) is also an inverse cosine of
x + yi, where n is any integer.
The inverse cosine of x + yi is hence a many-valued
function. When the many-valuedness of the inverse
cosine is considered it is written
Cos¯¹ (x +yi).
The principal value of the inverse cosine of x + yi
is2ηπthat+ uvalue of 2ηπ ± (u + vi) which is such that either
or 2ηπ - u lies between 0 and π.
378 TRIGONOMETRY.
This principal value is denoted by cos¯¹ (x+yi).
We have then
Cos¯¹ (x + yi) = 2n + cos¯¹ (x + уг).
** 321. Similarly if
x + yi = sin (u + vi)= sin {ηπ + (-1) (u + vi)},
then nㅠ + (-1)" (u + vi) is an inverse sine of x +yi. It is
a many-valued quantity and is denoted by Sin¯¹ (x + yi).
Its principal value is such that its real part lies between
π
- ই and , andis denoted by Sin-1 (x + yi).
-

We then have
Sin¯¹ (x + yi) = ηπ + (-1)" sin¯¹ (x+ yi).
Similarly tan-¹(x + yi) and Tan-¹ (x+ yi) are defined,
so that the principal value of Tan-1 (x+ yi) is such that
π π
its real part lies between - 2 and ++ 2 ,, and
Tan¯¹ (x + yi) = ηπ + tan¯¹ (x + yi).
Similarly
Sec¯¹ (x + yi)= 2n + sec-1 (x +yi),
Cosec¯¹ (x + yi) =ηπ + (-1) cosec¯¹ (x + yi),
and Cot¯¹ (x + yi)= nㅠ + cot-1 (x + yi).
** 322. We shall henceforward use sin-¹, Sin-1,
cos-¹, Cos¯¹,... with the meanings above assigned.
** 323. Inverse hyperbolic functions. If x=coshy
then similarly, as in Art. 320, we write y = cosh-1 x.
 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 379
If x be real, we have
ey + e-y ,
2
so that егу- 2xey + 1 = 0,
and hence ey = x + √x² - 1
1
= x + √x²- 1 or x + √x² ,
-1
.. y = + log (x+ √x² - 1).
The positive value of the right-hand side is the one
always taken.
Hence, when a is real, cosh-¹æ is a single-valued
function.
Similarly sinh-x and tanh-x are defined; they are
single-valued functions, when x is real.
** 324. If a+pi=cosh (x+yi), then x+yi is said to be an in-
versehyperbolic cosine of a+βί.
But cosh (x+yi) =cosh {2ηπί ± (x +yi)}, as in Art. 318.
Hence 2ηπί= (x+yi) is an inverse hyperbolic cosine of a+βί. Its
principal value is that value whose imaginary part lies between 0 and
wi, i.e. such that 2nwy lies between 0 and π.
Similarly the inverse hyperbolic sine and tangent of a+ẞi aredefined.
In this case the principal values are such that the imaginary part lies
π
between -i and i
** 325. Ex. 1. Separate into real and imaginary parts the quantity
sin-1 (cos +isin 0), where is real.
Let sin-1 (cos + i sin 0) =x+yi,
so that cos + isin e=sin (x +yi)=sinx cosyi+cosxsinyi
sin x cosh y + icos x sinhy.
Hence sin xcoshy = cos θ..... ...... ....(1),
and cos x sinhy=sin 0....... ....
....
(2).
380 TRIGONOMETRY.
Squaring and adding, we have
1=sin2x cosh²y+cos2xsinh² y= sin²x (1 +sinh² y) +cos2 xsinh² y
=sin2 x+ sinh² y,
... sinh² y=cos² x.
Hence from (2) we have cos2x=sin 0, assuming sin e to be positive.
π π
Therefore, since x is to lie between - 2 and + 2 (Art. 321),
wehave cos x= +√sind, and hence x=cos-1(√sin0).
The equation (2) then gives
sinhy= +√sin 0,
so that e2v - 2ev sin0 = 1.
i.e. eu=√sin 0+√1+ sin 0,
i.e. y=log[√sin0+√1+sin0].
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the quantity
tan-1 (α+βi).
Let tan-1 (α +βi)=(x+yi), so that tan (x +yi)=α+ βί,
and tan (x -yi) =a -βί.
... tan2x=tan{(x +yi) + (x-yi)}
(α+βί) +(α – βί)
=
2a =
-1-(α+βί) (α –βί) – 1– α² –β2ο2° - -

2α
..x= tan-1 1-2-2
Again tan (2yi)=tan[(x + yi) – (x - yi)]
= (α+ βί) – (α – βί)
-

=
2βί2
-1+(α + βί) (α–βί) -1+α²+β2
: i e2y- e-2y = 2βί .......(1).
e2y+e-2y - 1 + a² +β2
e2y =
1+a2+β2+2β (1 +β)²+ α²
=
..
e-2y-1+a2+β2–2β (1-3)2+α²
y=y= loglog (1-p)
(1+ )²+a²
+a)).
 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 381
2β
Or again(1) gives tanh2y=1+a2+ β2 '
so that y=21 tanh-1 1 + α²2β+β2
We shouldhave Tan-1 (α+βί)=ηπ+tan-1(α+βί)
2β
=ηπ + tan-1 1-a²2αα² -– β22 + i2ttanh-1 1+a²+β2
2

EXAMPLES. LVI.
Separate into theirreal and imaginary parts the quantities
1. tan-1 (cos + isin 0).
2. cos-1 (cos + isin 0), where e is a positive acute angle.
Prove that
3. sinh -1x=log (x+√x²+1). 4. tanh-1x=sinh -1 √1- x2 X
•

5. cosh -1x=log (√x2−1 +x).

π
6. tanh- x= log 1+1- x
7. Sin-1(cosec0)= {2n +(-1) } + (-1)^log cot . •

8. Tan-1 (e0i) = 2 +4 i logtan 4 θ

ηπ π -
-
π -

tan20– tanh24 +Tan-1 tan9-tanh

9. Tan-1 tan -Tan-1(cotocoth ).
20+tanh 24 0–
-
tan 0 +tanh
 CHAPTER XXVI.
LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
326. IF a= e", where a and a are real quantities, we
know that x is called the logarithm of a to base eandwe
have shewn in Art. 253 that
2 X3
α ex = 1 + x +
2 + 3 + .........ad inf.
We may therefore look upon the logarithm, æ, of a to
base e as being derived as a root of the equation
α = 1 + x + 20223203
+ + ......ad inf..........(1).
As in other cases we shall now extend this result to
complex quantities.
327. Def. If x+yi be any complex quantity and if
a+ẞi be a quantity which is equal to ex+yi, i.e. to the series
1 + (x + yi) + (х+уг) (х + уг)³
2 + 3 + ..........
-

then x + yi is said to be a logarithm ofa + ẞi.

 LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 383
We say " a" logarithm because, as we shall now shew,
there are with the above definition many logarithms of a
quantity.
We have α + βί = ex+yi ..(1).
Now, by Art. 308, we have, for all integral values of n,
e2ηπί = cos 2ηπ + isin 2n = 1 ............(2).
Hence from (1) and (2) we have, byArt. 305,
α+ βί =ex+yi . ρεηπί = ex+ (y +2ηπ)ί
According to the above definition we see that, if x + yi
be a logarithm of a+ Bi, so also is
x + yi + 2ηπί, i.e. x + (y + 2ηπ) ⅰ.
328. We proceed to find the logarithms of the
complex quantity a+Bi, where a and B are real.
ByArt. 267, we have
α + βί = r [cos (2ηπ + 0) + i sin (2ηπ + 0)]
where n is any integer, r = + √a² +B², and e isαthat value
lying between and + such that cose is - and sin
-

B, i.e. with the restriction ofArt. 267,

is r
tan- B
0 = tan-1 α
•

If x + yi be a logarithm ofa+ Bi, we have then

r [cos (2ηπ + θ) + isin (2ηπ + 0)] = ex+yi
=
ex . eyi (Art. 305)
= ex (cos y+ i siny).
384 TRIGONOMETRY.
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have
ex cos y = r cos (2ηπ + θ),
and ex sin y = rsin (2ηπ + θ).
Hence ex r, and y = 2ηπ + θ.
=

Since a and rare both real, a is the ordinary algebraic

Napierian logarithm ofr, so that
x= loger.
Hence a logarithm of a+ ẞi is
loger + i (2ηπ + θ),
i.e. 2
(2ηπ+
logeVa² +B²12 + i tan-1 β
α
Since n is any integer we see that there are therefore
an infinite number of logarithms of a +ẞi, and that these
only differ by multiples of 2πί.
329. With the extended definition of a logarithm
given in Art. 327, it follows by the last article that the
logarithm of any number is many-valued.
When this many-valuedness is taken into consideration
we write
Hence
the logarithm ofa + βί as Log (α + βί).
+βί) =logeVa²+32+
Log(α+βί) = loge 1(2ηπ +tan-1 β .

If we put n equal to zero in the value of Log(α + βί)

the result is called the principal value of the logarithm
and is denoted by log (α+βi), so that
log (α+βi) = loge √(a² +B²) + itan-1 βα'
and
Log(α + βί) = 2ηπί+ log (α + βί).
 LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 385
This distinction between log and Log is to be here-
after assumed.
330. Any positive quantity has one real logarithm
and an infinite number of imaginary ones.
In the result of the preceding article put ẞ equal to
zero, and we have
Loga = 2ηπί+ logea.
We therefore observe that, with our extended definition of
a logarithm, every real quantity a has a real logarithm
(which is equal to logea as ordinarily defined) and an
infinite number of imaginary logarithms, which are
obtained by adding any multiple of 2πί to its real
logarithm.
This might have been directly deduced from equation
(1) ofArt. 326. For this is anequation ofinfinite degree
and therefore it has an infinite number of roots, of which
only one is real.
It will be noted that the principal value of the
logarithm (according to our extended definition) of a real
number is equal to its ordinary algebraic logarithm.
331. Logarithm ofa negative quantity. In the result
of Art. 329 put B = 0, and a = -x, where x is a real
positive quantity.
∴ + √α² + β²22 = + x, and tan-1 βα
---

[which is an angle such that its cosine is -+ хx i.e. -1,

and its sine zero (Art. 267)] is equal to π.
.. Log (-x) = 2ηπί + logex + πί,
and log (-x) = loge x + πί.
L. T. 25
386 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the principal value of the logarithm of a
negative quantity -x (with our extended definition) is
equal to the ordinary algebraic logarithm of x added
on to πί.
332. Logarithm ofa quantity which is wholly imagin-
ary. In the result ofArt. 329 put a = 0, and we have
π
Log (βί) = 2ηπί + logeβ + i
= logeB +i(2n+2) π,

soimaginary,
that theconsists
logarithm of any quantity which is wholly
of two parts, the first of which is real,
and the second ofwhich is imaginary and many-valued.
As a particular case, put β = 1, and we have
Log(v−1)=i(2n+ 1)π,
-

π
so that the principal value ofLog ( -1) is 2 г.
333. In the result ofArt. 329 put
αa = cos and β = sin 0.
... Log (cos + i sin 0)
= loge 1 + i (2ηπ + 0) = θί + 2ηπί,
.. Log evi = θί + 2ηπί.
The principal value of Log evi, i.e. log evi, is therefore
that value of (θ + 2ηπ) i which is such that 0 + 2ηπ lies
between πand + π.
-
 LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 387
334. Ex. 1. Resolve into its real and imaginary parts the expression
Logsin (x+yi).
Let Logsin (x+ yi) =u+vi, so that
eu+vi=sin (x+yi) =sinxcosyi+ cos x sin yi
=sin x ev+e-y ev- e-v
2 + i cos x 2 ...............(1).
As in Art. 267 let the right-hand side of this expression equal
so that r [cos (2ηπ + θ) + i sin (2ηπ + 0)],
+cos² x eY -2e-Y/ 2
2
r= + sin2 x ev+e-y
( 2
= √(e2v +e-2v) – 2 cos 2x
= √2cosh2y-2cos 2x= cosh2y - cos 2x ,
2
and θ=tan-1
[cotxe ] =tan-1 [cotx tanh y],
with the usual restriction of Art. 267.
Wehave then from (1)
eu (cos v + i sin v)=r [cos (2ηπ + 0) +i sin (2ηπ + 0)].
Hence eu=r, so that u=loger,
and v = 2ηπ + θ .
... Log sin (x+ yi) =u + vi=loger + (2ηπ + θ) і
= loge cosh2y2 cos 2x +1[2ηπ + tan-1 (cotx tanhy)].
12

]
By putting n equal to zero, we have the principal value of
Log sin (x+ iy).
Ex. 2. Find the general value of Log ( -3).
Let x +yi=Log ( -3), so that
ex+yi= 3.
-

Put - 3=r {cos (2ηπ + θ) + i sin (2ηπ + θ)},

as in Art. 267.
Then we have r= 3 and θ =π.
25-2
388 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence 3 {cos (2ηπ + π) + isin (2ηπ + π)}
=ex+yi=ex . eyi=ex {cos y + i siny}.
Hence ex=3, so that x=loge 3, and y=2ηπ+π.
.. Log ( -3) =loge3+(2ηπ+ π) ⅰ.
The principal value, obtained by putting n equal to zero, is
loge3+ πί.
EXAMPLES. LVII.
Prove that
1. log (cos + isin 0) = id, if - π< 0 π. 2. log ( -1) =πί.
π
3. log (-i) = - i.
4. log (1+cos 20+isin 20) =loge (2 cos θ) + iθ, if − π < θ ㅠ.
-

5. log tan ( + 1)=

2 = itan-¹ sin hx.
6. logcos (x + yi)= loge cosh 2y+cos
2
2x +i tan-1 (tanxtanhy).
2)
sin (x + yi) =2itan-1 (cot xtanhy).
7. log sin (x - yi)
cos((x+x -yi)=2itan-1(tan
8. log cos yi) xtanhy).
9. ilog xx+- ii =π- 2tan-1 x.
10. log (1+ itana)=loge seca +ai, where a is a positive acute angle.
1 . log(10)=loge(cosec ) + ( -2).
-
1
i π A

12. log a+bi b

a -bi = 2i tan-1 a
13. Log (-5)=loge5+(2ηπ + π) ί.
14. Log (1 + i) = loge 2+ i 2ηπ+ π

15. Find the value of log log sin (x+yi).

 COMPLEX INDICES. 389
335. Definition of a when a and x are any
quantities, complex or real. When a and x are real
quantities we know that
ax= exloga. (Art. 253.)
When a and x are complex the ordinary algebraic
definition of a no longer holds.
Let us so define it that
ax= exLoga
,

for all values of æ and a, whether real or complex.

Now, by Art. 329, Log a is many-valued and complex
when a is complex. Hence at is many-valued and com-
plex, so that
ax= exLoga = ρα(2ηπί+loga)
From Art. 305 it now follows that a × a =ax+y, so that a obeys the
ordinary algebraic law of indices.
The value of a obtained by putting n equal to zero is
called its principal value.
Hence the principal value of ax
= exloga
= 1 + xlog a + x22 (loga)² + (by Art. 304.)
...

336. It may now be shewn that, ifybe complex,

log(1 + y) =y- + - 14Ya - 4 .........

The proof is similar to the proofwhen y is real.

(Art. 256.)
It is, ingeneral,necessarythat the modulus ofy be < 1;
otherwise the Binomial Theorem does not hold for com-
plex quantities. (Art. 273.)
390 TRIGONOMETRY.
If the modulus of y be equal to unity, so that y may be put equal to
cos +i sin o, the expansion canbe shewn to be still true, except in the
cases when o is equal to an odd multiple of π.
Since
we have
Log(1 + y) = 2ηπί + log (1 + y),
Log (1 + y)= 2ηπί++ y- + 1 --+1 Y*+*+
y 1 yY²+3y ......

337. To separate into its real and imaginary parts

the expression (α + βί)x+yi.
Let α + βί= r(cos + i sin θ),
so that as in Art. 265,
β
B2, and 0= tan-18.
r= Να²+B², α
Then, by definition,
(α + βί)x+yi = e(x+yi)Log(α+βί)
= e{x+yi} {log(α+βί)+2mπί}
= e{x+yi} {logr+(0+2mn)i}
-
-
e{xlogr-y(0 +2mm)}+i{ylogr+x(0+2mㅠ)}
= exlogr.e-y(0+2mm) . ei{ylogr+x(0 +2mr)}
= ra.e-y(0 +2mㅠ) [cos {y logr + x (0 + 2mㅠ)}
+ i sin {ylog r + x (0 + 2mπ)}].
If we put m equal to zero, we obtain the principal
value ofthe given quantity, viz.
re-yo [cos (y logr + a ) + i sin (y log r + x )].
338. Ex. 1. Find the general value of[√=1]N=1.
We have [√=1] =1=e√-ILog -1.
 COMPLEX INDICES. 391
But
Log√-1=Log[cos(2n +1)+ sin (2n +1) i 2ηπ π

=Loge(2n+1)i=(2n +
2ηπ+ π
2

:: [√=1]√=1=e(2n+1)
-1 ²=e-(2 +2),
2ηπ π

where nhas anyintegralvalue.

π
Theprincipalvalue of[ -1] -1ise 2.
Ex. 2. Find the general value of Log2 ( -3).
Let Log2 ( -3)=x+yi, so that 2x+yi= -3,
১

i.e. e(x+yi)Log2=3 {cos (2m +n) +isin (2mㅠ +π)} (Art. 265).
But Log 2=2ηπί+log 2, and 3= elog3 e,

.·. (x+yi) (2ηπί+log2)=elog3.e(2mπ+π) ί

.. (x +yi) (2ηπί+loge2)=log 3+(2m +π) i.
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
xloge 2-2ηπy=loge3,
:
and x . 2ηπ+yloge 2 =2mπ + π.
Solving, we have
х loge3loge 2+(2mπ+π) . 2ηπ
(loge2)2+ 4η²²
2. ,

y= (2mㅠ+π) loge2 – 2n loge 3

-

and
(loge 2)²+ 4η²π2 •

Hence Log2 ( -3)

{loge3loge2+2n(2m + 1) π2} +ίπ {(2m+ 1) loge2– 2nloge3} -

(loge 2)2 +4η²²

If m=n=0, the principal value is obtained, viz.
loge 3+πί
이

loge2
392 TRIGONOMETRY.
339. It could now be shewn that the general values
of the logarithms of complex quantities satisfy the
ordinary laws of logarithms, viz.
Logmn =Logm + Log n,
m
and Log-=
n Logm Log n.
- -

It could also be shewn that Log mn = n Logm + 2pπί,

where p is some integer or zero. The proof is left as an
exercise for the student.
EXAMPLES. LVIII.
Prove that
1. a²=e-2mm {cos (loga)+isin (loga)}.
2. ia=cos{(2m+1)πα}+is
3. iiicos 0+ isin 0, where
in {(2m+1)πα}
2

0=0=(2m+1)π.e-(2n +1 ).π

2m + 2
4. If iii. .adinf. =A+Bi, principal values onlybeing considered, prove
that
2

tan ΠΑ2 = Β , and A²+B²=e="B

22 •

5. Ifiα+βία+βi, prove that

α²+ β2=e-(4n+1)πβ.
(1+i)p+qi
6. If (1-1) p-qi =a+pi, prove that one value oftan-1 α is
1
pㅠ + q loge 2.
7. If (a+bi)p=mx+si, prove that one ofthe values of is X
2 tan-1 ab
loge (a²+b²)
[Exs. LVIII.] COMPLEX INDICES. 393
8. If αα+βί=(x+yi)p+qi, principal values only being considered,
prove that
a= 21 p loga(x2+ y²)– q tan-1хlogae,
-

and that loga(x²+y²)=2ap+Bq

p²+q²
9. Prove that the real part ofthe principal value of(i) log(1+i) is
π2
e 8 COS π
4 loglog2).
Prove that the principalvalue of (a+ib)a+is is whollyreal or
10. imaginary according as
wholly
1
Blog(a²+b²)+atan-1-10 a
π
is anevenoranoddmultiple of 2.
11. Prove that the general value of
(1+ i tana)-i
is ea+2mm[cos {logcosa}+isin {logcosa}].
12. If a+x+iy λ+μί=X+iY,
a- x - iy
prove that one ofthe values of
Y
tan-1文 is Atan-1 2ay
a2 - x² - 2 + 2 log (a+x)² +y²
(a-x)²+y2
13. Prove that Log = (√-1)= 4m+1'
4 +1
where m and n are any integers.
14. Prove that the generalvalue of Log4 (-2) is
(log2)2+m.(2n+1)π²
2 (log 2)2+2m²ㅠ² + i (2n+1-m)πlog2
2
2 (log 2)2 + 2m²²
Explain the fallacies in the following arguments :
15. For all integral values of n we have
2ηπί=cos 2ηπ+isin2ηπ=1,
so that e2πί– 4πί–εσπί
=e ...
394 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LVIII.]
Raise all these quantities tothe power√-1; thus
e-2ㅠ=e-4ㅠ =e-6π = ......
.. 2π=4π= 6π= .......

16. For all values of e we have

cos (0 – π)+ isin(0 –π)=cos (θ+π) +isin(θ + π),
-

so that ρί (θ-π) =ρί (θ-π).

Hence θ - π = 0 + π, i.e. π=0.
17. If 0 and 6 be the principal values of the amplitudes of two
complex numbers x and y, prove that
log xy=log x +logy +2ηπί,
where n is -1, 0, or +1 according as 0+ is >ㅠ, greater than - π and
not greater than w, and not greater than -π, respectively.
 CHAPTER XXVII.
GREGORY'S SERIES. CALCULATION OF THE VALUE OF π.
340. Gregory's Series. To prove that, if o be not
less than 4π and be not greater than +14π , then
-

0 = tan 0 - 31 tan + 51 tan5 O -

...

We have cos + i sin θ = εθί,

,

and cos – isin θ = e-θί

-

cos e + i sin
..
cos - i sin e-oi = ρ20έ =e(20+2ηπ)i,
0- θ . =
,

where n is an integer.
(20+2ηπ)ί= 1 + itan 0
1- itan θ '
.·. (20 + 2ηπ) i =log (1 + i tan 8) -log (1 - i tan 0).
Now log (1 + itan ) may be expanded provided that
tan o be numerically less than unity.
396 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence (20 + 2ηπ) ι
1
itan 0-2 tan² 0+ 31 itan³ 0 - ..... ..

0- 1
-[-itan0. 1 1 tan30-
tan20-3
- 1³ ......
]
=

[itan
: 22itan0+ 3 tan
tan³ 0 + 5 tan
.. 0 + n = tan 0 – tan30
tan3 0 + tan5
-
tan50 + ]
tan500 –- ...... ...(1),
1
3
1
......

where n is an integer.
The right-hand member of (1) may be written in the
two forms
tan20)+
tan0(1-3tan
and
5tan 0 (1- 7tanº0)+.
1
.
tan²θ) +...... 5
(2),
tan0- tan30(1- tan20)-=tan (1- 7tan20)
1 3
7
+ ......(3).
9
π
If a lie between 0 and44,so
4' that tane is positive and
less than 1, then from (2) we see that the sum of the
series is positive, and from (3)that it is less than tan
and therefore less thanunity.
In this case, therefore, n must be zero and we have
1 1
0=tan 0-5tan*
3 0 + tan e-...... ad inf. ...(4).
- -

If we change the sign of 0, then every term in (4)

changes its sign, so that the series must also be true for
values of e between 0 and - 4
 GREGORY'S SERIES. 397
341. When tane is equal to unity, we have
log(1 +itan 0)0)=log(1
=log (1 + i)= log| 1+ COS
π π
-

2 >

so that the expansion of log (1 + itand) is by Art. 336,

still true.
Similarly for log (1 − itan 0).
Hence Gregory's series is true for the extreme values
π π
0=14 and 0= - 4
342. If e lie between π4- and 3π
4,or between
5π and 7π
4 4', ......
or, generally, between
ηπ + 74 and nㅠ+ 3π4'
π
-

tan e is greater than unity; in these cases the expansion

of log (1+ itane) does not hold, and there is no such
expansion as equation (1) ofArt. 340.
343. If e lie between 3π 5π
4 and 4
57, let it equal π + α,
so that a lies between
-and + π4
and hence, by equation1(4) ofArt.1 340,
α= tan a 3 tan a + 5 tan a -
--
......

But tan a = tan (0 – π) = tan θ,

-

so that this equation is

Ө π = tan θ 31 tan³ 0 + 1 tan5 0
-
-
-

+예 -
...
398 TRIGONOMETRY.

-
Comparing this with equation (1) we see that n equals
1 when e lies between
3π
4 and 45π
If a lie between 7π 9π
4 and 4
-

97itmaybe similarlyshewn,
by putting equal to 2 + a, that in this case n is equal
to 2.
-

T π
In general if a lie between pr - 4 and pw+1,4' the
-

equation (1) ofArt. 340 is

0 - ρπ = tan 0 31 tan 0 + 1 tan50 -......
344. The series (2) of Art. 340 may be slightly
transformed by writing tan = x, so that a must be not
less than -1 and not greater than 1.
It then becomes
tan¯¹ x=x - 1 x + 51x - x + ...... ad inf.,
-1
3

where tan-¹æ is that value which lies between

and +7.
-174 and 4
345. The results of the preceding articles may be more directly
connected with the preceding chapter in the following manner.
If tand be numerically less than, or numerically equal to, unity we
have, by Art. 336, 1
1
Log (1+ itane)=2pπί+ i tan0-2 2 tan20 + 3 tan³ 0...,
and Log (1 - itan0) =2qwi- itan o 21 i2 tan² 0 - 13 i3 tan 0....
-

where p and q are both integers.

 CALCULATION OF π. 399
Hence, by subtraction,
Log 11 +- itan 0
itan 0 2 (p- q) πί+2i tan0- 1tan0- tan30+ ........(1) . ...

But Log 11 +- itan 0 cos + i sin θ

itan 0 =Log cos θ isin e -

=Log (cos + isin 0)2=Log [cos 20+isin20]

= 2επί +1.20 ..
(2),
where r is an integer.
Some one of the values of the right hand of (1) must therefore be
equivalent to some one of the values on the right hand of (2).
Hence, by equating and putting r-p +q=n, we must have, for some
integral value of n, the relation
0 + ηπ = tan 0 - 31 tan30+ 51 tan5 0 -
....

If we consider principal values only of the logarithms then in (1) both

p and q are zero and tan e is numerically less than unity.
Also, by Art. 333, the value of r in (2) is zero and e lies between
π
-and+
2
Combining these two statements we see that'p, πq, and rare zero, and
therefore n is zero, when e lies between -and+ 4 •

346. Value ofw. One ofthe chief uses ofGregory's

series is its application to find the value of π.
In Art. 344 put x= 1, and we have
4= 1-311
π
+ 111
35 - 7+ 9 -
...

=1 -
1 1- -
1 1
-
-
1 -
1
35 11 13 ....

= 1-2 1
]
3.5 +7.91 + 11.13
:
1 + ...
+
This series may be used to calculate ; its defect
......

however is that the successive terms do not rapidly

400 TRIGONOMETRY.
become small, so that a very large number of terms would
have to be taken to obtain the value of correct to any
great degree of accuracy.
For this reason other series have been sought for.
347. Euler's Series. We can easilyprove that
tan-1 1 + tan-1 34
1 π =

In Art. 344 put in succession x equal to

1 1
2 and 3'
and we have
1 1
1-3

π
4 = tan-1 2= + tan-1
111 + 11 11
= -

2323
-

7.gt .....
+1 -
1 1 1 1 1 1+
737 -
.......

This series converges more quickly than the preceding

series ; but more than eleven terms of the series for
tan- 21 would have to be taken to give correct to 7
places ofdecimals.
348. Machin's Series. A more convergent series
than the preceding is Machin's, which isderived from the
expression
2391 π44 (Art. 240, Ex. 4).
4tan-1 15 -tan-1 239 =
 CALCULATION OF π. 401
1
By substituting in succession 15 and 239 for x in Art. -

344, we have
π
4 4
1 1 1+1 1 1 1
=
3
-
• • ......

]
-
1 11 11
+5.2395
239 3 23935
2393.2393+
2 123 125 127
2395 -
......

] •

.. π = 16 10-310351057107 ......

]
Now
---
1 11 + 11
4 239
- -

3 2393 5 2395
2
16 × 10 = 3.2
= -
......

].
16 × 11 102529일 = '001024
16 × 9 10 = '0000009102
-

4 x 11
3 2393 0000000977
3-2010250079
Also 16 × 1310323 = 0426666666 ...

16×戸・1 10727 = 0000292571 ...

1 211
16 × 11 1011='0000000298
• ...

1 = 0167364017 ...
4 × 239
0594323552
L. T. 26
402 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence 3-2010250079
-
0594323552
π = 3·14159265/27
This is the value of correct to 8 places ofdecimals.
By taking the first series to 21 terms and the second
series to three terms we should get correct to sixteen
places.
349. Rutherford's Series. Afurther simplification
of Machin's formula is the expression
1 + tan-1 1 π
4 tan-151 tan-1 70
-

99-4
For we have
1 1 -

tan-1170 -
1
tan-1 = tan-1 70 99 = tan-1 29
99 11
1+ 70.99 6931
= tan-1 1
239 •

EXAMPLES. LIX.
Assuming that
1
0 - ηπ=tan 0 -tan30
-
+ 1 tan 0 -...,
write down the value of n when e lies between
11 and 134 .
11π
1.4 2. 44π and 49 .
19π
3.4 and 21π
4. 4. - 3π4 and - 5π
4
5. - 11π11"4 and - 184 .
[Exs. LIX.] CALCULATION OF π. 403
6. Prove that
1

7. Prove that
π= 2√31- 132 + 5.32 -
1
7.33 +.. }
π 2+ 1 1 2 1 1/2 1
4-3 7 3 +
= -

+ 이영 + 75 ....

8. If x be < 2-1, prove that

2(x− 3+ 2x5.. . . adinf.)
-
1 1
5
2x 1 2x 3 1 2x 5
1 -x2 31 - x2 + 5 1 2
-

-
-
...... ad inf.
Find the value of to three places of decimals
9. By using Euler's Series.
10. By using Machin's Series.
11. By using Rutherford's Series.
12. To the second order of small quantities, prove that
1
2 √1+sin elog(1-0)+tan−10sin( +0)=√3-10.
2
π
2 θ.

13. When both and tan-1(sec ) lie between 0 and ,prove that
0 -tan
1 + tan10 2 -....
tan-1 (sec 0)=
0) = 4 +tan 23
2 -

2+5

26-2
 CHAPTER XXVIII.
SUMMATION OF SERIES. EXPANSIONS IN SERIES.

350. We shall now apply the results ofthe preceding

chapters to the summation of some trigonometrical series.
The chief series may be divided into four classes ;
(1) Those depending for their summation on a
Geometrical Progression ultimately,
(2) Those depending ultimately on the Binomial
Theorem,
(3) Thosedepending ultimately on the Exponential
Theorem, including, as sub-cases, the Sine and Cosine
Series,
and (4) Those depending ultimately on the Logarithmic
Series and, as a sub-case,Gregory's Series.
351. In Arts. 352-355 we shall sum one example of
each of these classes. It will generally be found more
convenient in summing one of these series involving sines
of multiple angles (such as sina, sin2a, sin 3a ...) to also
sum at the same time the companion series involving the
cosines of the same multiple angles
(i.e. cosa, cos2a, cos 3a ...).
The method will be best seen by a careful study of the
following four articles.
 SUMMATION OF SERIES. 405
352. Ex. Sum to n terms, and to infinity, the series
1 + c cosa + c² cos 2a + ...... ,
whereLetc is less than unity.
C= 1 +c cosa + c²cos 2a + ... + cn-1 cos(n- 1)a ......(1),
and
S = csina + c² sin 2a + .... + cn-1 sin (n - 1) α.........(2).
......

Multiplying (2) by i and adding to (1), we have

C+ Si = 1 + c (cosa+isina) + c²(cos 2a+isin 2a) + ......

= 1 + ceai + c² ²ai + ...

+ cn-1 (n-1)ai (Art. 308)
1- cn enai
=
1-ceai ,bysumming theG.P.,
=
{1-cm(cosna+isinna)}
1 -c cos a ic sin a
-
(Art. 308)
{11 -cn cosna- icnsin na} {1 - ccosa+icsina}
(1 -ccos a)² + c² sin² a
{(1 -ccosa)(1 -cn cos na) + cn+1 sin nasina}
+i{csin a(1 -1 cr- cos na)- cnsin na (1 ccosa)}
2c cos a + c²
-

Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have

C_ (1-ccosa)(1 1-2c
C= –cncosna)+-cn+1sinna
cos a + c²
-

sina ‫د‬

and S = csina(1-crcosna)-crsinna(1-ccosa)
cn cn
1-2c cos a + c² ,

i.e. C= 1
-
C cos a 一
-
cn cos na + cn+1 cos (n 1) α -

,
1-2c cos a + c²
and S = c sin a – cn1-2c
sin na + cn+1 sin (n - 1)α
-

cos a + c²
406 TRIGONOMETRY.
The sum to infinity is obtained by omitting the terms
containing cr and cn+1, which become indefinitely small
when n is very great. 1- ccos a
Hence C = 1-2c cos a + c² '
8

and S = 1 - 2cc sin

8
a
cos a + c²
From the results for Cand Sit is now clear that the above series
might have been summed, without the use of imaginary quantities, by
multiplying both sides of (1) and (2) by the quantity 1-2ccosa+c².
The coefficients of c², c³......cn-1 would then be found to vanish and the
values of C and S be easily obtained.
353. Ex. Sum the series
1 sin a + 1.3 sin 2a + 1.3.5 sin 3a +ad inf.
2 2.4 2.4.6
....

Let S= 12 sin a + 1.3

-

sin 2a + 1.3.5 sin 3a +... ,

-

2.4 2.4.6
and C= 1 + 21 cos a + 2.4
1.3 1.3.5 cos 3a + ....
cos2a+2.4.6
Hence, multiplying the first by i and adding to the
second, we have
C+ Si = 1 + 2e1 ai + 1.3 1.3.5
2.4 ezai + 2.4.6 ρβαί + ...

=(1 - eai) , if a ≠ 2ηπ,

by the Binomial Theorem. (Art. 273.)
.. C+Si = {1 − cos a - isin a}-
-

=
{2 sin (sin sin α2= -icos α
一

= {2sinsin 2} {cos(2ই + isinsin(2 - 2)

α -
π
-

2
α 一

= 2sin *}*{
2 ccos(
os 4 a) +isin -a}.4
πα π -
α
 SUMMATION OF SERIES. 407
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have
C={2 sin α) cos 2
π -

4
α
,

and 3={2 2 sina

S sin sin 2
π -α
4
Ifa= 2ηπ, clearly S= 0 and C= 8 .
EXAMPLES. LX.
Sum the series
1. sin a+ 21 sin 2a+ 221 sin 3a + ... ad inf.
......

2. cos a . cos a+ cos2 a cos 2a+cos3a cos 3a...... ad inf.

3. sina.sina+sin2asin 2a+sin³asin3a+ ......
adinf., wherea ±π
4. sina.cos a + sin2 a . cos 2a+ sin3a.cos 3a+ ......
ad inf., π
where a=±2 .
5. sina+csin (a +3) +c² sin (a+23)+ ...... to n terms and ad inf.
6. 1+ccosha +c² cosh 2a+ ...... +cn-1 cosh (n - 1) a.
7. csinha+c² sinh 2a + ...... + ...... ad inf.
8. 1-2 cos a+3 cos 2a 4 cos 3a+ ...... to n terms.
-.

9. 3 sina+5 sin2a+7sin 3a+ ...... to n terms.

π
10.
and 4.
When a=7,find
2 what are the values of the series in Exs. 3
11. sina+nsin (a+3) + n(n-
1.2 1) sin(a+ 28)+..... to (n+1) terms,
(n - 1)
n being a positive integer.
a+21 sin 3a3a++ 2.4
12. sin a+= 1.3 sin 5a + ...... ad inf.

n(1.2n -1)cosm-2acos2a.. to(n +1)terms,

13. cosna - n cosn-1 a cos a+
n being a positive integer.
14. nsina+n(n+1)sin2a+n(
1.2 n1.2.3
+1)(n +2)sin3a+.. . . adinf.
408 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LX.]
1 cos 40 + 1.3 cos 60-
15. 1+ 1 cos 20- 2.4 2.4.6 ...... ad inf.
16. sinh u +n sinh 2u+ n (n(1.2
n -1)-1)sinh3u+......to nterms, where n is
a positive integer.
354. Ex. Sum the series
1+ c² cos 20 + ct cos4 40 + ad inf.
|2 ......

Let C = 1 +-c²cos20 c²cos 40

2 + 14 + ad inf. ...(1),
... ..

and S= c² sin 20 + c4sin 40 + ...... ad inf. ...(2).

Hence
12 4

C+Si= 1 + C2e20i
2+ +
C440i ad inf.
44

....

= 1+ Y2 Y4 Y + ......,6

2+ 4+ 6
where y= cevi=c (cos + isin θ).
.. C + Si = ey +2 e-y
=1eccosticsine
eccos
-
1
+ e-ccose-icsin e ............(3)
2
1-eccos Cos (csin θ) + i sin (csin6)
2
+ 12 e-ccose[cos (csin ) – isin (csin 0)]. (Art. 307.)
By equating real and imaginary parts we therefore
have
C= 12=cos (csin 0) [eccose + eccoso] COS

=cos(csin 0)cosh(ccos θ),

 SUMMATION OF SERIES. 409
and S=12 sin (csin 0) [eccos - e-ccos ]
sin (csin 0)sinh(c cos θ).
Aliter. From (3) we have
C+Si==21 elcsin0-iccos0)i + 12= e-(csin0-iccosθ)i
=cos(c sin 0 - iccos 0) (Art. 307)
=[cos(csind)cos(iccos0)+sin(csin )sin(iccose)]
= [cos (csine)cosh(ccose)+isin(csine)sinh(ccose)]
Hence C and S as before. (Art. 314).
355. Ex. Sum the two series
c sin a + C2 sin 2a + C33 sin 3a + ...... ad inf.,
and c cosa+ C2 cos 2a+ C33cos3a+ ......
ad inf.,
where c is numerically not greater than unity.
Let S and C stand for these two series ; then, as
before, we have
C+ Si= c(cos a+ isin a) + C22(cos2a+ isin2a) +......
+ C2 ezai
Ceai+2
=
+ C2- ραί +
ρταί +3 ...
.........(1)
...

-log[1 - ceai] (by Art. 336)

-
-
(2).... ...

=-log [1 ccosa- icsina]

-

(Art. 308).
Let 1 c cos a = r cos e, and csin a = r sin 0,
- -

so that
r = + √1-2ccosa + c², cos θ 1 - crcos a
410 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
sin c sina i.e. O = tan-1 - c sin a
r
‫و‬
1-ccos a'
with the convention ofArt. 267.
.. C+ Si= - log [√1 - 2c cos a + c² (cos + i sin θ)]
= -log [√1 - 2c cos a + c² . eoi]
=-log√1-2c cos a + c² θί. -

.. C = -log√(1- 2ccos a + c²) 21 log (1 2c cos a + c²)

= - -

.........(3),
S=- = -tan-1 ( - c sin a
and
Exceptional cases.
1- ccos a/) (4).
When c = 1, the quantity (2)
=log[1 - cos a-isin a] =log[1+cos (α-π) +i sin(α – π)].
This, by Art. 336, is always equal to the series (1)
except when a - π is equal to (2n + 1) π, i.e. except when
a is a multiple of 2π.
In this case S= 0,
and 111 ………………
C= + 1 +++
234
which is known to be a divergent series.
When c = -1, the quantity (2)
=log[1 + cosa + isina].
This by Art. 336 is always equal to the series (1)
except when a = (2n + 1) π.
In this case S = 0, and
111 .......
C= 1 ++++
 SUMMATION OF SERIES. 411
The results (3) and (4) give then the sum of the two
series except when (1) c = 1 and a = 2ηπ, (2) C = 1 and -

α = (2n + 1) π, and (3) when c > 1.

In examples depending on the logarithm series it will
bethereoftenis nofound
sum.
that for some particular values of the angle
Particular case. Let c = cos a, where a lies between
Π
0 and , so that
S = cos a . sin a+21 cos² a sin 2a + 13= cos³a sin 3a +....
In this case
sinacosa
S= tan-1 -

-
-

tan-1 (- cota)
sin² a a) by(4)
=-( - ), α

remembering the convention mentioned above,

π
= -
α.
2
EXAMPLES. LXI.
Sum the series
1. sina+csin (a +β) +C2 sin (a + 2ẞ) + ...... ad inf.
22

cosa+ccos(a+3)+12C2 cos(a+ 2 )++ ... . . ad inf.

2.
+( + 0)
3. 1 - cosa cosβ + cos2a cos2β cos³ a cos 3β...... ad inf.
-

12 13
4. sin a sin (a+23)
-
sin (a+43)
12 + 14 -
-
...... ad inf.
412 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXI.]
5. cos a -
cos (a+23)
3 +
cos(a+43)
5 ad inf.
6. 1+cosha + cosh2a cosh 3a
12 + 3 + ... ad inf.

7. sinh a+ sinh|2 2a + sinh13 3a + ...... ad inf.

8. 1+ecosacos(sina)+ 121 e2cosa cos (2 sin a)+...... ad inf.

9. 1+esinacos (cosa)+ e2sina cos (2cos a) + e3sina cos (3cosa)+ ......
12 -
13 -

ad inf.
10. 5 cos 0 7cos30 9cos50 + ...... ad inf.
1 + 3 + 15
[In the following examples c maybe assumed to be positive andnot
greater than unity; when c equals unity there will be, as in Art. 355,
exceptional cases for some values of the angle a.]
11. csina C22 sin2a+3C3 sin 3a -
...... ad inf.
12. csina + 31= cc³ sin 3a+ 51 c sin 5a + ...... ad inf.
13. ccosa + 13 c³ cos 3a+ 51c5 cos 5a+ ... ad inf.
14. ccos a 31 c³ cos 3a+51 c5cos 5a + ...... ad inf.
-

15. c sina 31 c³ sin 3a + 1 c5sin 5a+ ... ad inf.

-

16. cosa 1 1 ... ad inf.

3 cos 3a+ 5 cos 5a
- - ......

17. c cosa- 31ccos(a(a+2 1

+ 23)+)+=c5
5 cos (a+48)...... ad inf.
sinẞ+21 sin 2a sin 2ẞ+ 31 sin 3asin3ẞ...... ad inf.
18. sinasinẞ+
19. m sin2 α 21 m² sin² 2a + 13 m³ sin² 3a -
- - ...... ad inf.
1 1
20. sinha- 2sinh2a+3sinh 3a -
... ad inf.
[Exs. LXI.] SUMMATION OF SERIES. 413
21. ecos β-- 3 eева cos33+51 ебаcos53- ...... ad inf.
Cos 2π
22. cos π + 13COS 1 3π + 1 4π ad inf.
3 + cos 37 ......

23. If θ -- α = tan2 2ω sin20- tan4 ωsin40+ 1 tan 2ω sin 60 -...

20- 1 tansin40+ – ad inf.
prove that tan a=tan θ.cos w.
24. If 0 and 6 be positive acute angles prove that the sum of the
series
sin e cos + 31 sin 30 cos 34+ 51= sin 50 cos 54+ ...... ad inf.
is π4 or 0, according as 0 > or < φ.
Prove that
25. tanhx+ 1 tanh + 51tanh
tanh x +......
1 tan³ x + 1 tanx
=tanx -tana 5
-

......‫و‬ where x lies between --π4 and ++ π4

26. 2 sin² 0 0+1.44 sin⁴1 0 +3+1= .8 sin600 + ......
2
=

π
2 tan20 +3 tan60+5
0+ tan100
tan10 + . ....) , where eliesbetween
-and + 4 •

27. sin + 13 sin³ 0+ 51= sin5 0 + ......

1 1
=2(sin - sin30+ sin35.0 - ...) , where0 (2n+1)
3 5
π
2
356. We subjoin some examples ofseries which come
under neither of the foregoing heads nor under that of
Chapter XIX. In general they are to be summed by the
artifice of splitting each term into the difference of two
terms. Considerable ingenuity is often required. When
the answer is knownthe method ofsummation can usually
be easily seen; for the answer when n is put equal to
unity gives the form in which the first term of the series
has to be put.
414 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 1. Sum to n terms the series
sin³ 3θ +3sin³32
sin³ θ +32 sin 33θ3+ ..
Since always sin 34=3 sin 4 - 4 sin³ 4, we have
sin³ 3014
=
3
-

sin ,

0
3.sin 324=1.3.3sin
Ө 1
3sin 32 -sin3 =1 32sin 32 -3sin 4 ,
32sin 334 33sin 33Ө - 32 sin Ө
=

.. ..

3n-1 sin3 3nθ = 41 3n sin 3ηθ

sin3 -3-1 sin3-1 .
-
θ

Hence, by addition, the required sum

=13"
4 3nsin -sin0 .
Also the sum to infinity
= 1 [0 -sin 0]. (Art. 228.)
Ex. 2. Sum the series
tan a + 2 tan 2a + 22 tan 22a + ... + 2n-1 tan 2n-1 α.
......

We have easily tan a =cot a - 2 cot 2a,

tan 2a=cot 2a - 2 cot 22a,
tan 22a= cot 22a -2 cot 23a,
and tan 2n-1 a = cot 2n-1 a- 2 cot 2na.
By multiplying these rows in succession by 1, 2, 22, ......2n-1 we have
tan a + 2 tan 2a +22 tan 22a + ...... + 2n-1 tan 2n-1a=cota - 2n cot 2na,
the other terms all disappearing.
The required sum therefore=cot a - 2n cot 2na.
Ex. 3. Sum the series
tan a tan (a +ẞ) + tan (a + ẞ) tan (a + 23) +tan (a+23) tan (a + 3β)to+ n terms.
......
 SUMMATION OF SERIES. 415
Let u = the rth term, i.e.
.. (u +1) tan β tan {a+(r- 1)β} tan {a +rẞ},
=[1+tan {a+(r- 1) β} tan {a+rẞ}]xtan [a+rẞ– (α+ r −1β)]
=tan{a+rẞ} -tan {a+r -13}. [Art. 98.]
Hence giving r in succession the values 1, 2,......n, we have
(1+u₁) tanẞ=tan(a +b) -tana,
(1+u₂) tanẞ=tan(a+23) -tan(a+β), ...

(1+un)tanẞ=tan {a+nẞ} -tan {a+(n-1)β}.

Hence by addition
(n+Sn) tanẞ=tan(a+nẞ) -tan a,
Sn= tan (a+nβ) tan a - ntan β
-

so that 12
tanβ •

EXAMPLES. LXII.
Sum the series
1. cosec + cosec 20+ cosec 40 + ......
to n terms.
2. cosec e cosec 20+ cosec 20 cosec 30+cosec 30 cosec 40+ ...... to n
terms.
3. sec0 sec 20+ sec 20 sec 30 + sec 30 sec 40+ ...... to n terms.
4. sec 0 sec (0+ ) + sec (0+ )sec (0 + 2 ) +sec (0 ++2 ....) secto(0 +n 34)
terms.
......

1 1 1
5. cos a+ cos 3a + cos a+ cos 5a + cos a+cos 7a + ...... to n terms.
6. tan + 1 tan 222
Ө +22tan22+23tan
1 Ө 1 tan θ +
22+23 23+ ...... ad inf.
0 1
9+ 21tanh 222
7. tanh0+ + tanh 22θ ++ 23 tanh 23Ө + ......
ton terms.
8. tan 0 sec 20+tan 20 sec 40+tan 40 sec 80+ ..... to n terms.
9. tan 2θ sec 0 + tan 22θ sec 2θ+ tan 230 sec 22θ + ...... to n terms and to
infinity.
1 + 1 1 to n terms.
10. 2 cos θ 22 cos e cos 20 + 23 cos e cos 20 cos 22 θ + ......
416 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXII.]
11. sin 20 cos² θ 21 sin 40 cos2 20+ 41 sin 80 cos² 40 - ... to n terms.
-

......

sin20 + 1 sin 1
12. sin 20 sin² 0 +2= sin 40 sin2 20+4 sin 80 sin² 40+ to n terms.
......

13. cos sin sin20 sin30

+ cos 20 + cos + cos 40 + cos + cos 60 + ...... to n terms.
14. tan²atan2a+ 12 tan 2atan4a+221 tan2 4a tan 8a+ ...... ad inf.
15. cos³ θ 13 cos³ 30+ 321 cos³320 331. cos³ 330+ ...... to n terms.
-
-

16. sin³ 3θ+ 3 sin³ 32θ + 32 sin³ 33+ ...... to n terms.

1 3 32
17. cot 0-3 tan +
cot 30 - 3 tan 30 + cot 320 - 3 tan 320 + ......

to n terms.
cos 0 - cos 30 +3 cos 30 - cos 320 +32 cos320 - cos 330 + ......
18. sin30 sin320 sin 330
to n terms.
4 + tan-1 6 +tan-1 8 + ..... to n terms.
19. tan-1 1 + 3.4 1+ 8.9 1+ 15.16
......

20. tan-1 1 + tan-1 1 + tan-1 131 + tan-1 211 +...... to n terms.

1 2 2n-1 + ...... ad inf.
21. tan-15+tan-19+
3
...... + tan-1 1+22n-1
22. sin-1 1 +sin-1 √2-1
sin-1 J2+ √6
+ sin-1√3√12
-√2 + ......
+sin-1 √n-Nn-1
√n(n+1) + ...... ad inf.

Expansions.
357. In some branches of higher Mathematics it is
desirable to be able to expand certain quantities in a
series of ascending powers.
As an example we will expand
log(1 -2acos θ + α²)
in ascending powers ofa.
 EXPANSIONS. 417
Since 2 cos θ = evi + e-θί,
we have
log (1 2acos θ + a²) =log [1 - a (evi + ρ-θί) + α²]
-

= log [(1 - aei) (1 – αρ-θί)]

=log (1 - aei) + log (1 – αε-θί) -

-
αρθί 12 αρθί _13 αβρβθί 4–1 αρθί
- -
- -
......

-
αρ-θί 1 a2e-20i 13 α³ -30i - ..
-

5a² -201 - ......

= -
α [εθί + ε-θί] - 12 α²2 [e20ί + e-20i] 13 α³ [e30i + e-30i]
- -

-а. a² . 2 cos 20 - 13 aa³ . 2 cos 30 ......

a . 2 cos θ0 - 1 a2cos
=-2 a cos 0+ 21 a² cos20+ 31 aa³* cos 30 +
The expansion of log (1 - αρθi) is legitimate, by Art.
.......

]
336, if the modulus of- aei be less than unity.
Now αρθί = a cos (π + θ) + i sin (π + θ),
-

so that its modulus is equal to a. Hence the above

expansion is legitimate provided that a is less than unity.
The expansion is also legitimate ifa be equal to unity
provided that e do not equal an even multiple of π.
It is also legitimate if a be equal to - 1 and e do not
equal an odd multiple of π.
358. Ex. Expand 1 - a² 2

1 – 2a cos + α²
-

in a series of ascending powers of a.

L. T. 27
418 TRIGONOMETRY.
We have
1 - α²2 2 - 2a cos θ
1 – 2a cos + α².
-
2 =-1+ 1-2acos 0 + α²a² 2

=-1 + 2 – α (εθί + ε-θί)

1 - α (εθί
e +e ε-θί) + a²
=-1 + 2 - α (εθί + ε-θί)
(1 – αρθί) (1 – αе- і)
= -1 + 1 1
1 − αρθί + 1 − αρ-θί
- -

= −1 + (1 − αρθί)−1 + (1 − αρ-θί)−1
-

= −1 + 1 + αρθί + α²e20i + αβρ3θί + ......

+ 1 + αρ-θί + α²e-20ί + α³e-30i + ......

=1 + α (εθί + ε-θί) + α² (e20i + e-20i) + ......

= 1 + 2a cos θ + 2a² cos 20 + 2a³ cos 30 + ...ad inf.

The expansions of (1 - aei)-1 and (1 – αε-θί)-1 by the
Binomial Theorem are legitimate if the modulus of aevi be
less than unity, i.e. if a be numerically < 1, but not
otherwise. (Art. 273.)
The above series is the one assumed in Art. 294.
Similarly we can deduce the series of Art. 293. For
we have
2a sin e 1 α (ρθί – ε-θί)
-

1 - 2a cos 0 + α² i1 – α (ρθί + ε-θί) + α² 2

=
1 αρθί – αρ-θί-
1 1 = 1 -

і (1 – αρθί) (1 – αε-θί)
2 - -
2 1-– αρθί
αρθί¯ 1 − αρ-θί
-

1
=
* {(1 + αρθί + αριθί + ...) – (1 + αρ-θί + α²ρ−20ί + ...)}
г
= 2a sin 0 + 2a² sin 20 + 2a sin 30+ ......ad inf.
As before this expansion is legitimate only if a < 1.
 EXPANSIONS. 419
359. Ex. If sinx= nsin (a +x), expand x in a
series ofascending powers ofn, where n is less than unity.
Since
sin x= n sin (a + x) =n (sin a cos x + cos a sin x),
.. tan x = 1 nsina
-
n cos a'
..
exi - e-xi ni sin a
exi + e-xi 1-ncosa '
..
exi 1 n cos a + ni sin a 1 - ne-ai
-

=
e-xi 1 - n cosa- ni sin a 1- neai '
.. 2xi =log (1 - ne-ai) -log(1 - neai)
1
ne-ai -ne-zai 1
-

2 --ne-sai
3
-
......

+ πραί + 12 ηριαί + 13 περβαί + ......

-ρ-αί) + 12=η² (ριαί–ρ-2αί)

=η (ραϊαί –ρ-αϊ)
+ 13 n³ (ραί– e-sai) ......ad inf.
= n . 2isin aa++ 12=n²m² . 2isin 2a+ 13= n³ . 2i sin 3a + ...
x = n sin a + 12 nn²sin
x sin 2a+ 13 n sin 3a + ......(1).
In this equation we have assumed æ to lie between
π π
-

2 and + 2 ; if it do not, then, instead of 2xi, we should

read 2kwi + 2xi ; the left hand of equation (1) would then
be x+kw, and we must choose k so that x + k shall lie
π π
between - and + 2-

As before the expansionsarelegitimate if n be < unity. 27-2

420 TRIGONOMETRY.
360. Ex. Expand eax cosbx in a series of ascending
powers ofx.
We have
eax cos bx = eax ebxi +2 e-bxi
10

= 1 (a+bi)x + 1 ela-bi)x
1 + (a + bi) x + (a +2b )²x² + (a + bi) x3
10

= --

2 3 +......]
......

1
1 + (a - bi) x + (a –|2bi)²x2 + ]
-

+2 ......

The coefficient of an
(a + bi)n + (a - bin
2n
If a +bi = r (cosa+ isin a), so that
r = + √a² + b² and tan αa == -ab
with the convention ofArt. 267, then the coefficient of xn
{r (cos a + i sin a)} + {r(cosa - isin x)}n
cos na
2 |n -

= γη ,
n
by DeHence
Moivre's Theorem.
we have
rcos + r2 cos2 2a x² + r³ cos3 3a x + ......,
eax cos bx = 1 +- rcosa.x -

where
r = + √a² +b² and tan a= b
1= --
a
This expansion is legitimate for all values of a, b, and
x. (Art. 303.)
 EXPANSIONS. 421

EXAMPLES. LXIII.
Expand in an infinite series
1. 1+ 12a+ acoscosθ +θ a2 2. cos1-2a
θ- a cos (0 – 4)
-

•
cos +a²
3. sin1-2a
0 -- a sin (0-4)2
cos + a² 4. eacos& cos (0+ a sin φ).
5. eaosin be.
Prove that
6. log a² cos² a2+ b² sin2 0 -
1 1
4[csin20- c² sin² 20 +3 c³ sin² 30-30-...] ,
2
a- b
where a+ b c=

a sin e =a sin 0 + 15a² sin 20+ 1 a³ sin 30+ ..... ad inf.

7. tan-1 1 - a cos θ 3
tan-1(sinatan2ẞ)=sinatanẞ+ 31 sin3atan³β
8. 1
8.2tan-1
1
+=sin
5 5a tan5 β+ ...... ad inf.
9. If sin 0=x cos (0+a), expand o in a series of ascending powers
of x.
10. Expand y in terms of cos a, where
2 tany=sinx cosec x+2 a cosec 2
1-n
11. If tan x=ntany, and m= 1+n ,' prove that
x+ rπ=y -m sin2y+m2
m²sin4y-mesin
2 3 sin 6y + ......ad inf.,
-

where r is to be so chosen that x+rㅠ -– y lies between -

2 and +2π
12. What does the series of the preceding question become when
1 ?
(1) n=cos a, and (2) n=cos2a
13. Expand log cos ( +0) π
in a series of sines and cosines of
144

ascending multiples of θ.
422 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXIII.]
14. Expandlogtan π
+ in aseries of sines of ascendingmultiples
of 0.
15. Prove that
(1+editana) (1+e-ditana) (1+edicota) (1+e-θicot=4(sec
a) + cos θ)2,
π
where β= 2-2α.
Hence expand log(1+cos ẞcose) in a series of cosines of multiples
of θ.
16. Prove that
2acos θ
1-2a sin 0 + α²2=2a cos 0 +2a² sin 20 – 2a3 cos 30 -2a4 sin 40+ ...... ad inf.
17. Prove that
20- 1ই cos 40+ 31 cos 60
log.cos = -log 2+cos 20- -
...... ad inf.,
if o be an anglewhose cosine is positive.
18. In any triangle where a>b, prove that
C- 21 b2
logc=loga--ab cosC- 163
a2 cos 2C- acos3C- ...... ad inf.

[W19. Prove that the coefficient of an(1-in thet expansion

We have c²=a²+ 2ab cos C= a2
-
b
)(1.(1-0-0).of ]
eax sinbx + ebx sin ax
in powers ofx is n

2 (a2+b2)2sinn4
n
ηπ
-
n π
COS 22 -2 tan-107
20. Prove that the coefficient of cr in the expansion of
log (a3 +b3 +c3 –3abc)
is (-1)n-1 1 Γ (a +b)²+(a² +b² -ab)² ]
1 2.cos ηθ
2
n
2

where tan 0=-a - b

=a+b√3.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
RESOLUTION INTO FACTORS. INFINITE PRODUCTS FOR
SIN 0 AND cos θ.
361. We know from Algebra that, if P be any
expression containing a and if the value x = a would
make P vanish, then x - a is a factor of P.
Hence to find the factors of any expression Pwe first
solve the equation P = 0. If the roots thus found be
α, β, we know that x - a, x - β, ... are factors of P.
...

We shall apply this method in the following articles.

362. To resolve into factors the expression
x2n -
2xn cos nθ + 1.
We have first to solve the equation
x2n - 2xn cos ηθ + 1 = 0,
i.e. x2n – 2xn cos nθ + cos² nθ = − sin² ηθ,
- -

so that xn − cos nθ = + √- 1 sin ne,

-

and therefore
1
x = [cos no + √-1 sin nd]".
424 TRIGONOMETRY.
As in Art. 271 the values of this expression are the 2n
quantities 2π 2π
cos θ + isin0,θ, cos (0 +2 ) + sin(0+ 2 ), -

COS 0+ 4π
n
--

+ i sin (0+ 4π n ,
..... .

cos{0+ 2( n -1)w}
-

n +isin{0
π
+2( n -1)π}.
Taking the first pair of these quantities we have the
n.

corresponding factors
x - cos 0 - i sin and x- cos 0 + i sin θ,
or, in one factor,
(x - cos 0)² + sin² 0,
i.e. the quadratic factor
x²- 2x cos 0 + 1.
Similarly the second, third, pairs of the above
...

quantities give as factors respectively

X2 2xcos(0+ 2 )+1,
-

x²-2xcos( + )+1,
.........

and -

{0 +
2x cos 0+ 2nn- 2
π} +1.
Also on multiplying together these n factors we see
that the coefficient ofan in their product is unity, which
is also the coefficient of xan in the original expression. No
other numerical factor is therefore required.
 FACTORS OF x2n 2xn cos ηθ + 1.
-
425
Hence
x2 - 2x cos nθ + 1
=
{x
{x2- 2x cos 0 + 1} x² - 2x cos (0+
2
2)+1}
X2 2x cos
-

2n - 2
(0 +47)+1} 4π
n

... X2 2x cos
-

(0+ 2n π)+1}....(1).
} n
By dividing by an we have
+ -2cosno= x + X1 -2 cos 0 x + X1 -2cos(0+ 2π
- -

их U

{ @ +
...

-2cos(0+2n=2ㅠ)}
1
X

The relation (2) may be written

...
..(2).
r= n- 1
1 2 cos nθ =
xn + xn -

r= n - 1
r=0
II
-
2 COS
(0+ 2 )}
where r=0II stands for the product for all integral values
+}
of r from r = 0 tor = n - 1 of the expression following it.
Similarly we may shew that
x2n - 2an xn cos nθ + a2n
=
{x² -2ах +a*} {œ{x²-2axcos
2ax cose +a } x²-

{w²-2axcos (0++4π)+a}2 ... -Zaxcos (0+2n-2π)+3}

x²-
. (3).
{100+(1 +0)
363. The proposition of the last article may also be proved by
induction.
426 TRIGONOMETRY.
We shall first shew that xn + Xn1 -2 cos na is divisible by
x + 1 -2cos a.
x+/-2
Let xn + xn1 -2cosna be denoted by φ (n), and x+х1 -2cos a by A, so
that we have to shew that $(n) is divisible byA, for all positive integral
values of n.
Assume that this is true for φ (n - 1) and φ (n - 2).
Wehave then, by ordinary multiplication,
(x+=)x$(n -1) ={x+1} {on-1+ 1-2cos (n -1) a
1
+-X

=(2 + )+( -2+ 2)-2cos(n-1)dx(x+1)

1
α

=fon+ xn xn
1
-

2 cosna
+ xn-2+ xn-2 (n -1)a{x+ 1 -2cosa
-2 cos (n-2)a} -2-2cos(n-1) α ,

since 2cos na+2cos (n-2)a=4cosa cos (n-1) a.

Hence (x+1)x (n-1) =$(n)+ φ (n -2)-2Acos(n -1)a,
1
..
=
x+ X Φ(n - 1).
- -
COS (n-1) α......(1).
1
Now Φ$ (1) =x + х=-2 cos a=1,
$(2)=x²+ -2cos2a=(x+1-2008 )( +200 ) 1
X+-
X
cos α

=λ x +X1- + 2 cos a ,

so that 4 (1) and 4(2) are divisible by λ.

Hence, putting n=3 in (1), we see that $(3) is divisible by λ.
Similarly putting, in (1), n= 4, 5, 6...... in succession we see that,
by induction, $ (n) is divisible by A for all values of n.
xn + xn1 -

2 cos na is divisible by x+ x1 -2 cos a.

 PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE. 427
Again + xn1 -2cos na=xn + 1 -2 cos n
2 cos na=on
and is similarly divisible by
( + ),
1 2π
Xx+ X - 2 cos a+ n
-

Proceeding inthis way we can shew that it is divisible by

x+х1-20COS a+ 4π
n , ......x + X1 2 cos
-

a+
n-1
,

andhence obtain equation (2) ofArt. 362.

364. De Moivre's Property of the Circle.
A geometrical meaningmay be given to the equation
(3) ofArt. 362. 1

Let ABCD ... be the angular E

points of a polygon of n sides

which is inscribed in a circle of
F B

i
A
G
radius a, so that, O being the P
Q
centre, we have H

∠AOB= ∠ BOC= ∠COD=... = 2π

n
-
J
M
N
K L
Let P be a point within, or
without, the circle such that
OP= x and ∠POA =θ.
Then
∠POB=0+ 2m, ∠POC= 0+ 4",...
and we have
n

PA2 = OP2 + OA2 - 20P. OA COS POA

= x² - 2ax cos θ + a²,
PB2 = OP2 + ОВ² — 20P . OBCos POВ
-

=
(0+2
02- 2axcos
PC2= x²- 2ax cos (6A0++
)+a²,
+ ) a²,
2π
4π
2

N
428 TRIGONOMETRY.
METRY.
Hence PA2 . PB2 . PC2 to n factors
...

2π
={ae_ a*} { *–2axcos(
2ax cos 0+ α2 x² -
-

0 +2 )+a* } 2

{ *– 2axcos(0
2 -

+ 4 )+a}
4π
n
2 to n factors
...

x2n - 2anxn cos nθ + a2n. •

365. Cotes' Property of the Circle.

In the preceding article let the point Plie on OA, i.e.
let it be on the line joining the EDy
centre to one of the angularpoints F
ε

of the polygon. G
β
B
In this case 0 = 0, and we have it

PA2 . PB2 . PC .... to n factors

• H P A
= x2n 2anxn + azn
-

J Q
=(xn -an)2. K N
:. PA.PB.PC ... ton factors L M
= xn - an or else an - xn.
The first of these values must be taken when Pis
outside the circle, on OA produced, so that x > a.
The second must be taken when Pis within the
circle.
We therefore have
PA.PB.PC.PD ... to n factors = x² ~ a"...(1).
Again let α, β, γ, δ ... be the middle points of the arcs
AB, BC, CD, ... so that AaBBCy ... is a polygon of 2n
sides inscribed in the circle.
By (1) we have
PA.Pa.PB.PB.PC.Py ... to 2n factors = x2n ~ A2n m

(2).
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
Ρα. Ρβ . Ργ to n factors = x² + an ......(3).
...
 FACTORS OF xn -
1. 429
The equation (3) may also be deduced directly from equation (3) of
π
Art. 362 by putting 0= - . We then have
n
π
-

n x²-2axctonosfactors+a²+a=)(x²-2atcos
(x²-2axcos +a )(x²-2arcos ......
3π
n
2

x2n - 2anxn cos π + a2n

5π
-

=x2n + 2anxn + a2n=(xn +an)2,

i.e. Ρα² .Ρβ². Ργ ......to n factors=(xn + an)2.
•

This is relation (3).

366. To resolve into factors the expression xm – 1. -

We have first to solve the equation

xn- 1 = 0,
i.e. xn = 1 = cos 2rㅠ + isin 2rㅠ,
where r is any integer, 1
so that x = [cos 2rn + i sin 2rπ]" (1).
First, let n be even.
As in Art. 271 the values ofthe expression (1) are
cos 0 + i sin 0, cos 2π
n
++ isin2n , cos 4π4ㅠ + isin 4π
N n ,

... COS
n- 2
n
π + isinn- 2 π, COS n
ηπ
n
+ isinηπ΄
n
-
•

But cos 0° + i sin 0° = 1,

and COS
ηπ
n
+ isin ηπ
n
-
1.
Hence in this case the roots are
± 1, cos 2π
n
+ i sin 2π
n
----

, COS 4π + isin 4π
-

n
-

n ‫د‬

n 2
π + isin n n 2 π.
- -

... COS
n
430 TRIGONOMETRY.
The factors corresponding to the first ofthese pairs are
x - 1 and x + 1, i.e. the quadratic factor x² - 1.
Those corresponding
2π 2π
to the second pair
2π
are 2π
X -
COS
n
-
i sin n and
-
X -
COS
n
+ i sin -

n
i.e. the quadratic factor
x² - 2x cos 2πn +1.
n
Hencewe get pairs ofquadratic factors.
When multiplied together they give the correct
coefficient for an, so that no constant quantity need be
prefixed to their product.
Hence, finally, when n is 2π
even,
*−1=( −1)(0 –20cos2
xn-
( 2 2x n
2 -

+1)( - -
2x cos 4π
n

...(x² - 202xcos π+ 1) n- 2
n ...(2).
Secondly, let n be odd.
As in Art. 271 the values of the expression (1)
are noW
cos 0 + isin 0, cos 2π
n
+ i sin 2π
n
COS 4π
n
+ i sin 4π
n , , ...

COS
n -
3 π + i sin n- 3 n -
1 π + i sin n -1 π.
...

n n π, COS n n
The first pair reduces to the single factor x -1.
Taking the other pairs together, as before, we obtain,
when n is odd, 2π 4π
xn − 1 = (x - 1)
- -
2x cos -

n +1}{ *-2 cos +1}

x2 2x cos n n- 1 π+ 1
2x n
...

...
-
............
(3).
 FACTORS OF xn + 1. 431
Hence we have n
r=--1
2x cos 2rπ
2
xn − 1 = (x² - 1)
-

when n is even, and

+1),
Π
r=1
-

n
-

r=n-1 2
x −1=( x-

-1) Π ( 2
x²- 2x cos 2 +1),
r=1
when n is odd.
These formulæ can also be deduced from the funda-
mental one of Art. 362 by putting ηθ = 2π.
367. To resolve x² + 1 into factors.
We must solve the equation
xn + 1 = 0,
i.e. xn= -1 = cos (2rπ + π) + i sin (2rπ + π),
where r is any integer,
so that x= {cos (2rn + π) ±+ isin(2rπ + π)}ῆ1
2rπ + π + i sin 2rπ + π
COS-
n n ...(1).
First, let n be even.
As in Art. 271, the 3πvalues ofthe
3π
expression
5π
(1) are5π
π
COS -
n
+ i sin πn COS n + i sin n
-

,
-

, COS
n
+ i sin n
... COS (n − 1) π + isin (n - 1)π
-

•
n n
The factors corresponding to the first ofthesepairs are
π π π
-
COS
n
-isin
isin n and a
- -
COS- + i sin
n n'
i.e. the quadratic factor
x²- 2x cos n +1.
-
432 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quadratic factor corresponding to the second
pair is
x² - 2x cos 3π
n
-

+1,
and so on.
Hence, as in the last article, when n is even, we have
conxn + 1=( 2 -

+1)(@².
2x cos πn
-

(n − 1)π
2 2x cos 3π
+1).. -

[20
...

Secondly, let n be odd.

-

+1].
2x cos
-

The values of the expression (1) are in this case

COS Tisin , cos 3π + i sin 3π
- -

n n , ...

COS (n − 2) π + isin(n−2)π cosisin

-
ηπ-
ηπ
,
n n n n

The last pair of roots reduces to the single root 1, so -

that x + 1 is one of the required factors.

The quadratic factors corresponding to the successive
pairs of roots are
x² - 2xcos πn- +1, x² - 2x cos 3π
n
+1, ...

x²- 2x cos n-
- n2 π + 1.
Hence finally, when n is odd, we have
xn+1=(x+ 1)(x22 - 2x cos +1)(a²-2xcos +1)..
π
-

… …[ x² - 2x cos (n
- −n2) π +1].
-

...
 EXAMPLES. 433
We have then
n- 2
x2–2xcos2r+1 +1),
1=
on +1 = r=0
II 2
-

when n is even, and n-3

xn + 1 =(x + 1) ΠП ((x²-2xcos2r+1
2 +1),
r= 0
2

when n is odd.
These formulæ can be deduced from the fundamental
one ofArt. 362 by putting ne = π.
368. Ex. 1. Express as aproduct ofnfactors the quantities
cos no - cos ne and coshnφ – cos ηθ.
In equation (2) ofArt. 362 putx=ei, so that x-1=e-di, and hence ,

X +x−1=ρφί
e +е-фі =2 cos 4,

and xn +x-n=enφίпфі +е-пфі == 2cosηφ.

We then have
2cos nф 2 cos nθ= (2cos - 2 cos 2 cos p -
-

[ -2cos(0+2)]
[( +0) 2π
n

[22cosΦ-2COS ..
.to n factors,
2π
i.e. cosnφ cos no=2n-1 {cos - cos } COS
-
co -
COS Ө+ n ......

......

r=n-1
{cos -cos(01+ 2n-2 0+ n
π

=2n-1 r=0
Π cos - 0+ n

Similarlyby putting x=e we have

cosh no - cos ηθ
=2n-1 [cosh -

cos0]0][coshp -

COS 0+ 2π
n
....

L. T.
[cosh -
0+ n
-

28
434 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 2. If n be even, prove that
n-1
22 sin 2π 4π 6π
2η sin 2η sin 2n
-

. . sin n2η2n- 2 π=/n.

π=√η.
In equation (2) ofArt. 366 put n equal to unity.
Then, since xna 2-1-
- 1 xn-1 + xn-2 + ... + x + 1
x+1
......
,

xn-1 n
therefore, when x is unity, x²-1 2 2
=

Hence we have
n 2π 4π
2-2-2cos- 2-2cos2
2-2 cos n π
2 = 2-2 cos n n
...... ,

2π 4π ......4.sin2 n- 2 π,
4sin2 2n
i.e. n=2.4 sin2 2η 2η
there being n2 - 1 factors,
2π sin244π sin2 n-2n2
=2n-1 . sin2 2η 2η ...... π.

n-1
Hence ±√n=22 sin 2π 4π
2n sin 2η ...... sinn2n2 π................(1).
-

Each of the angles 2π 4π

2η' 2η' ......
n-2
2n wis less than a right angle, so
that each ofthe sines on the right-hand side of (1) is positive.
On the left-hand side we therefore replace the ambiguity by the
positive sign and have the required result.
EXAMPLES. LXIV.
Factorize the following quantities.
1. x² +2x³ cos 120°+1. 2. x - 2x4 cos 60°+1.
π
3. x10-2x5cos 3 +1. 4. x12 + x6 + 1.
5. x14+x7+1. 6. x5 -1. 7. x6+1.
8. x7– 1. -

9. x + 1. 10. x10 – 1. -

11. 13+1. 12. x14-1. 13. x20 + 1.

[Exs. LXIV.] EXAMPLES. 435
14. If n be even,
n-1
prove that
π
22 sin 2n 3π 5π
sin 2n sin 2n sinn2n
- 1 π=1
n-1 π 3π n- 1 π.
22 cos 2n COS-2n ...... COS
2n
15. If n be odd, prove that
n-1
22 2π sin 4π sin n- 1 π=√n = 2n-1 COS COS-3π ... COS n- 2 π,
22 sin 2η - -
2 π
2η 2n...
2n 2η 2η
and that
n-1 n-1 4π n- 1 π.
π 3π
sin n2η2 π= 1 =22 COS-2π
-

22 sin 2n sin 2n 2η COS 2n ... COS

...
2n

16. Prove that sin-πn sin 2πn -

...... sin n n- 1 π= 2n-1
n

17. If n be odd, prove that 1

tan-π tan 2π tan 3π ...... tan 2
(n- 1)π =Jn.
n n n n

18. Shew that cos ne

==
(cos
2n-1 π
θ COS-2η
-
3π
cos e - cos 2n
- ...... cos e - cos 2n-
2n
1
Prove that
19. sin no=2n-1 sin sin ( +
r=n-1
( + ) sin ( + ) .....

=
Tisin( +
2n-1 Π
r=0
[Put x= 1, and 0=24, in the equation ofArt. 362.]
Υπ
n

20. cos no= 2n-1 sin ( +2) sin( + ) sin[ +1 ].

-

......

π
[Change into +22n in theformula of the preceding question.]
21. 2n-1 cos & cos ( + )cos(cos( +2) cos($+ 1 ) n
......

n-1 =(-1)2sin no, when n is even,

and =( -1) 2 cosnp, when n is odd.
[Change &into + intheresultofEx. 19.]
π

28-2
436 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXIV.]
π COS 3π COS 5π 2n - 1 ηπ
22. 2n-1 cos 2n 2η 2n ..... Cos 2η π= COS 2 •

π
23. 2n-1 sin 2η -
3π sin 5π
sin 2n 2η ...... sin 2n2η- 1 π= 1.

24. cos n cos 2πn

π
...... COS (2n - 1) π ( −22n-1
1) − 1 - -

n
25. Prove that
1 r=n-1 х- a cos 0+ 2ηπ
xn - an coς ηθ = Σ
n
x2n - 2anxn cos no + a2n nxn-1 •

r=0
x2 2ax cos
-

(0 +
2γπ
n
+a2
[In the expression (3) of Art. (362) change x into x+h, expand and
equate coefficients of h.]
26. The circumference of a circle of radius r is divided into 2n equal
parts at points P1, P2, P2m; if chords be drawn from P₁ to the other
......

points, prove that P1P2 .P₁P3......P₁Pn=rm-1/n.

Also, if O be the middlepoint of the arcP₁P2n, prove that
OP1 . OP2......OPn=√2m.
27. If A1A2...A2n+1 be a regular polygon of n sides, inscribed in a
circle ofradius a, and OAn+1 be a diameter, prove that
041. OA2......OAn=an.
28. Α1Α2......An is a regular polygon of n sides. From O the centre
of the polygon a line isdrawn meeting the incircle inP₁ and the circum-
circle in P2.
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars on the sides drawn from
P₁ is to the product of the perpendicularsηθ fromP₂ as
cosn nπ- cot2 2 to 1,-

e being the angle between OPP₁ and OA1.

29. ABCD...... is a regular polygon which is inscribed in a circle of
radius a and centre 0; prove that
PA2.PB2.PC2...... =r2n – 2anrn cos no +a2n, -

where OP is r and the angle AOP is 0.

Prove also that the sum of the angles that AP, BP, CP, ...... make
with OP is tan-1 rn rncossinnθηθ– an
-
•
 SINO IN FACTORS. 437
Resolution of sine and cos into factors.
369. To express sine as a product ofan infinite series
offactors. θ θ
We have sin 0 = 2 sin 2 COS 2

N
=
2sin θ2 sin2θ( ++2)) .........(1
θ
) .
Similarly in (1) changing O into 2 and 2 +2 succes-
π

sively, we have θ
Ө
sin==2sin sin( +2)=2sin2sin(2 +2),
-

2 22 22
-

and sin ( +2) =2sin2sin ((2+2).sin

2 +2).sin( ++ )
=
( + )22 22
-

Substituting these values in the right-hand side of(1)

we have, after rearranging,
Ө π+ θ sin 2π + θ sin 3π+ θ
sin 0 = 23 sin 22
-sin 22 22 22 ...(2).
Applying once more the formula (1) to each of the
terms on the right hand of (2) and arranging, we have
sin 0= 27 sinesin π + θ 2π + θ 3π + θ 4π + θ
23 sin 23 sin 23 sin 23
-

23
sin ὅπ23+ θ sin 6π23+ θ sin 7π23+ θ .....
....(3).
Continuing this process we have finally
Ө π + θ 2π + θ
sin 0= 20-1 sin- sin
P P
sin
P
... sin (p - 1)π+
P
0
.....(4),
where p is a power of 2.
438 TRIGONOMETRY.
The last factor in (4)
π θ sin π θ
- -

=
sin π -
=

The last factor but one d d

=sin (p − 2) π + θ
-

= sin π -
2π - 0 = sin 2π – θ
-

and so on. d d d
Hence, taking together the second and last factors,
the third and next to last, and so on, the equation (4)
becomes
sin 0 = 20-1 sin 0[sin
-

pl
π+θ sin
7-0}{s i n
π- 2π + θ
sin27-01
d d d ..(5).
d
The last factor is
Ραπ + θ
sin 2
θ
which
Hence (5) is
= sin( + )=cos d -

sin 0 = 2-1 sin Ө sin² π sin2 -

θ sin² 2π - 2 ...

d d d d d
-
-

sin² 2 (6).
d
...
-
sin² Ө . COS - ......

Divide both sides of(6)by sin-θ and make e zero.

d d d

θ d

-L
Since
sin 07
sin
sin e p
0=0
= •

sin ㅂ
P_0=0
=p,
 SIN O IN FACTORS. 439
we have
p = 2-1 . sin² . sin² 2π sin² 3π ... sin2 ( -1)π ...(7).
Dividing (6) by (7), we have
d d d d

Ө sin²2 Ө -
sin² Ө sin2 07
sin e0 =p sin - 1 π 1
-
1 -
...

sin² 2π
-

sin² 3π
d d d
sin - -

d P
sin² θ
d d
θ
... 1 -
COS -

......(8).
sin ( -1)
2
d π

d
d
Now
Since
make p indefinitely great.
sin Ө -

p sin -

θ =

-
P.0 θ (Art. 228),
c∞=d[d p=8
d
sin2 07 sin² θ
pp2 02‫جالم‬
-
-

sin π
d
- -
02 sin² ππ²2 -
= A2 (Art.
2
‫حالم‬
228),
p2 d
and so on, we have
∞=d[d
62
sin0-0(1-0)(1-2 )(1-3 )
= ... ad inf.
This theorem may be written in the form
r= ∞ 12
sin 0 = θ0 Π -

γπ2
r=1
440 TRIGONOMETRY.
370. To express cos e as a product ofan infinite series
offactors.
π
In equation (4) of Art. 369 write for the quantity
+ 0, and the equation becomes
+ 20 sin 3π + 20 sin 5π + 20
cos 0= 2p-1 sin π 2p ...

2p 2p
sin (2p − 1)π
2p + 20 ......(1).
-

The last factor

= sin π -
π -
20 =sin π 20 -

the last but one

2p 2p
= sin (2p-3)π +20] =sin 3π – 20 -
-

and so on.
2p 2p
Hence taking
cos0=2p-1 sin"+20thesınfactors
π-20in pairs, as before,3π-20
3π+20
we have
sin sin ...

2p 2p 2p 2p
π 20 3π 20
= 20-1 | sin² 2p sin2
2p sin² 2p sin2 2p ...(2).
- -

In (2) make e zero and we have3π

π
1 = 2p-1.sin² 2p . sin² 2p sin² 2p • 5π .........(3).
Dividing (2) by207(3), we have 20
sin² 2p-

sin² 2p sin2 207

cos θ =
1 -
1 -
1 2p
-
...

sin2 π
sin2 3π
-
sin2 5π -

2p 2p 2p
sin²2 20
1 2p
...

Sing(p-1)π......(4).
sin2
2p
 COS O IN FACTORS. 441

have
In (4) make p infinite; then, as in the last article, we
402
0= 1-401- 32772 462
COS
[1- 5272
This theorem may be written in the form
... ad inf.

cos 0 = Π
r=1
1= 8402
{1.
(2r – 1)² π² · -

-
2

Since cos 0 = 2sinsin20θ ' the product of cose may be

derived from the products for sin 20 and sin θ.
371. The equation (4) of Art. 369 may, by means of Art. 362, be
shewn to be true for allintegral values ofp. For we have
x2 –2x cospp+1
= {x2 – 2x cos +1}1}{x2
-

22-2xcos($ 2π

Put x=1, and we have ( + )+1}

{2
x2 2x cos
-

......to p factors.
2(1 −cos pp)={ 2-2cos p}{2-2005( + ) top factors.
-
cos ......

i.e. 4sin2 Po2 = 4 sin2Φ2

Put ρφ
4s i n ² ( + ) ( + )
. ..t
4sin2 o p factors.
=0, and extract the square root ofboth sides. We have then
2
+ sin 0 = 20-1 sinpθ sin π+P θ sin 2π+
-

P
0 . . . .sinsin (p-1)π+0....(1).
P
If a lie between 0 and all the factors on the right-hand side of (1)
are positive and so also is sin 0. Hence the ambiguity should be
replaced by the positive sign.
If a lie between and 2 , all the factors on the right-hand side are
positive except the last, which is negative.
Hence the product is negative and so also is sin 0, so that in this case
also the positive sign is to be taken.
Similarly in any other case it may be shewn that the positive sign
must be taken, andwe have, for all integral values ofp,
sin 0= 2p-1 sin θ sin π + 0 sin
-
•
-
2π+θ sin (p- 1)π+0
......sin
P. P P P
442 TRIGONOMETRY.
372. Sinh O and cosh e in products.
By Art. 314 we have
sinh 0 = isin ( i) and cosh θ=cos (θί).
-

Also the series of Arts. 369 and 370, being formed on

the Addition Theorem are, by Art. 310, true when for
we read θi.
θί 0222 0222 1 2
.. sinh 0 = − i × θί(1 π
-
1 -

22π2) ( ).... (1)

32π²) -

22 .....

= (1+ )(11 +2)(1+ ) ... ad inf.......

and cosh 0 = (1 40222 40222 1 40222 ad inf.

)(1-

π2
-

32π2 52π²
-
...

=(1+ 402)(1++ 402)( + 52π2402

-

π 2
...... ..
(2).
The products (1) and (2) are convergent. For we know (C. Smith's
Algebra, Art. 333) that the infinite product II(1+un) is convergent if the
series Sun be convergent.
In the case of (1), Συn
02 1 1 + 1 + ....
π2 +
2232 42 ......
,

and the latter series is known to be convergent.

373. Sums of powers of the reciprocals of all
natural numbers.
From the results of Arts. 369 and 370 we can deduce
the sums of some interesting series.
From Arts. 369 and 280 we have
02 A2
(1-2)(1-2 )(1-3sin )
22π2
......ad inf.
1 02+ 04
-
ad inf.
Ө 35 ......
 SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 443
Taking the logarithms ofboth sides, we have
log(1-3)+log(1-2 )+log(1-3
2
2 )+ 2
2 2 ......
...

02 A4
1. 이6 + 120
Now, by Art, 256, we have
= log - -
...

] ......(1).
log(1(1-1)= 02 104 106 +...]
2
-

T2 ++
-

π 3 πε-6
-
-

‫ر‬

1 04 1 06
log(1-2 )= 22222443266 +.. ] -
02
+
...
+
so that (1) gives
-
02[ 1 1 1
12
‫جالم‬+22+ 32 +... 10111
2π4 1+
21 + + ...
142434
106 ΓΙ1 1 ++
-

]
3π6 16 +2+
316+ -
... ......

26 36 +
02 04
=log 1-
02 04
-

6 120
-

+ . .)] [ …+윽
= -

6
02 +04
-

120 +...) - 1-12

11
( + ...) -...
-

( 120
120 236)
2 36
-
-
6

......

02 04
6 180
-
(2).
Since equation (2) is true for all values of 0 the
coefficients of 02 on both sides must be the same, and
similarly those of 64, and so on.
444 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence we have
1/1 1 1
-

π212 22++
-

32 + ...
++
11/1 1 + 1 +
adinf. )=- 6 ' 1
-

2π414+242434 .........

.....
) 180 ' = -

Hence 121 +221 + 321 ++ ... =이

= ‫جالع‬ (3),
and 111 π4
142434 + ... = 90
+ + (4),
374. By proceeding in a similar manner with the
result of Art. 370 we have
1 402-2
-

(1 -

3 )(1-0 )..
= cos 0 = 1- 02 04
24+ ....
so that
log(1-4402)+log(1 0232240204 +log(1
π2
-
-
402
22

+ ... = log | 11
Hence as before
- -

2 +24 -

..] .
-
402/1 1 + -1
-

12 32 52
‫جالب‬ +
- -

+...2 04 11604/1 ++...) +..

-
1
34 54
1

=log[1-( +22)] 2*+*+...)*+...

= - -

2 24
-
2 24
02 04 + ... 1/02 -
...

24
02+704 + ... 1/04 --
02 04
- -

2 24 -

24 ... -

2-12- ………
 SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 445
Hence, equating coefficients of 2 and 64, we have
4/1 1 1 1
- -

π² 12+ 32 +52+ ...

2'
- -
8/1 + 1 + 1 + -
...
= -
1
π4 14 34 12 '
...

and hence 111

+++ ... = 이π8
12 32 52 ...(1),
and 1111
+ + +
143454 ...
π4
96 ........(2)
...

375. Wallis' Formula.

π
In the expression ofArt. 369 put 0=2 , and we have
1-1-1-1-詞
1= 2 22 42 62 ...... ad inf.
π1.3 3.5 5.7
=222
2224262 ......
(2n-3)(2n-1) (2n-1)(2n+1),
(2n-2)2 (2n)2
where n is infinite,
i.e. 2 12.32.52.72......(2n-1)2 . (2n +1)
22. 42. 62......(2n)2 ,

2.4.6......2n π
i.e. 1.3.5......(2n-1) =√ 2(2n+1),where nis infinite.
It follows that when n is verygreat (but not necessarily infinite) then
2.4.6......2n π
1.3.5......(2n-1) =
2 (2n+1) verynearly
=√n , ultimately.
This is called Wallis' Formula, and givesin a simple form a very near
approach to theproduct ofthe first n even numbers dividedby the first n
odd numbers when n is very great.
446 TRIGONOMETRY.
376. Ex. Prove that
1 1 1
tan 0=80
From Art. 370 we have
+......] .
π²2-402 + 32π² - 402 + 522 – 402 -

logcos =log 1- 402 +log 1- 32π2402 +log(1-2)

-2 52π2 +......(1) .
402

In this equation substituting 0+ h for we have

logcos(0 +2)=log [1- (0+2)²+10g[1- 4 (0 )2 ........
π
4
•

Now logcos (0+ h)=log [cos e (cos h - tan e sin h)]

=logcos +log 1- h22 tan 0 h- h33 +
(
......
-

...... )
=logcos +log [1 - htan 0+ higher powers of h]
(
A r t .280)
=logcos 0- htan +powers of h. (Art. 256.)
4
Also log[1[1- (0+2(0+ h)2 =log π2 π2–402 -
80h
+log[1 -

π2 -
+.......
......

402 80h
=log[1-4π 2

4
-

π² - 402 +powers of h,
and 1 32π.2
-

=log[1-3
1- ]- 402 80h
-

32π²- 402 +powers of h.

Substituting these values in(2) andequating oneach side the coeffi-
cients of - h we have
tan 0=π2 80 80 80
– 402 +' 32π² - 402 + 522 – 402 +
- -
............. (3)
=Σ
r=∞ 80
r=0 (27+ 1)2π² –402
The series (3) may also be written
tan 0=π -220 π +2 20 +' 3π2- 20 3π+20
-
2
+ ......
-

[The student who is acquainted with the Differential Calculus will

observe that equation (3) is obtained by differentiating (1) with respect
το θ.]
 EXAMPLES. 447
377. Ex. Prove that cosh 2a-cos 20
α2 2
=2sin20[1+ 2] [1+( 40)*] α
π+ θ
[1+(„ ｡)][1+(2+0)*] [1+(2-0)]6).....adinf.
α α

=2sin2011[1+( + )*], α

where r is zero or any positive or any negative integer.

Wehave
cosh 2a - cos 20= cos 2αί -

cos 20=2 sin (0+ai) sin (0 – ai)

=2( 0+αί)|[1-(
1 0+ )] [1- (θ – αί)2
π2
2
(θ + αί)2
22π2 ......

1- (θ- αί)2-
-

X -
1- π2 22π2 ...
...(1).
Now [1-(0+(θ αϊ)21) ][1-((θ0–-1)]
π2
αί)2
π2

=[(π+0+αϊ)(π-θ-αϊ)] [(π+θ-α)(π -0+α )]

π π2
-
-
(π+ 0)2 + α² (π – 0)2
2
+ α2
π2 π2
Hence (1) gives
cosh2a -cos20=2(63+a²) [(Γ(π+0)2+a²α2-(2π] –[(θ)2+α2
2 (π - 0)2) +α²] [(2 +0)²+ c²]
π2
π2 2-
π2
α

π2 ad inf.............(2).
In (2) put a=0 and we have
2 sin2 0 =202 (π+0)2
•

π2
(π π2− 0)2 (2π+0)2
•

π2-2
(2ππ2–0)2 ad inf.............(3).
• inf... •

Dividing (2) by (3) we have

cosh2a cos20
-

=2sin20[1+ ][1+( a)*] [1+( +0)*] [1+(2-0)*]

α
-
θ
α
π+ θ
2 α
2π

[1+(2 +0)*]
The factors of cosh 2a+cos 20 may now be obtained by changing 0
...... ad inf.

into 0+2 and they are found to be 2cos² 0Π {1+(0+m)*}

2
π
where ris
any odd integer, positive or negative.
448 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. LXV.
Prove that
1 1 1 1 + ...... ad inf. = π2
1. 12-2232-42+ 12
1 1 + ...... ad
36+ ad inf.=6
inf.=6 (27)19
6
2. 161 + 26+ -

3.1.2+2.4+ 3.6+48+......adinf. 12π2 =

= •

1 3 6 10 +
4. 34+54+ 74+ 94 ...... adinf. =π264 (1 π212)-

5. Prove that the sum of the products, taken twoπ4and two together,
ofthe reciprocals ofthe squares ofall odd numbers is 384 •

6. Prove that the sum ofthe products, taken two and π4

two together,
of the reciprocals of the squares of all even numbers is 120 .

Prove that
20 20
7. cote = 1 02-222-02 -
......

1 + 1 + 1
=1 + =1 + 0 +π
ルー 0-2π 0+ 2π ...... ad inf.
1 1
8. cosec = =1θθ -1 π 0 1+π + 0-2π
-
1 + 1
0 +2π 0-3π 0 + 3π
- -
......

=1+20 n=1Σ= 02(-- 1)n

η²π '
and hence that
1+ 0 cosec θ 1 1 + 1 -

ad inf.
202 02 02-202-222 ......

[τ Use the relation cosec 0= 12 20 θ

1 1 3 5
9. 0= 2-402-322-402
32π² – 402 + 522 – 402
4π sec = π2– 402 -
-
...... ad inf.
+θ θ
[τ Use the relation 2 sec 0=tan π
2) +2
 [Exs. LXV.] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 449
1 1 1
10. 41
1sec20=(π-20) 2 + (π +20) 2 + (3π-20) 2 + (3 1 +... ad inf.
π+20)2+
[Apply the process ofArt. 376 to the result obtained.]
1 1 1 1
11. cosec² 0= 021++ (0−π)2 + (0+ㅠ)2 + (0−2π)2 + (0+ 2π)2+ ad inf. ...

Prove that
12. sin(a-0)-
sina =(1-8)(1+ォーム)(1-
α a) π

(1+2m-a)(1-2m+a) α

= I(1-a+rm): , where r is any positive or negative integer or zero.

13. sin(a+c)=II(1++
sin
integer, including zero.
),where r i s any
α positive or negative
14. coscos(a+0)
a =(1+ 2)(1-2)(1+3 +2)(1-3-2)
20
π+2α
20
π
20
2α 3π+2α
20
......

=П
2α+ ιπ. , where r is any odd integer positive or negative.
15. cosCOS(α a- θ) =Π1- 2α+ιπ
20
where r is any odd integer, positive
,

or negative.
02 02 02
16. cos1+ +coscosa a =
2
-

(π- α)2 1 (3π+α)2

- -

02
02
[1-((3π–3-2 α)2)2 ....

=II[1-( +α)2]
where r is any odd integerpositive ornegative.
[Multiply together the results of Exs. 14 and 15 and then change 20
and 2a into e and a.]
02) 02
17. cos e - cos a
1-cos a = {1- } {1-2m+a
(2π+α)) }
α2
1 02 02
02
-

(2π-α)2 (4π+α)2) ......

where
[
= II 1 -

(α+γπ)2 ,
r is any evenpositive or negative integer, including zero.
Hence deduce the factors of cosh x - cos a.
L. T. 29
450 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXV.]
18. sinnsind=(1-2)(1-0 )(1++ )
a
a

19. 2 cosh +2 cos a

(1+2m-a)(1-2m+a)
α α

02 02
=4cos2 [1+((α++ π))2][1+(απ)2]
α
-
......

=4cos² 1+(α+02π)2 ,
II[1+ α
2
where r is any integer positive ornegative.
20. Prove that
r=n-1 sinh2 u2
sinh nu=n sinhu r=1
II 1+ Υπ
,
sin2 2n
and deduce the expression for sinh u in the form of an infinite product of
quadratic factors in u.
[Start with the result, when e is zero, of Ex. 1, Art. 368. In this
result put o equal to zero and divide.]
21. Prove that the value of the infinite product

is
(1+ ) ( + )
12
1
1 sinh π.
1
32 ......ad inf.
π

22. A semicircle is divided into m equal parts and a concentric and

similarly situated semicircle is divided into n equal parts. Every point
of section of one semicircle is joined to every point of section of the
other. Find the arithmetic mean of the squares of the joining lines and
prove that
8ab
when m and n are indefinitely increased the result is
a2+b2 π2 where a and b are the radii of the semicircles.
----------
,

aa
23. The radii ofan infinite series ofconcentriccircles are a, , ....
From a point at a distance c ( >a) from their common centre a tangent
is drawn to each circle. Prove that
sin 0₁ sin 02 sin 03...... = παC sinπαC -

where 01 , 02, 03...... are the angles that the tangents subtend at the
common centre.
[Exs. LXV.] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 451
24. An infinite straight line is dividedby an infinite number ofpoints
into portions each of length a. If any point P be taken so that y is its
distance from the straight line and x is its distance measured along the
straight line from one of the points ofdivision, prove that the sum of the
squares of the reciprocals of the distances of the point P from all the
points of division is
π
sinh 2пу
a

ay cosh 2my -
COS
2πχ
a a
[Use the result ofEx. 7.]
25. If a, b, c...... denote allthe prime numbers 2, 3, 5...... prove that
( - ) ( - )( - )…………
1
1- a2 1- 1 1- C21 .....
6
π

and 1+ a21 1+ 1 1
C2 ......
15
π

29-2
 CHAPTER XXX.
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS.

378. In the present chapter we shall consider the

Principle of Proportional Parts, the truth of which we
assumed in Chapter XI.
We then assumed that if n be any number and n + 1
the next number, whose logarithms were given in our
tables, and if h be any fraction, then, to 7 places of
decimals, it is true that
log(n+h)-lognh
log (n + 1) - logn
The truth of this statement we shall now consider.
379. Common Logarithms. We have, by Art.
260,
log10 (n +h) -log10 n =log10 n n+ h
μloge(1+
=

),
where μ = 43429448...
Hence, by Art. 256, we have
log10(n +h) - log10 n = μηn μη²
-

2n²+ μh
3 n³ ..... (1).
-
 PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 453
Now in our ordinary logarithm tables n contains
5 digits, i.e. n is not less than 10000. Hence, if h be less
than unity, we have u2 n²h² less than
- -

1
(43429448...) × 1081 ,
i.e. less than 21714724...
108 , i.e. < 0000000021....
Alsouh₃
3 n³ is less than one-ten thousandth part ofthis.
-

Hence in(1)the omission of all the terms on the right-

hand side after the first will make no difference at least as
far as the seventh place of decimals. To seven places we
therefore have
log10 (n +h) -log10 n = μη10 °
So log10(n+ 1)-logion=4.1.
10 •

Hence, by division,
log10(n +h) -log10n = h.
log10 (n + 1) - log10n
The principle assumed is therefore always true for the
logarithms of ordinary numbers as given in our tables.
380. We may enquire what is the smallest number in the tables to
which we can safely apply the principle of proportional parts. We must
find that value of n which makes μη
22< 107,1 sothat n²> 2 .107.h².
The greatest value of h being unity, we thenhave
n²> 2 .107, i.e. >2171472.4......
.. n>1473.
The number 1473 is therefore therequiredleast number.
454 TRIGONOMETRY.
381. Natural Sines. Suppose we have a table
calculated for successive differences of angles, such that
the number of radians in these successive differences is h.
[In the case of our ordinary tables h = number of
radians in 1'
π = '000290888..., i.e. h< 0003.]
60 × 180
Also let k be less than h. Then our principle was that
sin (0 + k) – sin e k
sin (0 + h) – sinh -

We shall examine this assumption.

We have
sin (0 + k) – sin e = sin e cos k + cos e sink- sin
-

= sin 0 1 K2 K4
2+ 4 -
- -

...] + cos Ө (Arts.k |3279+ …and-280)sin

-...
-
k3 ...

= k cos θ k22 sin 0 - k³ cos θ ...

-
-

|3
The ratio of the third term to the first = 61 k² and this-

isalwayslessthan11ㅎ (0003), i.e. alwayslessthan 00000002.

The third and higher terms may therefore be safely neg-
lected, and we have
-12ka θ......... (1).
sin (0 + k) –sin e = k cos e -sin
-

The numerical ratio of the second term to the first

term
1
==ktan
2 0 (2).
 PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 455
π
This ratio is small, except when e is nearly equal to 5. •

Hence, except when the angle is nearly a right angle, the

second term in (1) may be neglected, and we have
sin (0 + k) – sin e = k cos 0.
So sin (0 + h) – sin e = h cos 0,
and hence sin (0 + k) – sine k (3).
sin (0 + h) – sinh
that
When e is very nearly a right angle we cannot say
sin (0 + k) –sin e = k cos θ,
-

and hence in this case the relation (3) does not hold and
the difference in the sine is not proportional to the
difference in the angle. In this case then the differences
are irregular. At the same time the differences are
π
insensible; for, when e is nearly ,kcos e is very small.
In fact kcose has nothing but ciphers as far as the
seventh place of decimals, so long as e is within a few
minutes of a right angle. Also
k2 (0003)
2 .ίi.e.
2 sin e is always < .е. < 00000005...
,

Hence when the angle is nearly a right angle a com-

paratively small change in the sine will correspond to a
comparatively large change in the angle; also at the same
time these changes are irregular.
382. Natural Cosines. Since the cosine of an angle
is equal to the sine of its complement this case reduces to
456 TRIGONOMETRY.
that of the sine. The principle is therefore true except
when the angle is nearlyzero,inwhich case thedifferences
are insensible and irregular.
383. Natural Tangents. With the same notation
as before we have
tan 0 + tan k tan 0 tan k sec² 0
tan (0 + k) - tan 0 = 1-tane -
=
tank 1 tan o tan k
-

= tan k sec²0 (1 +tan Otan k + tan² O tan² k...)

= sec² 0kk ++
-
+13 + ... 11+tantan 0(k+(k+
k3
3 +...)
+tan²0(k²+ ...) (Art. 281)
= k sec² 0 + k2 sin 1
cos³ θ + k³ sec² 0 3 + tan²0 + ......
(1).
The third and higher terms may be omitted as before,
except when e is nearly a right
sin
angle.
Unless the quantity ka cos³ θ be large we shall then
have
tan (0 + k) – tan 0 = k sec² 0............(2),
and the rule is approximately true.
When 0 is >-4 the second term of the equation (1) is
π

> 2k², so that taking the greatest value of k, viz. about

0003, this would give a significant figure in the seventh
place. The principle is therefore not true for angles
Π
greater than 7,4 when the differences of the tabulated
angles are 1'.
 PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 457
384. Natural Cotangents. As in the last article it
can be shewn that the principle must not be relied upon
for angles between 0 and 45°.
385. Natural Secant. We have sec(0+ k) – sec 0
1 -
1
cos e cos k – sin e sin k cos θ
-

1 1
sec 0
-- 1
-

1 - k tan 0 2 k² ...
-

= sec
이[ktan 0+0+ k2 1+ tan20)+...]
+
=
k sec O tan θ + k² sec 0 + tan² 00) +
Ꮎ 1 ... ....
(1).
The ratio of the second to the first term
1 + tan² 0
=k 2
tano = k 1
2 cot 0 + tane] .
This is small except when e is nearly zero or 2. Hence,
except in these two cases, we have
sec (0+ k) – sec 0 = k tan 0 sec θ
and the rule is proved.
When e is small the term kseco tane is very small,
so that the differences are insensible besides being
irregular.
When is nearly 2 this term is great, so that the
differences are not insensible.
458 TRIGONOMETRY.
386. Natural Cosecant. Just as in the case of the
secant it may be shewn that the differences are insensible
and irregular when e is nearly 90°, and irregular when
is nearly zero. Otherwise the principle holds.
387. Tabular Logarithmic Sine. We have
L10 sin (0 + k) – L10 sin e = log10 sinsin(0 + k)
[
= log10 [cos k+ cot e sin k] =log10 1+k cote ka2 -
...

(Arts. 279 and 280)

=
k2 1
= μ k cot θ 22 k² cot² + .
-

2
-
-

μkcot θ - µk²k²cosec² θ . .
...

]
(Arts. 256 and 260)
2
The numerical ratio of the second term to the first
1k . 1 k
12

sin e cos e sin 20 •

This is small except when e is near zero or a right angle.

Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
L sin(0 + k) – L sin θ = μ cot 0 × k,
so that the rule holds in general.
If o be small the term uk cote is large, so that the
differences are large as well as irregular. We cannot
therefore apply the principle to small angles in the case
of tables constructed with difference of 1'.
Even if the tables were constructed for differences of
10" we are not sure of being free from error in the 7th
place of decimals unless e be > 5°.
 PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 459

If o be nearly the terms ukcot θ and μk2

π
M2 cosec² O are
both small,so that if the angle be nearly a right angle the
differences are insensible as well as irregular.
388. Tabular Logarithmic Cosine. The rule
holds approximately, since the cosine is the complement
of the sine, except when the angle is small, in which case
the differences are insensible as well as irregular, and
except when the angle is nearly a right angle, in which
case the differences are large.
389. Tabular Logarithmic Tangent. Here
Ltan (0 + k) -L tan 0 = log10 tantan(0 +e k)
1 + cot Otan k 「1 + kcot 07
= log10 1 -tan otank log10 1-ktan0
=

= log10 [(1 + k cot 0) (1 + ktan 0 + k² tan² 0 + ...)]

= log101 + sin ekcos 0 + cos²θ
[1+ k2 + ...
k k2 1 ka
sine cos e + cos² 0 2 sin² e cos²
sin -

+ ...]
(Arts. 256 and 260)
μκ cos 20
sin e cos 2μκ2 sin²20+
-
....

The numerical ratio of the second term to the first

= k cot 20. This is small except when e is near zero or a
right angle.
Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
Ltan(0+k)–Ltan0= sin20k,
-
2μ
so that the principle is in general true.
460 TRIGONOMETRY,

In each of the exceptional cases sink20 is not small, so

that the differences are then irregular but not insensible.
The same statements are true for the tabular loga-
rithmic cotangent.
390. Tabular Logarithmic Secant and Cose-
cant. We have
Lsec(0 + k) - Lsec = Lcos θ – L cos (0 + k)
-

and L cosec (0 + k) - Lcosec 0 = Lsin 0 – L sin (θ + κ).

-

Hence the results for the L sin and I cos are also true
for the L cosec and I sec.
 CHAPTER XXXI.
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION.

391. We have up to the present assumed that it is

possible to observe any angles perfectly accurately. In
practice this is by no means the case. Our observations
are liable to two classes of errors, one due to the instru-
ments themselves, which are hardly ever in perfect adjust-
ment, and the other class due to mistakes on the part of
the observer.
392. An error in any of our observations will clearly,
in general, cause an error in the value of any quantity
calculated from that observation. For example, if in Art.
192 there be a small error in the value of a, there will be
a consequent error in the value of a which, as we see
from the result ofthat article, depends on a.
393. The importance of an error in a length depends,
in general, upon its ratio to that length. For example in
measuring a piece of wood, about six feet long, a mistake
ofmileoneracecourse
inch woulda mistake
be a veryofserious error; in measuring a
one inch would be not worth
462 TRIGONOMETRY.
considering ; whilst in measuring the distance from the
Earth to the Moon an error of one inch would be abso-
lutely inappreciable.
394. We shall assume that the errors we have to
consider are so small that their squares (when measured
in radians if they be angles) may be neglected and we
shall give some examples of finding the errors in derived
quantities.
We shall assume that our tables and calculations are
correct, so that we have not to deal with mistakes in
calculation but only with errors in the original observa-
tion.
395. Ex. 1. MP (Fig. Art. 42) is a vertical pole ; at a point O
distant a from its foot its angular elevation is found to be e and its height
then calculated; if there be an error d in the observation of e find the
consequent error in the height.
The calculated height h=atan 0, clearly.
If the error d be in excess, the real elevation is 0-8, and hence the
real height h'= a tan (0 – δ).
Hence the error h - h'=atan 0 – atan (0 – 5)
-

sin d
a
cos e cos (0– 8) =asec² θ . δ,
if we neglect squares and higher powers of δ.
The ratio of the error to the calculated height
28
= d sec² 0÷ tan 0 = sin20
Except when sin 20 is small this ratio is small since dis small. It is
π
least when sin 20 is greatest, i.e. when e is 4 •

The ratio is largewhen o is near zero andwhenitis near2 π

Hence a small mistake in the angle makes a relatively large mistake

in the calculatedπresult when the angle subtended is very small or when
it isverynearly .
 ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 463
When e is small, both the calculated height and the absolute error,
viz, atane and asec²θ . δ, are small, but the latter is great compared
with the former.
When o is nearly 90°,both these quantities are great.
Ex. 2. The height of a tower is found as in Art. 192; if there be an
error o in excess in the angle a, find the corresponding correction to be
made in the height.
The real value of a is a- 0 ; hence the real value of the height is
found by substituting a - e for a in the obtained answer, and therefore
= a sin (a – 0) sin β = a sin β
sin a cos e - cos a sin θ
sin (β - α + 0) sin (β - a)cos +cos(β - a) sin e
asinasinẞ 1-0 cot a (Art. 280.)
sin (β - α) 1+0 cot(β – a)
-

asinasinẞ[1–0cota][1–0cot(
sin (β -α) β -a)+......]
-asinasinẞ[1-0{cot
sin (β – a) [1 -0 {cot (β(β- a)+cota}]
asin a sin β asin2β
-

sin (β – a) sin² (β – a)
The error in the calculated height is therefore θ . sin²asin²β
(ẞ – a)-
, and is
one of excess.
Also the ratio ofthe error to the calculated height
0 sinβ
sin a sin(ẞ–a)-

Ex. 3. The angles of a triangle are calculated from the sides a=2,
b=3, and c=4, but it is found that the side c is overestimated by a small
quantity 8 ; find the consequent errors in the angles.
From the given values ofthe sides we easily have
cos A=7' cosB=11
16 '
1,
cos C= - 4'

sinA = 2/15
16 ,
sinB= 3/15
16 , and sin C= 4/15
16 •
464 TRIGONOMETRY.
Corresponding to the value 4–8, let the values ofthe angles beA–01,
B - 02, and C − 03.
-

Then cos(A -0₁)=32+(4-82-22-21-88(1-1)¯¹,

2 (4 – δ) . 3
-
4
i.e.
cos4+sin 4.01-24[21-88][1+1] = [21-1
A ==
δ
4 ], 1
24
[Arts. 279 and 280]
4

i.e. 72/150711
0+
8 16 010-968 δ,
so that 11/15 δ
01=-180 .....................(1).
Also δ)2 22
2 (4 –+δ)28-33-1188(1-1)
cos(B-02)=(4-8)2 -
.2 16 ,-

4
i.e.
10+sinB.02-16[11-88] [1+1] = [11-24 ],
11 =
δ
δ

i.e. 3/15 21
1602=-64δ,
so that 02= -7/15
60 δ.. ...........(2).
cos (C - 03) = 22+ 2.2.3
32 – (4 – 8)2 – 312+88
-

Also ,

i.e. -1+4/1516 03= - 14 + 283 '

so that 03= 8/15
VID
45 δ.
The errors in the angles are therefore
-11/150,
180 -21/155,
180 8, and 32/158radians,
180
so that the smallest angle has the least error.
We note, as might have been assumed a priori, that the sum of the
errors in the three angles is zero. This is necessarily so, since the sum
of the angles of any triangle is always two right angles.
 ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 465

EXAMPLES. LXVI.
1. The height of a hill is found bymeasuring the angles of elevation
a and ẞ of the top and bottom of a tower of height 6 on the top of the
hill. Prove that the error in the height h caused by an error in the
measurement of the angle a is θ.cos ẞsecacosec (a-ẞ) times the cal-
culated height of the hill.
2. At a distance of 100 feet from the foot of a tower the elevation of
its top is found to be 30°; find the greatest and least errors in its
calculated height due to errors of 1' and 6 inches in the elevation and
distance respectively.
3. In the example ofArt. 196 find the errors in the calculated values
of the flagstaff and tower due to an error d in the observed value of a.
If a= 1000 feet, a=30°, β=15°, and there be an error of 1' in the
value of a, calculate the numerical value of these errors.
4. AB is a vertical pole, and CD a horizontal line which when
produced passes through B the foot of the pole. The tangents of the
angles of elevation at C and D of the top of the pole are found to be
4 and 3
3CD=354respectively.
feet.
Find the height of the pole having given that
Prove that an error of 1' in the determination of the elevation at D
will cause an error of approximately 1 inch in the calculated height of
the pole.
5. The elevation of the summit of a tower is observed to be a at a
stationA andẞ at a station B, which is at a distance cfromA in the direct
horizontal line from the foot of the tower, and its height is thus found to
be csinasinẞ feet.
sin (a–β)
-

If AB be measured not directlyfrom the tower but horizontally and

in a direction inclined at a small angle o to the direct line shew that, to
correct the height ofthe tower to the second order of smallquantities, the
quantity ccos asin² β 02 must be subtracted.
cosẞsin(a-β) 2
6. A, B, and Care three given points on a straight line ; Dis
another point whose distance from B is found by observing that the
L. T. 30
466 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. LXVI.]
angles ADB and CDB are equal and of an observed magnitude 0 ; prove
that the error in the calculated length of DB consequent on a small
error & in the observed magnitude of e, is
-
2ab (a + b)2 sin δ
(a² +b² – 2ab cos 20)
2 -

approximately, where AB= a and BC=b.

7. In measuring the three sides of a triangle small errors x and y
1.

are made in two of them, a and b ; prove that the error in the angle C
will be- yb cotA- cotB,and find the errors in the other angles.
a

8. In a triangle ABC we have given that approximately a=36 feet,

b=50 feet, and C=tan-1 34; find what error in the given value of a will
cause an error in the calculated value of c equal to that caused by an
error of 5" in the measurement of C.
9. A triangle is solved from the parts C= 15°, a = √6, and b=2 ;
prove that an error of 10" in the value of C would cause an error of about
13.66" in the calculated value of B.
10. Two sides b and c and the included angle A of a given triangle
are supposed to be known; if there be a small error o in the value of the
angle A, prove that
(1) the consequent error in the calculated value of B is.
O sinB cos CcosecA radians,
-

(2) the consequent error in the calculated value of a is csinB. 0,

and (3) theO cot
consequent error in the calculated area of the triangle is
A times that area.
11. There are errors in the sides a, b, and c of a triangle equal to
x,value
y, and z respectively; prove that the consequent error in the calculated
of the circum-radius is
1
2 cotA cotBcot C [x sec A +y sec B + z sec C].
12. The area of a triangle is found by measuring the lengths of the
sides and the limit of error possible, either in excess or defect, in
measuring any length is n times that length, where n is small. Prove that
in the case of the triangle whose sides are measured as 110, 81, and
59 yards, the limit to the error in the deduced area of the triangle is
about 3:1433n times that area.
[Exs. LXVI.] ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 467
13. The three sides of a triangle are measured and found to be
nearly equal. If the measurements can be wrong one per cent. in excess
or defect, prove that the greatest error that can arise in calculating one
of the angles is 80' nearly.
14. It is observed that the elevation of the summit of a mountain at
each corner of a plane horizontal equilateral triangle is a ; provethat the
height ofthe mountain is 1
√3a tana,
where a is the side of the triangle. If there be a small error n" in the
elevation at C, shew that the true height is
1 sinn"
√3 atana [1+ 3 sina cos a

30-2
 CHAPTER XXXII.
MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.

Solution of a Cubic Equation.

396. The standard form of a cubic equation is
y³ + 3ay² + 3by + c = 0.
Put y = x - a, and this equation becomes
x³ – 3 (a² –b) x + (2a3 - 3ab + c) = 0,
-
2 -

i.e. it becomes of the form

x³ - 3px + q = 0 ....
(1).
Hence any cubic equation can be reduced to the form
(1), which has no term containing a².
397. To solve the equation x3 – 3px + q = 0.
Put x== n2 , and we have
z³-3pn²z + qn³ = 0 (2).
Now, by Art. 107, we always have
cos 30 4 cos³ 0 - 3 cos θ,
=

so that cos³ 0- 34 cos 0 -=41 cos 30 = 0............(3).

 SOLUTION OF A CUBIC EQUATION. 469
Now (2) and (3) are the3 same equation if
z=cos 0, 3pn²=4' and -cos
1
4 cos 30 =qn³.
=
1
Hence n=(+) -

and therefore cos 30=-49 1

= -
(4).
4p ...

The equation (4) can always be solved (by means of

the tables if necessary) if
p be positive, and 49 4
i.e. if
4Q(+)®< 1,
q² < 4p³.
[The student who is acquainted with the Theory of Equations will
notice that is the case which cannot be solved by Cardan's Method. It
is the case when the roots of the original cubic are all real.]
If e be the smallest angle satisfying equation (4), then
the values 0+ 2π 4π
3 and 0+ 3
- -

also satisfy it, so that the roots of the equation

x³ - 3px + q = 0
3

are
n
-

cos , cos (10 +2), and cos(0+ 3),

1 θ, 1 COS
n
-
2π
3
1 COS
-

n
4π
‫د‬

2√pcos(0+227), and2.√pcos
i.e. 2√p cos θ, 2√p cos 2π
3
4π

398. Ex. Solve the equation

x² + 6x² + 9x+ 3=0.
Put x=y- 2, and the equation becomes
y³ – 3y + 1=0.
470 TRIGONOMETRY.
2
Put y= ,and the equation is
-

z3 – 3n2z + n³ =0 ....
-

.....(1).
Now cos³ θ 34 cos 0 --41 cos 30 = 0 ......... ........(2).
Equations (1) and (2) are the same if
z=cos0, n²=1,41 and 1
4 cos 30=n³,
2 -

i.e. if n=
1
2',
and cos 30= 12=COS
=cos 120° .....(3).
The roots of (3) are clearly
40°, 40° +120°, and 40° +240°,
so that z=cos 40°, or cos 160°, or cos 280°.
.. y=2 cos 40°, or 2 cos 160°, or 2 cos 280°.
..x=y - 2 = -2 + 2 cos 40°, or -2-2cos 20°, or -2 + 2 cos 80°.
On referring to the tables we then have the values of x.
EXAMPLES. LXVII.
Solve the equations
1. 2x³ - 3x- 1=0. 2. x3 + 3x² - 1=0. 3. x3 – 24x – 32=0, -

4. x3 - 6x² + 6x + 8 =0. 5. x³ - 21x + 7=0.

6. x² +4x²+ 2x- 1=0. 7. x³ - 7x+5=0.
Maximum and Minimum Values.
399. In Art. 133 we have given one example of the
maximum value of a trigonometrical expression.
We add another example.
Ifxand y be two positiveangleswhose sum is a constant
angle α( π), find when sinxsiny is a maximum, and
extend the theorem to more than two angles.
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES. 471
We have 2sin asiny = 2 sinasin (a–x)
=cos (a- 2x) -cos a.
Hence 2 sin asiny is greatest when cos(a- 2x) is
greatest, i.e. when a = 2x, and therefore
α
x=y=2
The product is therefore greatest when the angles x
and y are equal.
Let there be three angles x, y, and z whose sum is
equal to a constant angle B. If, in the product
sinæ sinysinz,
any two of the angles x and y be unequal, we can, by the
preceding part of the article, increase the product by
substituting for both x and y half their sum without
increasing or diminishing the sum ofthe angles.
Hence so long as the angles x, y, and z are unequal,
we can increase the given product by thus making the
angles approach to equality.
The maximum value will therefore be obtained when
the angles x, y, and z are equal.
This argument can clearly be applied whatever be the
number of the angles x, y, z....
400. We can now shew that the maximum triangle
that can be inscribed in a given circle is equilateral.
For, if R be the radius of the circle, we have (as in
Ex. xxxvI. 10) the area ofthe triangle
= 2R² sin A sin Bsin C,
where A + B + C= 2 , a constant angle. By the preced-
ing article it follows that the triangle is greatest when
A = B= C.
472 TRIGONOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. LXVIII.
1. If x+y be a given angle, less than w, prove that
(1) sin x+siny, (2) cos2x+cos2y, and (3) cosxcosy
all have their greatest values when x=y.
2. Find the minimum value of
a2 tan x +b² cot x.
Find the minimum values of
cos θ + √3
3. 2 √√3 2 cos θ 4. a² sin² + b² cosec² 0.
π
5. If x+y=a, where a is , find when tanxtany is a maximum.
[WeWe have 1 -tan x tan y= cos a -cos (a – 2x) ]
2 cos a
-

6. Prove that the maximum triangle having a given perimeter is

equilateral.
[Theareaofatrianglecanbeprovedtoequalse tantan
2 tan A B C

7. Prove that the area of the pedal triangle of an acute-angled

triangle is never greater than one quarter of the area of the latter.
8. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the least value of
cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 20is- 3
Prove also that cosA+cosB+cos C is always >1 and not greater
than 32

On the geometrical representation of complex

quantities.
401. In Chap. IV. we pointed out that if a distance
in any direction (say, horizontally towards the right) be
represented by a, then - a represents the same distance
drawn in an opposite direction, i.e. horizontally towards
the left.
 COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 473
The effect of prefixing to a is therefore (Fig.
-

Art. 48) to rotate OA in the positive direction through

two right angles. The operation - 1 performed on a
therefore means turning a through two right angles.
402. Now √-1x -1 =-1 ; hence whatever mean-
ing we give to the operation √-1 it must be such that
performing that operation twice shall be the same thing as
performing the operation - 1.
Let us therefore assign to the operation √-1 the
turning any length through one right angle in the
positive direction. Performing the operation V- 1 on a
twice will therefore, as it should do, turn a through two
right angles.
Hence, with this interpretation, V-1 a means a line
drawn at right angles to the line denoted by a.
403. We can now shew what is denoted by
x +√- 1 y.
Draw OX and OYtwo lines at right angles. Measure
along OX a distance OM equal to x and Y
then draw MP parallel to OY and equal
to y, so that MP represents √-ly.
Then Pis the point that represents the P

quantity x +√- 1y, or, again, we may M X

say that OP is the line representing this quantity.
We have OP = √OM²+ MP2= √x² + y²,
and ∠MOP = tan-1 MPOM tan-19.
=
474 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the length of OP represents the modulus and
MOP the principal value of the Amplitude of x +iy.
(Art. 265.)
404. Addition of two complex quantities.
Let OP represent the complex quantity x + iy and
OQ represent u + iv, so that Y
ON=x, NP =y, OM= и,
and MQ = v. Q R
P..
Complete the parallelogram +
S

OPRQ, and draw RL perpendicu- OM NL X

lar to OX and PS perpendicular to RL.
Since PR is equal and parallel to OQ, we have
NL = PS = OM, and SR = MQ.
Hence OL = ON + NL = x + u,
and LR=LS +SR=y + v.
Therefore OR represents the complex quantity
x + u + i (y + v),
so that the sum of two complex quantities is repre-
sented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose two
adjacent sides represent the two given complex quantities.
405. Let
as in Art. 265.
x + iy = r (cos + i sin θ),
Then
(cos a + isin a) (x + y) = r (cos a + isin a) (cos + i sin 0)
= r [cos (α + θ) + i sin (α + θ)] ......... (1).
Now r [cos θ + i sin θ]
means, with our interpretation, a line of length r drawn at
an angle with OX.
 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION. 475
Also r [cos (α + θ) + isin (a + 0)]
means a line of the same length r drawn at an angle a + 0
with OX (Art. 403).
Hence, by (1), the effect of multiplying x + iy by
cos a + isin a is to turn through an angle a the line that
represents x + iy.
406. Geometrical meaning of De Moivre's Theorem.
The quantity
(cosa+isina)(cos +isin3)(cos y + isin y)(cos + isin d),
means the line represented by cos 8+ isin d turned first
through an angle y, then through ẞ, and finally through
a, i.e. altogether turned through a + β + γ.
But this total operation gives the same line as
[cos(α + β + γ) + isin (α + β + y)] [cos d + i sin d].
Similarly for any number of factors.
Hence De Moivre's Theorem expresses algebraically
the geometrical fact that to turn a line through a number
of angles successively has the same effect as turning the
line through an angle equal to the sum ofthe angles.
Ex. The three cube roots of unity are easily found to be
cos +isin2,3'
cos 0+ i sin 0, cos 2π
3
1 2π

and cos 4π 2π
3 + i sin 3 '
so that we have
(cos 0 + isin 0)(cos 0+i sin 0) (cos 0+ i sin 0)=1,
( 2π
COS 3 +isin22π3) 23 +isin 2π3)( cos 2π + i sin 예2π)=1,
COS

and (COS
4π
3 + i sin
-
4π
(cos +isin (cos +isin )=1.
COS
4π
3
4π
3
4π
-

3
4π
476 TRIGONOMETRY.
The first of these equations states that turning a line three times in
succession through a zero angle gives the original line.
The second
2π
states that turning it three times in succession through
an angle , (i.e. altogether through 2m) gives the original line.
The third states that turning it three times in succession through an
angle 4π3, (i.e. altogether through 4m)givesthe original line.
These statements are all clearly true.
407. Multiplication of two complex quantities.
If x + iy = r (cos + i sin θ),
and u + iv = p (cos + i sin $),
we have
(u + iv)(x + y) = rp [cos (θ + 4) + i sin (0 + $)].
The effect of multiplying a complex quantity x + iy
by another u + iv is therefore to turn the line repre-
senting x + iy through an angle
i.e. tan-1 UV ,

and to alter its length in the ratio

1 : p, i.e. 1 : √u² + v².
Hence the multiplying of one complex quantity by
another is represented by " a turning and a stretching."
 EXAMPLES. 477
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. LXIX.
1. Prove that the equation tan x=kx has an infinite number of roots.
2. If A, B and C be the angles of a triangle, prove that
1-8 cos A cos Bcos C
is always positive.
3. If a and ẞ be the imaginary cube roots of unity prove that
x
αραx+βεβα
ae
ах
=e sin √x-cos
2
3x √3x7
2
2-3 cos x
4. If x be less than a radian prove that x=22N 5+ cos x very
5
nearly, the error in the left-handmember being nearly 480 radians.
that
5. If cos (0 +ip) =sec (a + iß), where α, β, θ, and 4 are all real, prove
tanh² & cosh² ẞ=sina and tanh²ẞ cosh² =sin² 0.
6. If x=2 cos a coshẞ and y=2sina sinhẞ,
prove that
sec (a + iß) +sec (a – iß) = x24x+ y2 '
and 4iy
sec(a+i )-sec(a-if)=x²+y² •

7. Prove that
sin" φcos no +nsinn-1 cos (n− 1) 0 sin (0 – ф)
-

+ n(1.2
n -1)sinn-2 φ cos (n− 2) 0 sin2 (0 – $) +
-
...... +sinn (0 – $)
-

=sin" θ cos ηφ.

8. Prove that the roots of the equation
xn sin ne – nxn-1 sin (n0 + 4)+ n(n-
-
1)
1.2 xn-2 sin (n0 +24)
-
......
to (n+1) terms=0, ‫וע‬

aregivenby x=sin( + - )cosec(0-0 ), k π

where n is an integer and khas any integral value from 0 to n- 1.

478 TRIGONOMETRY. [Misc. Exs. LXIX.]
9. Prove that the sum to infinity of the series
sin 0 + 21 sin³0 1.3 sin5 0
3 + 2.4 5 + ......
is 0, if o be acute, and, generally, is ηπ+ ( - 1)" θ, where n is so chosen
π π
that nㅠ+(−1) e liesbetween-2 and+2. •

10. If the arc of a circle of radius unity be divided into n equal arcs,
andright-angled isosceles triangles bedescribed on thechords of these arcs
as hypothenuses and have their vertices outwards, prove that when n is
indefinitely increased the limit of the product of the distances of the
α
vertices from the centre is e², where a is the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre.
11. The sides of a regular polygon of n sides, which is inscribed in a
circle, meet the tangent at any point P of the circle in A, B, C, D......
Prove that the product OA.OB.OC.OD...... =ar tanne or antan² ηθ,
according as n is odd or even, where a is the radius of the circle and e is
the angle which the line joining P to an angular point subtends at the
circumference.
12. Aregular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle and from any
point in the circumference chords are drawn to the angular points ; if
these chords be denoted by C1, C2, ... Cn, beginning with the chord drawn
to the nearest angular point and taking the rest in order, prove that the
quantity
C1 C2 + C2C3 + ... + Cn-1Cn- CnC1
is independent of the position of the point from which the chords are
drawn.
13. A series of radii divide the circumference of a circle into 2n equal
parts ; prove that the product of the perpendiculars let fall from any
point of the circumference upon n successive radii is
2n-1 sin ηθ,
where r is the radius of the circle and e is the angle between one of the
extreme of these radii and the radius to the given point.
14. If a regular polygon of n sides be inscribed in a circle, and I be
the length of the chord joining any fixed point on the circle to one of the
angular points of the polygon, prove that
12m
212m=nam
2m{ m}2
[Misc. Exs. LXIX.] EXAMPLES. 479
15. ABCD... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a
circle, whose radius is a and whose centre is 0; prove that the product of
the distances of its angular points from a straight line at right angles to
OA and at a distance b( a) from the centre is
[cos
ζη
( s i n
2-1 )-sin ( sin-1 )].
a
b 2
a
b
2
•

16. Prove that there is one, and only one, solution of the equation
=cos e and that it is less than π
4
17. Provethat the general value of e which satisfies the equation
(cos +i sin 0) (cos 20+ i sin 20) to n factors=1
......

4тπ
is
n(n+1) ' where m is any integer.
18. Prove that
e +e-*=2{1+2}
19. Prove that
{1 +( )} {1+(3)} 22 1- 22
3 5 ...... ad inf.

1+
x3 x6x9 + ..ad
+T9 inf. [ +2cos( 3 ) .
=
1
3 ex 2e
20. Prove that
2π 4π 6π 14π + COS 16π 1
COS
17 + cos 17 + cos 17 + ... + cos 17 17 ,

2π 4π 14π 16π
and sec + sec + ... + sec
17 17 17 + sec 17 =8.
21. From the sum ofthe series
sin20 21 sin 40+ 31 sin 60 - ... ad inf.,
-

or otherwise, shew that

√2=1+1
4
11 1 1 1
3-5-7 + 9+ 1Ⅱ -
... ad inf.
22. Prove that
1 sinhx 1 2=8 1 1
2x cosh x -cos a α²+ x2 = Σ
n=1 {((2ηπ–α)
2ηπ-α)2-+ x2+ (2ηπ+a)2+x2)
480 TRIGONOMETRY. [Misc. Exs. LXIX.]
23. Prove that the general value of sinh-1x is
ikn + ( − 1)*log[x+ √1+x²],
where k is any integer.
24. If P1, P2, ...... n be the distances of the vertices of a regular
polygon of n sides from any point P in its plane, prove that
2n 2n
1 ++
1 1 n
+ 0.2 = γ2 – α2 γ2η
......
2n – 2anrn cos ηθ + αζη
P1 P2 Pn - -

where a is the radius of the circumcircle of the polygon, r is the distance

of P from its centre O, and is the angle that OPmakes with the radius
to any angular point of the polygon.
25. If θ + φ + 4=2 , prove that
cos² 0 +cos² +cos² - 2 cos e cos & cos 4=1.
Hence deduce the relation between the six straight lines joining
4 points which are in one plane.
 ANSWERS.
I. (Page 5.)
1. 32 301
2. 360° 3. 45569
64800 •

4.10. 5. 23661
10800 6. 4388
43375
7. 335 33′33·3“. 8. 90%. 9. 153 88 88.8".
10. 39% 76′38·8 “. 11. 261£ 34′44·4“.
12. 528g 3`33·3 “. 13. 1 rt. 2 ; 108°.
14. 453524 rt. 2 ; 40° 49′1·776".
15. 394536 rt. 2 ; 35° 30′29·664".
16. 2.554881 rt. 2 ; 229° 56′ 21·444".
17. 7.59456 rt. 2 ; 683° 30′ 37-44".
28. 66° 40′ ; 5° 33′20″. 29. 47719 ; 421
19
31. 33° 20′ ; 10° 48′.
II. (Page 10.)
1. 25132.74 miles nearly.
2. 19-28 miles per hour nearly.
3. 12.85 miles per hour nearly.
4. 3·14159 ... inches. 5. 581,184,640 miles nearly.
6. 14.994 miles nearly.
III. (Pages 13, 14.)
1. 60°.. 2. 240°. 3. 1800°.
4. 57° 17′44.8″. 5. 458° 21′ 58.4". 6. 160g.
L. T. 31
ii TRIGONOMETRY.

7. 233. 8. 2000 . 221 π.

9.3. 10. 360
11. 703 3557 π.
12. 13500 13. 79 π.
720 π. 36
3π
14. 10 15. 1103 π.
2000 16. 1.726268π.
17. 81° ; 9°. 18. 24°, 60°, and 96°.
19. 132° 15′ 12·6". 20. 30°, 60°, and 90°.
21. 12, 3, and 2π321 radians.
π
------- -

22. (1) 3π에; 108°. 5π (2) 5π〒; 128 15π ゜・

(3) 3π;
4 ; 135°.
135°. (4)24. 에;10 and150°.8. (5)25.17;6 and158148. •

23. 8 and 4.
26. π3 27. (1) 5πο12 =75° 5πο= 8315;
1g

(2) 7πο18 =70° = 7778; 7g

(3) =1124 = 1255.
IV. (Pages 17, 18.)
Take π=314159... and π1= 31831.
1.2011 • 2. 53
radian ; 34° 22′38·9 ″.
3. 68.75 inches nearly. 4. 05236 inch nearly.
5. 24·555 inches nearly. 6. 1° 25′57″ nearly.
7. 3959.8 miles nearly. 8. πft. = 3·14159 ft.
9. 5 : 4. 10. 3·1416.
11. 35'35' 35'35 , and 24π
4π 9π 14π
-
19π
35 radians.
12. 65° 24′ 30.6″. 13. 2062-65 ft. nearly.
14. 1.5359 ft. nearly. 15. 262.6 ft. nearly.
16. 32142-9 ft. nearly. 17. 17188.7 ft. nearly.
 ANSWERS. 111
18. 19.099'. 21. 1105-8 miles.
19. 238,833 miles. 22. 21600; 3437.75 nearly.
20. 478 × 1011 miles.
VI. (Page 31.)
6. 12 8 11 60 61
7. 60 8. 34
어' 13. ; 61 60 -

• •

9. 40 41 10. 3415 11. 3

144
940 •

15 17 1 3 3
12. 178 13. √5; √5. 14. 1 org.
15. 3 5 5 17. 12 1
5 or 13 • 16. 13 •

13 • 18.
J3√3 or 1.
19. 1 20. 1
12

√2 21. 1 + √2.
22. 2x (x + 1) 2x + 1
2x² + 2x + 1 '; 2x² + 2x + 1 °
VIII. (Pages 44-46.)
1. 34.64... ft.; 20 ft. 3. 225ft.
2. 160 ft.
4. 136.6 ft.
7 5. 146.4... ft.
6.367.8 yards ; 453.9 yards. 7. 86.6 ... ft.
8. 115-359 ... ft. 9. 87.846 ... ft.
10. 43.3 ... ft.; 75 ft. from one of the pillars.
11. 94.641 ... ft.; 54.641 ... ft. 12. 1.366... miles.
13. 30°. 15. 13.8564 miles per hour.
16. 25.98... ft.; 70.98 ... ft.; 85.98 ... ft.
17. 325 = 71.55 ... ft. 19. 10 miles per hour.
20. 86.6... yards. 21. 692.8... yards.
IX. (Page 63.)
2500
1. 6289 2250 1539
, 6289 and 6289 radians.
31-2
iv TRIGONOMETRY.

2. 68° 45′17·8". 4. 2xy 2xy

x² + y2 ;' x² - Y²2 •

8. tan1 A tan A.
-
9. 0 = 60°.
10. In 1 minutes.
X. (Pages 74, 75.)
4. - 366 ... ; 2.3094.... 5. -1.366 ... ; - 2.3094.
6. 0; 2. 7. 1.4142... ; -2.
8. 1.366... ; - 2.3094.... 9. 45° and 135°.
10. 120° and 240°. 11. 135° and 315°.
12. 150° and 330°. 13. 150° and 210°.
3
14. 210° and 330°. 15. - cos 25°.
16. sin 6°. 17. -
tan 43°. 18. sin 12°.
19. sin 17°. 20. -

cot 24°. 21. cos 33°.

22. - cos 28°. 23. cot 25°. 24. cos 30°.
25. cot 26°. 26. - cosec 23°. 27. cosec 36°.
28. negative. 29. negative. 30. positive.
31. zero. 32. positive. 33. positive.
34. positive. 35. negative.
36. 1 and -√2-1
√3 J3 J3 and√2
√3
XI. (Pages 83, 84.)
π
1. ηπ+ (− 1) .
-
2. ηπ- ( - 1) 3:
2π
3. ηπ+ (- 1) 4 . 4. 3π2ηπ±3. π
π
5. 2ηπ±0. 6. 2ηπ±1.4 7. ηπ+3. •

3π π π
8. ηπ +
4 9. ηπ + 4·
•

10. 2ηπ±3. π π
π
11. ηπ+ (−1) . 12. ηπ±2. 13. ηπ±3.
 ANSWERS. V

π π π
14. ηπ # 15. ηπ±3.
•
16. ηπ±7·4
17. ηπ 6 . 18. (2n+ 1)π+7.
π π
19. 2ηπ- π.
20. 105°and45° ; (n+1)2 π +(-1) ,and m
6
π
12'
( - ) m
+(-1)
where m and n are any integers.
12 m
,

21. 1871 and

m
1421° ; π π m π π
n+
2 +
812
-

and n- π-
ㅠ-812
22. (1) 60° and 120°; (2) 120° and 240° ; (3) 30°
and 210°.
23. (1) 2 ; (2) 1 ; (3) 1 ; (4) 1 ; (5) 1.
XII. (Pages 85, 86.)
2π
1. ηπ+ (-1) . 2. 2ηπ±3.
3. ηπ + (-1) nπ
4. cos θ √5-1
2
5. sin 0 = √5-1
4 =sin
= sin 18°
18° or sin (-54°) (Art. 120).
π π
6. θ = 2ηπ±3. 7. θ=ηπ+74 or ηπ+3.
8. = ηπ +
2π
3 or ηπ + -
6
5π • 9. tan 0==a or - 1
1 - •

10. θ = ηπ = π • 11. θ = 2ηπ or 2ηπ + π4- .

ηπ
12. 5어+(-1)%(2n+20.1)π
--
π
13. ηπ (2n + 1)π
4 or 10 •

2γπ 2υπ
14. 2ηπ or 5 15. m -n
or
m+n •
vi TRIGONOMETRY.

16. (2n+1)=or 2n -1.

π π
17. 2ηπor 2ηπ
9.
18. (2n+1) or(2n-1)m-nπ
2/ m +n
π

19. (n+1) . 20. (m+1)2 +1°

π

2
π

21. ηπ
4+
----
1+ η16.
π
22. (n + 1)23 π

23. (n+1)2/33. π α
24. (n+ 1) π
•

25. ηπ
33
α

28. sin 20 = 2n4+ 1

26. ηπ
•
π
6 •

27. ( +1)m-n π

29.0=(m+1)2 +(-1) ;
m+
n
π
π n π

=( - ) π-(-12π ) 1
m-
2 π
π n π •

30. 5[(6m-4m) +2]; [(6-4m)ㅠㅠ〒173] 。

1

31. 45° and 60°.

5
32. 31 or 53
π

33. ± 1 √5; ± 1 √5.

XIII. (Pages 91, 92.)
1. 133 84 1596 3444
2. 3445
-

205205 •
; 3445 •

3. 220 171 220

221; 221 ; 21
XIV. (Pages 96, 97.)
30. 2 sin (0 +n sin 3φ
+ n ))sin2. 31. 2 sin (0 + n ) cos .
 ANSWERS, vii
XV. (Pages 98, 99.)
1. cos 20- cos 120. 2. sin 120 – sin 20.-

3. cos 140 + cos 80. 4. cos12° cos 120°.

-

XVI. (Page 102.)

9
1. 3 ; 13 3. 1.
XVII. (Pages 109, 110.)
24 120 2016
1. (1) 161±25; (2) ±169; (3)4225 •

2. (1)289; (2) -25;7 (3) 119

169. 3. a.

XVIII. (Pages 123-125.)

1. + 2√26+ √3 ; 7/3 18+ 4/2
12'; √13 √13 169
2. 13
2 or 3 ; 120
+

16 49
3. 305 305 4.
5/2
7
5. * 1 ; * 43 .
3
6. ±1+
4
7. √4-√2-√6;
2/2 √4+√2+√6;
2√2 √2-1;
-(√2 + 1) + 4+ 2/2.
8. 4 – α²2 - b²2
-

23. -

and + . 24. -

and -
•

a² + b²
2 •

25. -
and -

3π
29. (1) 2ηπ+ 4 and 2ηπ+ 4;π
-

; (2) 2ηπ+ 43π and 2n + 5π1;

4
π 3π π
(3) 2ηπ-7and
4 2n 2ηπ++174; (4) 2ηπ+7
4 and 2nπ+ 4π
π
•
viii TRIGONOMETRY.

30. (1) 2n2ηπ -14 and 2n + 1;

π π

(2) 2ηπ+43π5π and 2ηπ + 5π4;

-

2ηπ 7π
(3) 2ηπ+4 and 2nㅠ+4.
XIX. (Pages 129, 130.)
12. The sine of the angle is equal to 2sin 18°.
π π
13. 2n + 10.
XXI. (Pages 142, 143.)
1. ηπ
4 or (2n ). 2. (2 ) or (2n+1)
1 2ηπ
π
π 1 π π

3. 2n +
2/2 or 2ηπ.
- -

4. (2n+1) or n +(-1) " .

2/3
π nπ

5.2mmor
3 (n+1) or (2n-1)π.
2ηπ
4, πor
1 2π
16. or (2n+1)3/4
ηπ
3
π
7. n=
4 πor 2ηπ 3
8. n3n or (n=13)2 π. 9. 2ηπ; (230 2 + 1)π.
π

3π π
2n

10. ηπ+ (−1) ; ηπ+ (−1)"10; ηπ-(-1) 10°

이 n

11. 2n + 1 π; 2m + 1 π
예
12. mn; 1
n-1[mn-(-1) ]. 13. 2mπ ; n4mπ
± 1°
2 1
14. 2υπ
m + n‫ز‬
Μπ 1
m-n
2γπ+ π
2 15. m=n [ 12
2π * 2_

; (2 ).
16. Μπ; n-1'n
 ANSWERS. ix

17. 2ηπ- ; (2ηπ- ). 1

π Π π
18. π+(- 1) - 3 19. ηπ+(-1) 2-4
π π π
20. ++ (- 1) n
21. 2ηπ + 4+ +A.
22. – 21°48′ + ηπ + ( − 1)" [68°12′] .
- -

23. 2ηπ + 78°58′ ; 2ηπ + 27°18′. [N.B. cos 25° 50′ = • 9 . ]

24. ηπ + 45° ; ηπ + 26°34′. 2ηπ+2π .
25. 2ηπ; 2ηπ+이 •

π π π
26. 2ηπ; 2ηπ+5. 27. 2ηπ+2; 2ηπ+3·
π π
28. 2ηπ+ ; 2ηπ -

2 29. ηπ.

30. sin0==√17-1
8 • 31. cosA==/17-3
4 •

π π π π
32. ηπ±3; 2ηπ± 23. 33. 2ηπ 3; 2ηπ ·
34. (n+1)ηπ
π

π
35. ηπ + π4
36. ηπ+7.
α
π
4
1
37. 0= or n =3; also 0=n , where cosa=3.
2 ηπ •

38. (n+1)1
n+ 333.
π
39. ηπ+3. π

XXIII. (Pages 157, 158.)

-

1. 1-90309 ; 3.4771213; 2-0334239 ; 14650389.

2. 1553361 ; 2-1241781 ; 5388340 ; 15-0759623.
3. 2 ; 2; 0 ; 4; 2 ; 0 ; 3. 4. 312936.
5. 1.32057 ; 5.88453 ; 461791.
6. (1) 21 ; (2) 13 ; (3) 30 ; (4) the 7th; (5) the 21st
(6) the 32nd.
X TRIGONOMETRY.
log 2 + 2 log 3
7.
log7+ 4log 3
4log3-log 2 7, log4log7-3log3-2log2
3 + 4log 2
'
3 log 3 + log 2 - 2 log 7
8. 22221. 9. 8.6414. 10. 9.6192.
11. 1.6389. 12. 4-7161. 13. 41432.
XXIV. (Pages 167-169.)
1. 4.5527375; 1.5527394. [N.B. log 35706 = 4.5527412.]
2. 4.7689529 ; 3.7689502.
3. 478-475 ; 004784777. 4. 2-583674; 0258362.
5. (1) 4-7204815 ; (2) 2.7220462 ; (3) 2-7240079 ;
6.
5273-63 ; (5)
(4)6870417. 05296726 ; (6) 5.26064.
7. 43° 23′45″.
8. 8455104 ; 8454509. 9. 32°16′35″ ; 32° 16′21″.
10. 4·1203060 ; 4·1218748.
11. 4.3993263 ; 4.3976823. 12. 13°8′47″.
13. 9-9147334. 14. 34° 44′27″.
15. 9-5254497 ; 71° 27′43″. 16. 10-0229414.
17. 18° 27′17″. 18. 36°52′12″.
XXV. (Pages 171, 172.)
1. 13°27′31″. 2. 22° 1′28″.
3. 10997340 ; 65° 24′12·5".
4. 9.6198509 ; 22°36′28″.
5. 10°15′34″. 6. 44° 55′55″.
7. (1) 9.7279043 ; (2) 9.9270857 ; (3) 10.1958917 ;
(4) 10-0757907 ; (5) 10-2001337
(6) 10-0725027 ; (7) 9.7245162.
8. (1) 57°30′24″ ; (2) 57°31′58″ ; (3) 32° 29′15″;
(4) 57°6′39″.
9. 53736037.
 ANSWERS. xi
10. (1) cos(x-y) secxsecy; (2) cos (x+ y)secxsecy;
(3) cos(x -y) cosecx secy;
(4) cos (x + y) cosec x secy ;
(5) tan²x; (6) tanxtany.
XXVI. (Pages 179, 180.)
11 9
,,
1. 5' 2' and デ
4 3 8 40 24 and 496
2. √41'
34
5, and 5/41'41' 25' 1025
3. ,,' and 1.
5'5
5 12 and ∞ .
4. 12' 5. 45' 56 12
5 ‫و‬
65 and 13
7 and 287
6. 41 816° 7. 60°, 45°, and 75°.
XXVII. (Pages 185-187.)
17. 16 ft. 19. 25 • 22. 313
338 •

XXVIII. (Page 190.)

1. 186.60 ... and 193.18.
2. 26°33′54″ ; 63°26′6″ ; 10/5 ft.
3. 48°35′25″, 36°52′12″ and 94° 32′23″.
4. 75° and 15°.
XXIX. (Page 193.)
1. 90°. 2. 30°. 4. 120°.
5. 45°, 120° and 15°. 6. 45°, 60°, and 75°.
7. 58° 59′33″. 8. 77° 19′11″. 9. 76° 39′9 ″.
10. 104° 28′39″.
11. 56°15′4″, 59°51′11″ and 63° 53′45″ .
12. 38°56′33″, 47° 41′7″ and 93° 22′20″.
13. 130°42′20·5 ", 23° 27′8.5", and 25° 50′31 ″.
xii TRIGONOMETRY.

XXX. (Pages 197-200.)

1. 63° 13′2″ ; 43° 58′28″. 2..117°38′45″ ; 27° 38′45″.
3. 87 ; 79° 6′24″ ; 40° 53′36″.
4. 87° 27′25.5" ; 32° 32′34·5".
5. 40° 53′26″ ; 19°6′24″ ; √√7 : 2.
6. 71° 44′30″ : 48° 15′30″. 7. 78°17′41″ ; 48° 36′19″.
8. 108° 12′25.5" ; 49° 27′34·5".
9. A = 45° ; B = 75° ; c = √6. 10. √6 ; 15° ; 105°.
11. 8965. 14. 40 yds.; 120° ; 30°.
15. 7.589467 ; 108°26′6″ ; 18° 26′6″ ; 53°7′48″.
16. 226-87 ; 73° 34′50″ ; 39°45′10″. 17. 2-529823.
18. A = 83° 7′39″ ; B= 42°16′21″ ; c= 199.099.
19. B = 110° 48′15″ ; C = 26°56′15″ ; a = 93-5192.
20. 73° 1′51″ and 48° 41′9″.
21. 88°30′1″ and 33°30′59″.
XXXI. (Pages 205-207.)
1. There is no triangle.
2. B₁ = 30°, C₁= 105°, and b₁ = √2 ; B2 = 60°, C₂ = 75°,
2
and b₂=√6.
2
3. B₁ = 30°, C₁ = 120°, and b₁ = 100; B2= 90°, C₂ = 60°,
1 1 2
and b₂ = 200.
5. 4√3 + 2√5.
6. 100/3 ; the triangle is right-angled.
8. 33° 29′30″ and 101° 30′30″. 9. 17.1 or 3.68.
10. (1) The triangle is right-angled and B= 60°.
(2) B₁=8° 41′ and C₁ = 141° 19′ ; B₂ = 111°19′ and 38°41′.
11. 65° 54′ and 42° 1′12″.
12. 5.988... and 2.6718... miles per hour.
13. 63° 2′12″ or 116° 57′48″.
14. 62°31′23″ and 102°17′37″, or 117°28′37″ and 47°20′23″.
15 59266.1.
 ANSWERS. xiii
XXXII. (Page 208.)
1. 7 : 9 : 11. 4. 79.063.
5. 1 mile; 1·219714... miles. 7. 20-97615... ft.
8. 6.85673... and 5.4378468 ... miles. 9. 404-4352 ft.
10. 233-2883 yards. 11. 2229-02 yards.
XXXIII. (Pages 213-216.)
1. 100 ft. high and 50 ft. broad ; 25 feet.
2. 25-783414 yds. 3. 33.07... ft.; 17 ft.
4. 18.3... ft. 5. 120ft. 6. htan acot β.
7. 1939-2 ... ft. 8. 100 ft. 9. 61.224... ft.
10. 1002 ft.
15. PQ = BP = BQ = 1000 ft. ; AP= 500 ( √6 - √2) ft ;
16. 32119 miles.
AQ = 1000 √2 ft.
17. 1736482 miles ; 9848078 miles.
18. 119-2862 ft. 19. 132-266 ft.
20. 141.682 yds. 21. 1·42771 miles.
22. 125-3167 ft.
XXXIV. (Pages 220-225.)
3. 20 ft ; 40 ft.
4. Icosecy, where yisthe sun's altitude; sin y = 2=. •

5. 3.732... miles; 12.342... miles per hour at an angle,

whose tangent is √3 + 1, S. of E.
6. 10-2426... miles per hour.
7. 16.3923... miles ; 17.394... miles.
8. 2.39 miles ; 1.366 miles.
9. Itmakes an anglewhose tangentis 3;2 529 hour.
13. c sin ẞ cosec (a + β) ; csin asinẞ cosec2a(a + β).
α
14. 9 yds.; 2 yds. 17. 33 •
xiv TRIGONOMETRY.
21. 75/3 ft.
23. 114-122 ft.
22. c (1 -sina) sec a.
25. 1069-745645 ft.
is 1 30. 45°.
27. The angle whose tangent is..
33. 18° 24′6″. 35. tan a sec ẞ : 1.
38. 91.896 ft. 39. 1960-95 yds.
40. 2-45832 miles. 41. 333-4932 ft.
XXXV. (Pages 227, 228.)
1. 84. 2. 216. 3. 630 . 4. 3720.
5. 270. 6. 117096. 7. 1470.
8. 1.183 ....
13. 14.941 ... inch.
12. 35 yds. and 26 yds. nearly.
14. 5, 7, and 8 ft. 15. 120°.
17. 45° and 105° ; 135° and 15°.
18. 17.1064... sq. ins.
XXXVI. (Pages 235, 236.)
3.8 , 1 , 8,2, and 24 respectively.
XXXVII. (Pages 244-248.)
35. 2-1547 ... or 1547 times the radius of each circle.
39. 4 = +(-1) .2.(4-1)
An π3 A π
3 .......

XXXVIII. (Pages 253, 254.)

1. (1) 3105 ft.; (2) 10/7 ft. 3. 1 and 2 ft.
XXXIX. (Pages 257-259.)
1. 77.98 ins. 2. 3.215.
3. (1) 1.720... sq. ft.; (2) 2.598... sq. ft.;
(3) 4.8284... sq. ft.; (4) 7.694... sq. ft.;
(5) 11.196... sq. ft.
4. 1.8866... sq. ft. 5. 3.3136... sq. ft.
6. 2 + √2 : 415.; √29 +or√216.: 2.
14. 6.
12. 3.
16. 20 and 10.
 ANSWERS. XV

17. and 5, 12 and 8, 18 and 10, 22 and 11, 27 and 12,

42 and 14, 54 and 15, 72 and 16, 102 and
2
17, 162 and 18,
342 and 19 sides respectively. 19.√3 ; √6.
XL. (Pages 264, 265.)
1. 00204. 2. 00007. 3. 00029.
4. 99999. 5. 25783-100... 6. 1.0000011.
7. 34′23″. 8. 28°41'7". 9. 39′34″.
10. 2°26′15″. 11. 114.59... inches.
XLI. (Pages 267, 268.)
1. 435.77 sq. ft. 2. 4.9087... sq. ft.
3. 127° 19′26″. 4. 6 sq. ft.
5. 11.0004 inches. 6. 00044625 inch.
2
7. 3 πγ.
XLII. (Pages 269, 270.)
1. 1° 10′22″. 2. 17·14 miles.
3. 61 miles ; 1° 48′ nearly.
5. About 61800 metres = about 38 miles.
6. 3960 miles.
XLIV. (Pages 285-287.)
1. 1 sin 2nd cosec θ.
2. COS 3n- 1 Asin 3η Acosec 43- A.
4 4
1. 2ηπ 2π
5. 2 sin 2+1 cosec n + 1°
•

β ηθ
6. sin [a +(n-1)3
α
sinn sec .
Se 8 - sin
9. sin 2nx (cos 2nx+sin 2nx) (cos x +sinx)cosec2x.
n- 2
2
•

10. 1 [(n+ 1)sin2a-sin(2n+2)a]coseca.

xvi TRIGONOMETRY.

11. 21 sin (n + 2) a. sinnacoseca.

N

12. n2 cos 2a- 21 cos(n + 3)asin na coseca.

13. cos (2na–a) cos (n+1)β- cos (2na+a) cos nẞ + cos a (1 - cosβ)
2(cosẞ-cos 2α) •

14. 1 [(2n
[(2n+1)sina-sin(2n+1)a]cosec a.
15. n221 2- cos [20 + (n - 1) a]sinnacoseca.
α 1 n+ 1 Зпа За
16. 34 sin n+1 na
2 cosec 24 sin 3 2 a.sin 2 sin 2
2 asin -
-
-

17. 1 [3n- 4cos(n+1) a sinnacoseca+cos (2n + 2) a sin2na cosec 2a].

18. 1 [3n + 4cos (n+1)αsinnacoseca+cos (2n+2) asin2nacosec2a].
19. 14 sin ηθ
-

2 [ COS n-2 100 ++ cos n 2+ 3 0 + cos n 2+ 7 可 cosec 2Ө

1
+ 4 sin
3ηθ COS -3n + 9 Ocosec 30
2 2
-

2 •

20. - 21 sin sin (2a+ 2nß) sin 2nßsecβ.

XLV. (Pages 291, 292.)
1. a² + b² = c² + d².
2. 20²+
a² ++ 1722xycos(a-3)=sin²(α-β).
2ab -

β)
3. a (2c² – d²) =bdc.
-

4. asina+b cos a=√26 (a + b).

5. -
2
2 + = 1.
2 6. x² ++ Y == aa+b.+ b.
a
7. (p² + 1)² + 2q (p² + 1) (p + q) = 4 (p + q)².
10. α²(a−b) (a- c) = b2 (b−c) (b - d).
22
11. 8bc= a {46² + (b²-c²)2}.
12. y√(a+b+c)( a+b+c)=x(c²-a²-b²)√(a-b+c)(a+b−c).
13. b² [x(b²-a²) + a(a² + b²)]² = 4c4 [b²x² + a²y²].
2
 ANSWERS. xvii

XLVI. (Pages 303-305.)

8. loge 2. 9. loge3 - loge 2.
XLVII. (Pages 316-318.)
π π
1. √2 ( cos 4 + i sin
-

2. √2 COS 3π4 + isin -

3π
4
5π 5π
3. 22[cos +isin√2 + 1 14.5+
COS
6 •
3 г. 4
5
5. √4+2√2 √4+2√2 + √4+2√2_ i

6. (√6-√2)[cos
7.
+isin . 12
cos (100 + 12a) – i sin (100 + 12α).
12
8. cos (α + β- γ - 8) + i sin (α + β10.- γ--1.
9. cos 1070 - i sin 1070.
δ).
11. sin (4a+53)–i cos (4a + 5β).
-

12. 2n+1sinn 0-Φ

θ-φ π + θ +φ
2 2 cos n
π 5π 3π 3π
23. cos + isin어; cos 에±
5 isin 5 .
XLVIII. (Pages 321, 322.)
1. 1; −1±2 √3 -

•
2. + i ; √32+ i ;. - √32 + i
3. ±(cos 12+isin 12 , where r = 3, 7, or 11.
Υπ Υπ

4. + i, and + (co 10 ± i sin 105),where

COS
Υπ
where r= Υπ
r = 1 or 3.

5. ± 2(cos
12/2
L. T.
-
Υπ
24 + i sin 24)'
Υπ
where r = 1, 9, or 17.
32
xviii TRIGONOMETRY.

67.. ±2048[cos COS

Υπ
9 + i sin 9
-
Υπ
9. where r = 11, 15, or 19.
2 cos
Υπ
2 [cos 12
Υπ
Υπ -
Υπ
isin 12 , where r = 1 or 7.

8. COS 18
3/2+ i sin 18 where r = 1, 13, or 25.
,

Υπ Υπ
9. √4 COS 15 + isin 15 ,wherer=-1, 5, 11, 17,or 23.
10. + 2 and + 2i.
11. 2, and 2 [cos + i sin ] where r = 2 or 4.
COS
Υπ
5
Υπ
5 ,

12. -1024. 13. ± i+2√3and + √3-1

+ 2 14. 1.
16. ± 1, ±+ i, ± (cos +isin ),and +(cosisin
π π π
COS
6 3
The last four values.
17. 2/2 cos Υπ, wherer= 1, 7, or 13.
XLIX. (Pages 327, 328.)
6. 5 tan 0 - 10 tan³ 0 + tan5θ C

1 – 10 tan² 0 + 5 tan40
-

7. 7 tan 0 – 35 tan³ 0 + 21 tan 0 - tan" 0

-

1-21 tan² 0 + 35 tan4 6-7 tan60

9 tan
8. 1 - 360 – 84 tan³ 0 + 126 tan5 0-36 tan7 0 + tanº 0
-

tan² 0 + 126 tan* 0 -- 84 tanº 0 + 9 tanº 0 •

L. (Pages 337-339.)
6. 3° 48′51″. 7. 1 •
2
8: m²2 • 9. a
• 10. 1
11. 3.1
12. a2
Z2 13. 0. 14. -
a² + ab + b²
ab •

15. 1 16. 2. 17. 1 18. 14-

25
2 6 •
 ANSWERS. xix
19. 8. 20. 2 n² p2
-m² 1
21. 60°
22. 32 (mmn
-n)2 23. 24. 24.0.
a
25. log . 26. 1. 27. e³. 28. 9.
-
x2
29. 1. 30. 0. 31. 1. 32. e2 •

8 1
33. 8 . 37. -

LIII. (Pages 361, 362.)

8. x5 - 55x² + 330x² - 462x² + 165x – 11 = 0. -

1 1 n
15. 24-1cos ne, (nodd); 2-1[(-1)
ηθ, -cosno]
1
, (n even). n

16. (-1) 2 2n-1

1m-1 sinne,(nodd); (-1) 2n-1(1-cosnd),(neven).
2

1 ηθ
17. n² cosec² ηθ, (n odd); 2n² cosec² 2, (neven).
n

18. n²sec²ηθ- η,(nodd); n²÷ [1 - (- 1)2cos nθ] –n,(neven).

19. -
ncot ηπ
2 + ηθ 20. n cot ηθ.
(

n-1 n

21. (-1) 2 tan ne,

nθ, (n odd) ; (-1) , (n even).
24. O or 1
( +ηθ
22. n² cot² 2 + ηθ) + n (n− 1).
n²
2
-
12

n , according as n is odd or even.

(-1)
(− 1)² cos nθ–– 1
-

LV. (Pages 375-377.)

17. cos a coshẞ - isin a sinh β.
18. sin 2a - i sinh 2β
cosh 2ẞ - cos 2α
32-2
XX TRIGONOMETRY.

19. 2 sin a cosh β- i cos a sinh β

cosh 2ẞ - cos 2a •

20. 2 cos a cosh ẞ + i sin a sinh ẞ

cos 2a + cosh 2β
21. sinh a cos β + i cosh a sin β.
22. sinh 2a+ isin 2ẞ
cosh 2a + cos 2β •

23. 2 cosh acos ẞ - i sinh a sin β

cosh 2a + cos 2β •

LVI. (Page 381.)

1. ++i log 11-sin
π + sin 0
, according as cose is positive or
negative.
2. sin-1( sin6) + i log [ 1 +sin0 – √sin 0]. -

LVII. (Page 388.)

15. 1 ຫຼື log(u² +v²)++ itan-12,u' where
U = 1 log cosh 2y-cos
2
2x 一, and v = tan¯¹
-1
(cot x tanh y).
LIX. (Pages 402, 403.)
1. 3. 2.2. 3. 5. 4. -1. 5. -

3.
LX. (Pages 407, 408.)
4 sin a
1. 5-4 cos a •

2. 0, provided a does not equal a multiple of π.

sin² a
3. 1 - sin 2a + sin² a • 4. sina(cosa-sina)
1 - sin 2a + sin² a •

5. sina-csin(a-ẞ) -crsin(a + nẞ)+cn+1sin {a+ (n-1)β}.;

1 - 2c cos ẞ + c²
sin a - c sin (a -β) •

1 - 2c cos ẞ + c²
 ANSWERS. xxi
6. 1-ccosha-crcoshna + cn+1 cosh (n-1)a
1-2c cosh a + c²
7. 1 - 2cc sinh a
cosh a + c²
8. cos a+ (-1)n-1{(n + 1) cos(n - 1) a+ n cosna}
2(1 + cosa) •

9. sin a+(2n + 3) sin na-(2n + 1) sin(n + 1) a

2(1 -cos a) •

10. 0, if n = 4m or 4m - 1, and 1, if n = 4m - 2 or 4m-3 ;

0, if n = 4m or 4m - 3, and 1, if n = 4m - 1 or 4m - 2.
-

ηβ
11. (2 cos 2) .sin(a+1 ).
COS β
n
•
2

(2 sina)- sin(1+2),exceptwhen
12. (2 sin α) π α

n
α = ηπ .

13. 0, if n be odd; (-1)2sin"a, if n be even.

-n
14. 2 sin α • sin ηπ
2
-
na
if n be < 1.
π
15. √cos (1 + cos 0), if I be between -
-

and + π2 •

16. (2cosh Un
2 • sinh n 2+ 2 U.

LXI. (Pages 411-413.)

1. eccosssin (a+ csinβ). 2. eccos cos(a+csinẞ).
co
3. e-cosacos cos(cosasinẞ).
4. sinacos (cos β) cosh (sinβ)
-cos asin(cosβ) sinh (sinβ).
5. sin (cosẞ) cosh(sinβ) cos (a-β)
1 ea
-cos (cos ẞ) sinh 2l(sinẞ)
1. eea
sin (a–β).
6. le + ee ~). 7. e- a

8. ecos(sina)cos {ysin(sina)}, where y= ecosa •

xxii TRIGONOMETRY.
9. eycos(
1
cosa).cos ysin(cosa)}, where y=esina
10. 2 ecos@{cos (0+ sin 0)+ 4 cos(sin 0)}
+ 12 e-cos 0 {cos (0 -sin 6)–4cos (sin(0)}.-

11. tan-1 1 c+sina

ccos a ', except when c = 1 and a = (2n + 1) π.
12. 21 tan-1
tan 2c1-sinc²a , except when c = 1 and a = ηπ.
13. 1 1 + 2c cos a + c²
4log1-2ccosa+
-

1 2c cos a
4log 11-2csina+c²
15. 1 + 2csin a + c²
12

14. tan-1 1-c² -

•

16. + , - , or O accordingascosa is positive, negative,

or zero.
17. 12 cos(a-ẞ)tan-i2ccosp
β)
α+β 1- c²
1
sin(a-ẞ)tanh-1 2csin
-
ẞ
1 + c² •

18. log(sin
tiple of2π.
+B 2 cosec
α -

2
β except when a + ẞis a mul-
,

‫כ‬
-

19. log [(1 + m) ÷ √1 + 2m 1cos 2a+m²].

α
20. • 21. -tan-1
2 tan-1(cosẞcosecha).
(cosB
22. 1[2/3 loge (2+ √3)−π].
LXII. (Pages 415, 416.)
1. cot 2 cot 2n-1 0.
--

cosec 0 {cot – cot (n + 1) 0}.

2. -

3.
4.
cosec 0 {tan (n + 1) 0 -tan 0}.
cosec $ {tan (0 + nφ) –tan 0}.
1
5. 2 cosec {tan (n + 1)0– tan 0},
 ANSWERS. xxiii
θ
1
6. Sn = 2n-1cot 2n-1 2 cot 20 ; S = 1 -2 cot 20.
-
= -

1
7. 2 coth 20 – 2n-1 Ө
θ
-

coth2n-1 8. tan 2n 0 –tan θ. -

9. tan 0- tan 2nm; tan0.

10. sin
1
0 (cot 0 – cot 2"0).1
-

11. 2 sin 20+

20 + (-1)
( − 1) +1 2 +1 sin 2n+1.0.
12. 21 sin20 2n+1
-
1
sin 2n+1 0.
13. 41 cosec θ2 sec 2
-

2n+ 10 -sec θ
1
14. Sn=2n-1
1
tan 2n a- 2 tana ; S = 2a- 2 tan a.
1 - n-1
15. 4 3 cos θ +
-
cos 3n 0
16. 1 Ө
43"{3 sin
3η sin- -

17. 1 [3"tan300–tan 0].

18. 1 [cot 0 – 3% cot 3" θ].
-

19. tan-1{(n + 1) (n + 2)}-tan-1 2.

20. tan-1(n + 1)-tan-11, i.e. tan- n n+ 2
π
21. Sn = tan-1 2n-tan-11 ; S =7.4 8

1 π
22. Sn=sin-11-sin-1 √n+n+1;1 S =2 8‫ت‬

LXIII. (Pages 421, 422.)

1. 1 - a cos 0 + a² cos 20 – a³ cos 30 + .. ad inf.
-
...

2. cos θ + a cos (0 + 4) + a² cos (0+ 2 ) + ... ad inf.

2
xxiv TRIGONOMETRY.
3. sin 0 + a sin (0 + 4) +a2a² sin(0 + 2 ) +α³... ad inf.
3
4. cosA+θ acos(0+ 4)+ 12cos(0+2 )+13cos(0+34)
+ ... ad inf.
r22 3
5. re sin $ + 12 sin 24 + 3 sin 34 + ... ad inf.,
where r= +√a² + b² and = tan-10tan-1 a

9. 1 3a+ 41- x² ;sin 4a

2a- 31= x² cos 3a+100
X COS a - x² sin 2a
2
15

+ 5= x cos 5a
5a-- ... ad inf.
10. x + y - rn = - cos a sin x- ই1 cos² a sin2x--31 cos³ asin 3x
-
... ad inf.
12. (1) m =tan² ; (2) m = tan² a.--

7
13. - log 2 - sin 20+ 1 cos 40 + 13 sin 60 -
1
4 cos 80
- 15 sin 100+ ... ad inf.
1
14. 2 [sin 0-3sinsin 30+ sin 50 - ... adinfinf..]
1 •

15.1 log (1 )+(tana+cota)cos0

1
- (tan²aa++ cot² a) cos 20 + 3(tan³a+cot³a)cos30
- -
...
ad inf.

LXIV. (Pages 434-436.)

1. III[x²+2x
x²+2xcos(3r+1) 25+ 1] , where r=0,1,or2.
2π +1

2. II20-20cos(
Пх²- 20 6 +1)12+1],where
2x +1 where r=0
π
r = 0,, 1, 2, or 3.
 ANSWERS. XXV

3. Ⅱ[x²-2xcos (6rr+1)
where
15 + 1],
π

= 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.
4.
where
II[x²-2r•c os
cos (3 + 1) +
π
+11]; ,
r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
5. IIx²- 2xcos(6r+2) 21 + 1],
2 π.

where r = 0, 1, 2,2γπ3, 4, 5, or 6.
(x -1)II[2x2 –2xcos 5 + 1]; where r = 1 or 2.
6. (x- -
,

7. I[x²-2xcos(2 +1)2γπ+1], where r=0, 1, or 2.

π

8. (x-1) ΠI [ x² –- 2x cos 7 +1], where r = 1, 2, or 3.

9. (x +1)II[2-2xcos
where
(2 +1) +1],
r =0, 1, 2, or 3.
10. ((x²x -1)II [x²-2xcos 5 +1], where r= 1,2,3,or 4.
Υπ
r=

11. (x + 1)II x2–2xcos(2r+1)13

where
-

r = 0, 1, ...5.
+ 1],π

12. (x²-1)II[2x² -2xcos 7 +1], where rr== 1, 2, ...6.

2 Υπ
,

13. Π[x²-2xcos (2 +1)20 1] where r = 0, 1, 2, ...9.

+1 ,

LXVI. (Pages 465, 466.)

2. ± 32746 ... ft.
acos(a+B) a sin² β
3.
cos² (a+ 2β) 8 and cos² (a + 2β) δ ;
10π√2
54 and 5(2-√3)πfeet.
54
xxvi TRIGONOMETRY.

7. x-ycos C and y-csinA

1 x cos C radians.
c sinB
π
8. 40 inches.
-

LXVII. (Page 470.)

1. 1, and 1+√3.
-

2
2. -
1 + 2 cos 40°, -1 + 2 cos 160°, and -1+ 2 cos 280°.
3. - 4, and 2+ 2√3. 4. 4, and 1 ± √3.
5. 2/7 cos 0, where273°
0 = 33° 37′52″,
37′52″.
153° 37′ 52", and
6. 4 2/10 cos 0, where 0 = 39° 5′51″, 159° 5′ 51″, and
-3+ -

3
279° 5' 51".
2
7. 3 √21 cos 0, where 0 = 44° 50′49″, 164° 50′ 49", and
284° 50′ 49″.
LXVIII. (Page 472.)
2. 2ab. 3. 2. 4. 2ab.

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

 SOME PUBLICATIONS OF
The Cambridge University Press.
PITT PRESS MATHEMATICAL SERIES.
Arithmetic for Schools. By C. SMITH, M.A., Master of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. 3s. 6d.
" Thewith
treated explanations
a clearness,of conciseness
the fundamental principles andthatprocesses
and completeness are
make the
book a delight to read."-Nature.
Elementary
By W.1

W. Algebra
ROUSE BALL,(with Answers
M.A., Fellow to Mathematical
and the Examples).
Lec-
turer of Trinity College, Cambridge. 4s. 6d.
Euclid's
H. M. Elements
TAYLOR, M.A.,of Fellow
Geometry. BOOKSTutorI.-VI.
and formerly By
of Trinity
College, Cambridge. 4s.
Books I. and II. 1s. 6d. BOOKS III. and IV. 1s. 6d. BOOKS
V. and VI. 1s. 6d. Books I.-IV. 3s.
Solutions to the Exercises in Taylor's Euclid. Books
I. IV. By W. W. TAYLOR, M.A. 6s.
Elements
M.A., ofFellow
late Statics
of and Dynamics.
Sidney Sussex College, By S. L. LONEY,
Cambridge. Third
Edition. 7s. 6d. Or in Two Parts.
PART I. ELEMENTS OF STATICS. 4s. 6d.
PART II. ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS. 3s. 6d.
Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners. By S.
L. LONEY, M.A. 4s. 6d.
An Elementary Treatise on Plane Trigonometry.
By E.University
W. HOBSON,Lecturer
Sc.D.,Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge,
M.A., Fellow of Clare College, and Assistant Master M.at Reading
and
School. 4s. 6d.
in Mathematics, and C. JESSOP,

London : C. J. CLAY AND SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.
A Treatise
GREAVES, on Fellow
M.A., Elementary
ofChrist's Hydrostatics.
College, Cambridge. ByCrownJ.
8vo. [In the Press.
A Treatise
Sc.D., F.R.S.,onFellow
Analytical Statics. ofByLondon,
of the University E. J. Honorary
ROUTH,
Fellow
Vol. II.of 10s.
Peterhouse, Cambridge. Vol. I. Demy 8vo. 14s.
A Treatise on Geometrical
M.A., Professor of MathematicsOptics.
in MasonByScience
R. S. HEATH,
College,
Birmingham. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d.
An Elementary Treatise on Geometrical Optics.
By R. S. HEATH, M.A. Crown 8vo. 5s.
A Treatise
HOBSON, on Fellow
Sc.D., Planeof Trigonometry.
Christ's College, By E. and
Cambridge, W.
University Lecturer in Mathematics. Demy 8vo. 12s.
A Treatise on Natural Philosophy. ByP.Lord KELVIN
Part I. Demy 8vo. 16s. Part II. Demy 8vo. 18s. М.А.
(Sir W. THOMSON), LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., and G. TAIT,
Elements of Natural
(Sir W. THOMSON) and P.Philosophy.
G. TAIT. DemyBy 8vo.Lord
9s. KELVIN
COLLEGE EXAMINATION PAPERS.
Examination Papers for Entrance and Minor
Scholarships
of Cambridge.and Exhibitions in the Colleges of the University
Part I. Mathematics and Science. 2s.
Part(Michaelmas
II. Classics, Mediaeval
Term, 1890). and Modern Languages and History
Part III. Mathematics and Science. 2s.
Part
Part IV.
V. Classics, LawandandScience
Mathematics History(June,
(Lent1891-June,
Term, 1891).1892).
2s. 2s.
Part(June,
VI. 1891-June,
Classics,Mediaeval
1892). and
28. Modern Languages and History
Parts VII. Mathematics. 1s. 6d. VIII. Natural Sciences. 1s. 6d.
IX.
1893.)Classics,
2s. Law and History. (September 1892-April

London: C. J. CLAY AND SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.