A.

1 Kinematics

◆ Kinematics Study of motion.

Guiding questions
◆ Classical physics Physics theories
that pre-dated the paradigm shifts • How can the motion of a body be described quantitatively and qualitatively?
introduced by quantum physics and
• How can the position of a body in space and time be predicted?
relativity.
• How can the analysis of motion in one and two dimensions be used to solve real-life problems?
◆ Uniform Unchanging.
◆ Magnitude Size.
Kinematics is the study of moving objects. In this topic we will describe motion by using
◆ Scalars Quantities that have only
magnitude (no direction). graphs and equations, but the causes of motion (forces) will be covered in the next topic,
◆ Vector A quantity that has both A.2 Forces and Momentum. The ideas of classical physics presented in this chapter can
magnitude and direction. be applied to the movement of all masses, from the very small (freely moving atomic
particles) to the very large (stars).
N To completely describe the motion of an object at any one moment we need to state its
velocity,
W E 8 m s–1 position, how fast it is moving, the direction in which it is moving and whether its motion
is changing. For example, we might observe that a car is 20 m to the west of an observer
S
stationary and moving northeast with a constant (uniform) velocity of 8 m s−1. See Figure A1.1.
car observer
20 m Of course, any or all, of these quantities might be changing. In real life the movement of
■ Figure A1.1 Describing the
many objects can be complicated; they do not often move in straight lines and they might
position and motion of a car even rotate or have different parts moving in different directions.
In this chapter we will develop an understanding of the basic principles of kinematics by dealing
first with objects moving in straight lines, and calculations will be confined to those objects that
have a uniform (unchanging) motion.

Tool 3: Mathematics

Identify a quantity as a scalar or a vector However, when using the following quantities, we need to
know both the magnitude and the direction in which they
Everything that we measure has a magnitude and a unit.
are acting, so they are vectors:
For example, we might measure the mass of a book
to be 640 g. Here, 640 g is the magnitude (size) of the l displacement (distance in a specified direction)
measurement, but mass has no direction. l velocity (speed in a given direction)
l force (including weight)
Quantities that have only magnitude, and no direction,
l acceleration
are called scalars.
l momentum and impulse
All physical quantities can be described as scalars or vectors. l field strength (gravitational, electric and magnetic).
Quantities that have both magnitude and direction are In diagrams, all vectors are shown with straight arrows,
called vectors. pointing in a certain direction from the correct point
of application.
For example, force is a vector quantity because the
direction in which a force acts is important. The lengths of the arrows are proportional to the
Most quantities are scalars. Some common examples of magnitudes of the vectors.
scalars used in physics are mass, length, time, energy,
temperature and speed.

A.1 Kinematics 1
 Distance and displacement
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 The motion of bodies through space and time can be described and analysed in terms of position,
velocity and acceleration.
 The change in position is the displacement.
 The difference between distance and displacement.

◆ Distance Total length The term distance can be used in different ways, for example we might say that the distance
travelled, without between New York City and Boston is 300 km, meaning that a straight line between the two cities
consideration of directions.
has a length of 300 km. Or, we might say that the (travel) distance was 348 km, meaning the length
◆ Displacement, linear
of the road between the cities.
Distance in a straight line
from a fixed reference We will define distance as follows:
point in a specified
direction. Distance (of travel) is the total length of a specified path between two points. SI unit: metre, m
◆ Metre, m SI unit of
length (fundamental). In physics, displacement (change of position) is often more important than distance:

The displacement of an object is the distance in a straight line from a fixed reference point in a
specified direction.

Continuing the example given above, if a girl travels from

South Station,
Boston, MA
New York to Boston, her displacement will be 300 km to the
northeast (see Figure A1.2).

384 km
Both distance and displacement are given the symbol s and
the SI unit metres, m. Kilometres, km, centimetres, cm, and
300 km
millimetres, mm, are also in widespread use. We often use
the symbol h for heights and x for small displacements.
Figure A1.3 shows the route of some people walking around a
Port Authority Bus Terminal,
park. The total distance walked was 4 km, but the displacement
New York
from the reference point varied and is shown every few
■ Figure A1.2 Boston is a travel distance of 384 km and a
minutes by the vector arrows (a–e). The final displacement was
displacement of 300 km northeast from New York City zero because the walkers returned to their starting place.

Speed and velocity

a

SYLLABUS CONTENT
b
start and
 Velocity is the rate of change of position.
end here
c  The difference between instantaneous and average values of velocity, speed and
e acceleration, and how to determine them.

d
■ Speed
■ Figure A1.3 A walk in the park The displacement of Wellington from Auckland, New Zealand, is 494 km south
(Figure A1.4). The road distance is 642 km and it is predicted that a car journey
between the two cities will take 9.0 hours.

2 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 If we divide the total distance by the total time (642 / 9.0) we
determine a speed of 71 km h−1. In this example it should be
Auckland obvious that the speed will have changed during the journey
and the calculated result is just an average speed for the
whole trip. The value seen on the speedometer of the car is
the speed at any particular moment, called the
instantaneous speed.

◆ Speed, v Average speed = distance travelled/time taken.

Instantaneous speed is determined over a very short time interval,
during which it is assumed that the speed does not change.
494 km 642 km
◆ Reaction time The time delay between an event occurring and a
response. For example, the delay that occurs when using a stopwatch.
◆ Sensor An electrical component that responds to a change in
a physical property with a corresponding change in an electrical
property (usually resistance). Also called a transducer.
◆ Light gate Electronic sensor used to detect motion when an object
interrupts a beam of light.

Wellington

■ Figure A1.4 Distance and displacement from Auckland to Wellington

Tool 1: Experimental techniques

Understand how to accurately measure quantities to an appropriate level of precision: time

■ Figure A1.5 Determining reaction time
Accurate time measuring instruments are common, but the
problem with obtaining accurate measurements of time is
starting and stopping the timers at exactly the right moments.
Whenever we use stopwatches or timers operated by hand,
the results will have an unavoidable and variable uncertainty
because of the delays between seeing an event and pressing
a button to start or stop the timer. The delay between seeing
something happen and responding with some kind of action
is known as reaction time. For example, for car drivers it
is usually assumed that a driver takes about 0.7 s to press Under these conditions a typical reaction time is about
the brake pedal after they have seen a problem. (But some 0.25 s, but it can vary considerably depending on the
drivers will be able to react quicker than this.) A car will conditions involved. The measurement can be repeated
travel about 14 m in this time if it is moving at 50 km h−1. with the person tested being blindfolded to see if the
Reaction times will increase if the driver is distracted, tired, reaction time changes if the stimulus (to catch the ruler) is
or under the influence of any type of drug, such as alcohol. either sound or touch, rather than sight.
A simple way of determining a person’s reaction time In science experiments it is sensible to make time
is by measuring how far a metre ruler falls before it can measurements as long as possible to decrease the effect of
be caught between thumb and finger (see Figure A1.5). this problem. (This reduces the percentage uncertainty.)
The time, t, can then be calculated using the equation for Repeating measurements and calculating an average will
distance, s = 5t2 (explained later in this topic). also reduce the effect of random uncertainties. If a stopwatch
is started late because of the user’s reaction time, it may be
If the distance the ruler falls s = 0.30
offset by also stopping the stopwatch late for the same reason.
s 0.30
Rearranging for t, t = = Electronics sensors, such as light gates, are very useful in
5 5
obtaining accurate time measurements. See below.
So, reaction time t = 0.25 s.

A.1 Kinematics 3

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 There are a number of different methods in which speed can be measured in a school or college
laboratory. Figure A1.6 shows one possibility, in which a glider is moving on a frictionless air
track at a constant velocity. The time taken for a card of known length (on the glider) to pass
through the light gate is measured and its speed can be calculated from length of card / time taken.
■ Figure A1.6 Measuring
speed in a laboratory
light gate

glider air track

Tool 2: Technology Tool 3: Mathematics

Use sensors Determine rates of change

An electronic sensor is an electronic device used to convert a physical The Greek capital letter delta, Δ, is widely
quantity into an electrical signal. The most common sensors respond used in physics and mathematics to
to changes in light level, sound level, temperature or pressure. represent a change in the value of a quantity.
A light gate contains a source of light that produces a narrow beam For example, Δx = (x2 – x1), where x2 and x1
of light directed towards a sensor on the other side of a gap. When are two different values of the variable x.
an object passes across the light beam, the unit behaves as a switch
The change involved is often considered to
which turns a timer on or off very quickly.
be relatively small.

◆ Second, s SI unit of time Most methods of determining speed involve measuring the small amount of time (Δt) taken to
(fundamental). travel a certain distance (Δs). The SI unit for time is the second, s.
distance travelled
speed = (SI unit m s–1)
time taken

This calculation determines an average speed during time Δt, but if Δt is small enough, we may
assume that the calculated value is a good approximation to an instantaneous speed.
Speed is a scalar quantity. Speed is given the same symbol, (v), as velocity.

■ Figure A1.7 The peregrine falcon is reported to be the world’s fastest animal (speeds measured up to 390 km h−1)

4 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 ◆ At rest Stays stationary Nature of science: Observations
in the same position.
◆ Milky Way The galaxy
Objects at rest
in which our Solar System It is common in physics for people to refer to an object being at rest, meaning that it is not moving. But
is located. this is not as simple as it may seem. A stone may be at rest on the ground, meaning that it is not moving
when compared with the ground: it appears to us to have no velocity and no acceleration. However, when
the same stone is thrown upwards, at the top of its path its instantaneous speed may be zero, but it has an
acceleration downwards.
We cannot assume that an object which is at rest has no acceleration; its velocity may be changing –
either in magnitude, in direction, or both.
We may prefer to refer to an object being stationary, suggesting that an object is not moving over a
period of time.
Of course, the surface of the Earth is moving, the Earth is orbiting the Sun, which orbits the centre
of the Milky Way galaxy, which itself exists in an expanding universe. So, at a deeper level, we must
understand that all motion is relative and nowhere is truly stationary. This is the starting point for the
study of Relativity (Topic A.5).

■ Velocity
Velocity, v, is the rate of change of position. It may be considered to be speed in a specified direction.
◆ Velocity, v Rate of displacement Δs
change of position. velocity, v = = (SI unit m s–1)
time taken Δt

The symbol Δs represents a change of position (displacement).

Velocity is a vector quantity. 12 m s−1 is a speed. 12 m s−1 to the south is a velocity. We use positive
and negative signs to represent velocities in opposite directions. For example, +12 m s−1 may
represent a velocity upwards, while −12 m s−1 represents the same speed downwards, but we may
choose to reverse the signs used.
Speed and velocity are both represented by the same symbol (v) and their magnitudes are
calculated in the same way v = ( )
Δs
Δt
with the same units. It is not surprising that these two terms
are sometimes used interchangeably and this can cause confusion. For this reason, it may be better
to define these two quantities in words, rather than symbols.
As with speed, we may need to distinguish between average velocity over a time interval, or
instantaneous velocity at a particular moment. As we shall see, the value of an instantaneous
velocity can be determined from the gradient of a displacement–time graph.

Top tip!
When a direction of motion is clearly stated (such as ‘up’, ‘to the north’, ‘to the right’ and so on), it is
very clear that a velocity is being discussed. However, we may commonly refer to the ‘velocity’ of a
car, for example, without stating a direction. Although this is casual, it is usually acceptable because
an unchanging direction is implied, even if it is not specified. For example, we may assume that the
direction of the car is along a straight road.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE A1.1
A satellite moves in circles along the same path around ◆ Orbit The curved
the Earth at a constant distance of 6.7 × 103 km from the path (may be circular) of
Earth’s centre. Each orbit takes a time of 90 minutes. a mass around a larger
v central mass.
a Calculate the average speed of the satellite.
◆ Tangent Line which
b Describe the instantaneous velocity of the satellite. touches a given curve at a
c Determine its displacement from the centre of the single point.
Earth after
i 360 minutes
ii 405 minutes. ■ Figure A1.8 Satellite’s instantaneous velocity

Answer c i 360 minutes is the time for four complete orbits.

The satellite will have returned to the same place.
circumference 2πr
a v= = Its displacement from the centre of the Earth
time for orbit Δt compared to 360 minutes earlier will be the same.
(2 × π × 6.7 × 106) (But the Earth will have rotated.)
=
(90 × 60) ii In the extra 45 minutes the satellite will have
= 7.8 × 103 m s–1 travelled half of its orbit. It will be on the opposite
b The velocity also has a constant magnitude of side of the Earth’s centre, but at the same distance.
7.8 × 103 m s−1, but its direction is continuously changing. We could represent this as −6.7 × 103 km from the
Its instantaneous velocity is always directed along a Earth’s centre.
tangent to its circular orbit. See Figure A1.8.

1 Calculate the average speed (m s−1) of an athlete who 2 A small ball dropped from a height of 2.0 m takes 0.72 s
can run a marathon (42.2 km) in 2 hours, 1 minute and 9 to reach the ground.
seconds. (The men’s world record at the time of writing.) 2.0
a Calculate
0.72
b What does your answer represent?
c The speed of the ball just before it hits the ground is
5.3 m s−1. This is an instantaneous speed. Distinguish
between an instantaneous value and an average value.
d State the instantaneous velocity of the ball just before
it hits the ground.
e After bouncing, the ball only rises to a lower height.
Give a rough estimate of the instantaneous velocity of
the ball as it leaves the ground.
3 A magnetic field surrounds the Earth and it can be
detected by a compass. State whether it is a scalar or a
vector quantity. Explain your answer.
4 On a flight from Rome to London, a figure of 900 km h−1
is displayed on the screen.
a State whether this is a speed or a velocity.
■ Figure A1.9 b Is it an average or instantaneous value?
Eliud Kipchoge, c Convert the value to m s−1.
world record
holder for the d Calculate how long it will take the aircraft to travel a
men’s marathon distance of 100 m.

6 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 Acceleration
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
 Motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration.

◆ Acceleration, a Rate Any variation from moving at a constant speed in a straight line is described as an acceleration.
of change of velocity with
time. Acceleration is a Going faster, going slower and/or changing direction are all different kinds of acceleration
vector quantity. (changing velocities).
◆ Deceleration Term
commonly used to describe
When the velocity (or speed) of an object changes during a certain time, the symbol u is used
a decreasing speed.
for the initial velocity and the symbol v is used for the final velocity. These velocities are not
necessarily the beginning and end of the entire motion, just the velocities at the start and end of
the period of time that is being considered.

Acceleration, a, is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time:

Δv (v – u)
a= = (SI unit m s–2)
Δt t
One way to determine an acceleration is to measure two velocities and the time between the
measurements. Figure A1.10 shows an example.

light gate

glider air track

■ Figure A1.10 Measuring two velocities to determine an acceleration

Acceleration is a vector quantity. For a typical motion in which displacement and velocity are both
given positive values, a positive acceleration means increasing speed in the same direction (+Δv),
while a negative acceleration means decreasing speed in the same direction (−Δv). In everyday
speech, a reducing speed is often called a deceleration.
For a motion in which displacement and velocity are given negative values, a positive acceleration
means a decreasing speed. For example, a velocity change from –6 m s−1 to –4 m s−1 in 0.5 s
corresponds to an acceleration:
Δv ([–4]–[–6])
a= = = + 4 ms–2
Δt 0.5
As with speed and velocity, we may need to distinguish between average acceleration over a time
interval, or instantaneous acceleration at a particular moment.

A.1 Kinematics 7

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 WORKED EXAMPLE A1.2
A high-speed train travelling with a velocity of 84 m s−1 needs to slow down and stop in a
time of one minute.
a Determine the necessary average acceleration.
b Calculate the distance that the train will travel in this time assuming that the
acceleration is uniform.

Answer
Δv (0 – 84)
a a= = = –1.4 m s–2
Δt 60
The acceleration is negative. The negative sign shows that the velocity is decreasing.
(84 – 0)
b average speed = = 42 m s–1
2
distance = average speed × time = 42 × 60 = 2.5 × 103 m

5 A car moving at 12.5 m s−1 accelerates uniformly on a straight road at a rate of 0.850 m s−2.
a Calculate its velocity after 4.60 s.
b What uniform rate of acceleration will reduce the speed to 5.0 m s−1 in a further 12 s?
6 An athlete accelerates uniformly from rest at the start of a race at a rate of 4.3 m s−2. How
much time is needed before her speed has reached 8.0 m s−1?
7 A trolley takes 3.62 s to accelerate from rest uniformly down a slope at a rate of 0.16 m s−2. A
light gate at the bottom of the slope records a velocity of 0.58 m s−1. What was the speed about
halfway down the slope, 1.2 s earlier?

Inquiry 1: Exploring and designing Tool 3: Mathematics

Designing Interpret features of graphs

I B L E AR N
HE

Suppose that the Principal of your school or college is worried

ER
T

In order to analyse and predict motions we

PROFILE

about safety from traffic on the nearby road. He has asked your have two methods: graphical and algebraic.
physics class to collect evidence that he can take to the police. Firstly, we will look at how motion can be
He is concerned that the traffic travels too fast and that the represented graphically.
vehicles do not slow down as they approach the school.
1 Using a team of students, working over a period of one Graphs can be drawn to represent any motion
week, with tape measures and stop watches, develop an and they provide extra understanding and insight
investigation which will produce sufficient and accurate data (at a glance) that very few of us can get from
that can be given in a report to the Principal. Explain how you written descriptions or equations. Furthermore,
would ensure that the investigation was carried out safely. the gradients of graphs and the areas under graphs
2 What is the best way of presenting a summary of this data? often provide additional useful information.

■ Displacement–time graphs and distance–time graphs

◆ Linear relationship Displacement–time graphs, similar to those shown in Figure A1.11, show how the displacements
One which produces a of objects from a known reference point vary with time. All the examples shown in Figure A1.11
straight line graph. are straight lines and are representing linear relationships and constant velocities.
l Line A represents an object moving away from the reference point (zero displacement) such
that equal displacements occur in equal times. That is, the object has a constant velocity.

8 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 s Any linear displacement–time graph represents a constant velocity (it does not need to start or

Displacement, s

Displacement, s
B
A end at the origin).
D
l Line B represents an object moving with a greater velocity than A.
equal changes in
displacement

l Line C represents
C an object that is moving back towards the reference point.
l Line D represents an object that is stationary (at rest). It has zero velocity and stays at the same

0 0
distance from the reference0
point.
0 t 0 Time, t 0 Time, t
equal time intervals Figure A1.12 shows how we can represent displacements in opposite directions from the same
reference point.
Displacement, s

Displacement, s
B The solid line represents the motion of an object moving with a constant (positive) velocity. The
A
object moves towards
D a reference point (where the displacement is zero), passes it, and then moves
away from the reference point with the same velocity. The dotted line represents an identical speed
C
in the opposite direction (or it could also represent the original motion if the directions chosen to
be positive and negative were reversed).
0 0
t 0 Time, t Any0 curved (non-linear)
Time, t line on a displacement–time graph represents a changing velocity, in
ime intervals
other words, an acceleration. This is illustrated in Figure A1.13.
Displacement, s

Displacement, s

a b

Displacement, s

Displacement, s
D s B

C A
0
Time, t
0 C
Time, t 0 Time, t
−s D
0 0
0 Time, t 0 Time, t
■ Figure A1.11
Constant velocities on
■ Figure A1.12 Motion in opposite directions ■ Figure A1.13 Accelerations on displacement–time graphs
displacement–time graphs
represented on a displacement–time graph

a Figure
b
A1.13a shows motion away from a reference point. Line A represents an object
Distance/m
Displacement/m

40 40
accelerating. Line B represents an object decelerating. Figure A1.13b shows motion towards a
reference point. Line C represents an object accelerating. Line D represents an object decelerating.
The values of the accelerations represented by these graphs may, or may not, be constant. (This
20 20
cannot be determined without a more detailed analysis.)
In physics, we are usually more concerned with displacement–time graphs than distance–time
graphs. In order to explain the difference, consider Figure A1.14.
0 0
0 2 4 Figure A1.14a
0 shows
2 a displacement–time
4 graph for an object thrown vertically upwards with an
Time /s Time /s
initial speed of 20 m s (without air resistance). It takes 2 s to reach a maximum height of 20 m. At
−1

b that point it has an instantaneous velocity of zero, before returning to where it began after 4 s and
Distance/m

40
regaining its initial speed. Figure A1.14b is a less commonly used graph showing how the same
motion would appear on an overall distance–time graph.

20 Tool 3: Mathematics

Interpret features of graphs: gradient

0
In this topic we will need to repeatedly use the following information:
2 4 0 2 4
Time /s Time /s l The gradient of a displacement–time graph equals velocity.
■ Figure A1.14 l The gradient of a velocity–time graph equals acceleration.
a Displacement–time and
b distance–time graphs for an In the following section we will explore how to measure and interpret gradients.
object moving up and then down

A.1 Kinematics 9

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 ■ Gradients of displacement–time graphs
Displacement/m
20
Δs Consider the motion at constant velocity represented by Figure A1.15.
8 Δs
Δt The gradient of the graph = , which is the velocity of the object. A downwards sloping
Δt
0 graph would have a negative gradient (velocity).
0 2 8
Time/s In this example,
Δs (20 – 8.0)
■ Figure A1.15 Finding constant velocity, v = = = 2.0 m s–1
a constant velocity from a Δt (8.0 – 2.0)
displacement–time graph
Figure A1.16 represents the motion of an object with a changing velocity,
that is, an accelerating object.
Displacement/m

The gradient of this graph varies, but at any point it is still equal to the
18
velocity of the object at that moment, that is, the instantaneous velocity.
The gradient (velocity) can be determined at any time by drawing a
s tangent to the curve, as shown.
The triangle used to calculate the gradient should be large, in order to
Δt make this process as accurate as possible. In this example:
3
(18 – 3.0)
0
0 t1 t2 t3 velocity at time t2 = = 0.83 m s–1
5 23 (23 – 5.0)
Time/s
A tangent drawn at time t1 would have a smaller gradient and represent
■ Figure A1.16 Finding an instantaneous velocity a smaller velocity. A tangent drawn at time t3 would represent a
from a curved displacement–time graph
larger velocity.

◆ Gradient The rate We have been referring to the object's displacement and velocity, although no direction has been
at which one physical stated. This is acceptable because that information would be included when the origin of the graph
quantity changes in was explained. If information was presented in the form of a distance–time graph, the gradient
response to changes in
another physical quantity.
would represent the speed.
Commonly, for an y–x In summary:
Δy
graph, gradient = .
Δx The gradient of a displacement–time graph represents velocity.
The gradient of a distance–time graph represents speed.

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.3

Figure A1.17 represents the motion of a train on a straight track between two stations.
a Describe the motion. b State the distance c Calculate the maximum d Determine the average
between the two stations. speed of the train. speed of the train.
4000
Answer
Distance/m

a The train started from rest. For the first 90 s the train
3000
was accelerating. It then travelled with a constant
speed until a time of 200 s. After that, its speed
2000
decreased to become zero after 280 s.

1000
b 3500 m
c From the steepest, straight section of the graph:
0 Δs (3000 – 800)
v= = = 20 m s–1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Δt (200 – 90)
Time/s total distance travelled 3500
d average speed = = = 11.7 m s–1
■ Figure A1.17 Distance–time graph for train on a straight track time taken 300

10 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 8 Draw a displacement–time graph for a swimmer 11 Figure A1.19 is a displacement–time graph for an object.
swimming a total distance of 100 m at a constant speed of
5

Displacement/cm
1.0 m s−1 in a swimming pool of length 50 m. 4
3
9 Describe the motion of a runner as shown by the graph in 2 A B
Figure A1.18. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
–1 Time/s
Displacement

–2
–3
–4
–5
0
Time ■ Figure A1.19 A displacement–time graph for an object

a Describe the motion represented by the graph in

■ Figure A1.18 Displacement–time graph for a runner Figure A1.19.
b Compare the velocities at points A and B.
10 Sketch a displacement–time graph for the following
c When is the object moving with its maximum and
motion: a stationary car is 25 m away; 2 s later it starts
minimum velocities?
to move further away in a straight line from you with a
d Estimate values for the maximum and minimum
constant acceleration of 1.5 m s−2 for 4 s; then it continues
velocities.
with a constant velocity for another 8 s.
e Suggest what kind of object could move in this way.

v
■ Velocity–time graphs and speed–time graphs
Velocity, v

Velocity, v

B
A
Figure A1.20, shows how the velocity of four Dobjects changed with time. Any straight (linear) line
equal changes

on any velocity–time graph shows that equal changes of velocity occur in equal times – that is, it
in velocity

C
represents constant acceleration.
l Line A shows an object that has a constant positive acceleration.
0 0 0
0 t l Line
0 B represents ant object0moving with Time,
Time, a greater
t positive acceleration than A.
equal time intervals
l Line C represents an object that has a negative acceleration.
l Line D represents an object moving with a constant velocity – that is, it has zero acceleration.
Velocity, v

Velocity, v

B
A Curved lines on velocity–time graphs represent changing accelerations.
D
Velocities in opposite directions are represented by positive and negative values.
C a
We will return to the example shown in Figure A1.14 to illustrate the difference between
Speed

velocity–time and speed–time graphs. Figure A1.21a shows how the speed of an object changes
t
0
0 Time, t
as0 0it is thrown upTime,
in thet air (without air resistance), reaches its highest point, where its speed has
moving
ime intervals reduced to zero, and then returns downwards. Figure A1.21b shows up the same information in terms
moving
of velocity. Positive velocity represents motion upwards, negative velocity represents
down motion
Velocity, v

downwards. In most cases, the velocity graph is preferred 0 to the speed graph.
0 highest Time
D point
a b
+ Velocity
Speed

moving
0 up
Time, t 0 Time, t moving
down
■ Figure A1.20 0 0
0 highest Time Time
Constant accelerations on point
velocity–time graphs b
+ Velocity

− Velocity

■ Figure A1.21 a Speed–time and b velocity–time

graphs for an object thrown upwards.

A.1 Kinematics 11
0
Time
locity

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 11 04/01/2023 19:29

 Gradients of velocity–time graphs
Consider the motion at constant acceleration shown by the straight line in Figure A1.22.

Velocity/m s−1
12
Δv

Δt

0
0 4 9
Time/s

■ Figure A1.22 Finding the gradient of a velocity–time graph

Δv
The gradient of the graph = , which is equal to the acceleration of the object.
Δt
In this example, the constant acceleration:
Δv (12.0 – 7.0)
a= = = + 1.0 m s–2
Δt (9.0 – 4.0)

The acceleration of an object is equal to the gradient of the velocity–time graph.

A changing acceleration will appear as a curved line on a velocity–time graph. A numerical value
for the acceleration at any time can be determined from the gradient of the graph at that moment.
See Worked example A1.4.

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.4

The red line in Figure A1.23 shows an object decelerating (a decreasing negative
acceleration). Use the graph to determine the instantaneous acceleration at a time of 10.0 s.
Velocity/m s−1

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time/s

■ Figure A1.23 Finding an instantaneous acceleration from a velocity–time graph

Answer
Using a tangent to the curve drawn at t = 10 s.
Δv (0 – 12)
Acceleration, a = = = –0.55 m s–2
Δt (22 – 0)
The negative sign indicates a deceleration. In this example the large triangle used to determine
the gradient accurately was drawn by extending the tangent to the axes for convenience.

12 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 12 04/01/2023 19:29

 Tool 3: Mathematics
a b

Speed, v

Speed, v
Interpret features of graphs: areas under
the graph
v2
The area under many graphs has a physical meaning. As
an example, consider Figure A1.24a, which shows part of
a speed–time graph for a vehicle moving with constant
acceleration. The area under the graph (the shaded area) v1
can be calculated from the average speed, given by
(v1 + v2)
, multiplied by the time, Δt.
2
The area under the graph is therefore equal to the distance
0 0
travelled in time Δt. In Figure A1.24b a vehicle is moving 0 0
Δt
with a changing (decreasing) acceleration, so that the Time, t

graph is curved, but the same rule applies – the area under
a b
Speed, v

Speed, v
the graph (shaded) represents the distance travelled in
time Δt.
v2
The area in Figure A1.24b can be estimated in a number
of different ways, for example by counting small squares,
or by drawing a rectangle that appears (as judged by
eye) to have thev1same area. (If the equation of the line
is known, it can be calculated using the process of
integration, but this is not required in the IB course.)
In the following section, we will show how a change in
displacement can
0 be calculated from a velocity–time graph. 0
0 0
Δt Δt
Time, t Time, t

■ Figure A1.24 Area under a speed–time graph for

a constant acceleration and b changing acceleration

◆ Integration ■ Areas under velocity–time and speed–time graphs

Mathematical process used
to determine the area under As an example, consider again Figure A1.22. The change of displacement, Δs, between the fourth
a graph. and ninth seconds can be found from (average velocity) × time.
(12.0 + 7.0)
Δs = × (9.0 – 4.0) = 47.5 m
2
This is numerically equal to the area under the line between t = 4.0 s and t = 9.0 s (as shaded in
Figure A1.22). This is always true, whatever the shape of the line.

The area under a velocity–time graph is always equal to the change of displacement.
The area under a speed–time graph is always equal to the distance travelled.

As an example, consider Figure A1.21a. The two areas under the speed–time graph are equal and
they are both positive. Each area equals the vertical height travelled by the object. The total area =
total distance = twice the height. Each area under the velocity graph also represents the height, but
the total area is zero because the areas above and below the time axis are equal, indicating that the
final displacement is zero – the object has returned to where it started.

A.1 Kinematics 13

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 Velocity/m s−1 Figure A1.25 shows a velocity–time graph for an athlete running 100 m in 10.0 s. The
12
area under the curve is equal to 100 m and it equals the area under the dotted line. (The
10 two shaded areas are judged by sight to be equal.) The initial acceleration of the athlete
is very important, and in this example, it is about 5 m s−2.
8

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time/s
■ Figure A1.25 Velocity–time ■ Figure A1.26 Elaine
graph for an athlete running 100 m Thompson-Herah (Jamaica)
won the women’s 100 m
in the Tokyo Olympics in
2021 in a time of 10.54 s

12 Look at the graph in Figure A1.27. 16

Velocity/m s−1
a Describe the straight-line motion represented by 12

the graph. 8
b Calculate accelerations for the three parts of the journey. 4
c What was the total distance travelled? 0
d What was the average velocity? 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
−4
Time/s
−8
4.0
Velocity/m s−1

−12
■ Figure A1.28
3.0 −16
Velocity–time graph

2.0 15 Sketch a velocity–time graph of the following motion:

a car is 100 m away and travelling along a straight
1.0 road towards you at a constant velocity of 25 m s−1.
Two seconds after passing you, the driver decelerates
0
■ Figure A1.27
uniformly and the car stops 62.5 m away from you.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time/s Velocity–time graph
16 Figure A1.29 shows how the velocity of a car, moving in
13 The velocity of a car was read from its speedometer a straight line, changed in the first 5 s after starting.
at the moment it started and every 2 s afterwards. The Use the area under the graph to show that the distance
successive values (converted to m s−1) were: 0, 1.1, 2.4, travelled was about 40 m.
6.9, 12.2, 18.0, 19.9, 21.3 and 21.9. a b
a Draw a graph of these readings. 25 25
Velocity/m s−1

Velocity/m s−1

b Use the graph to estimate

20 20
i the maximum acceleration
ii the distance covered in 16 s. 15 15

14 Look at the graph in Figure A1.28. 10 10

a Describe the straight-line motion of the object
represented by the graph. 5 5
■ Figure A1.29
b Calculate the acceleration during the first 8 s. Determining the
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 displacement 0of a car1 2 3 4 5
c What was the total distance travelled in 12 s? Time/s during acceleration Time/s
d What was the total displacement after 12 s?
e What was the average velocity during the 12 s interval?

14 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 14 04/01/2023 19:29

 Tool 2: Technology

Use spreadsheets to manipulate data Set up a spreadsheet that will calculate the total
stopping distance for cars travelling at initial speeds, u,
Figure A1.30 represents how the velocities of two identical
between 0 and 40 m s−1 with a deceleration of −6.5 m s−2.
cars changed from the moment that their drivers saw
(Make calculations every 2 m s−1.) The thinking distance
danger in front of them and tried to stop their cars as
can be calculated from st = 0.7u (reaction time 0.7 s).
quickly as possible. It has been assumed that both drivers
have the same reaction time (0.7 s) and both cars decelerate In this example the braking time can be calculated from:
at the same rate (−5.0 m s−2). u
tb =
The distance travelled at constant velocity before the 6.5
driver reacts and depresses the brake pedal is known and the braking distance can be calculated from:

()
as the ‘thinking distance’. The distance travelled while
u
decelerating is called the ‘braking distance’. The total sb = t
2 b
stopping distance is the sum of these two distances.
Use the data produced to plot a computer-generated graph
Car B, travelling at twice the velocity of car A, has twice
of stopping distance (y-axis) against initial speed (x-axis).
the thinking distance. That is, the thinking distance is
proportional to the velocity of the car. The distance travelled ■ Figure A1.30 Velocity–time

Velocity/m s–1
when braking, however, is proportional to the velocity 25 graphs for two cars braking
squared. This can be confirmed from the areas under the
v–t graphs. The area under graph B is four times the area 20

under graph A (during the deceleration). This has important

15
implications for road safety and most countries make sure
that people learning to drive must understand how stopping B
10
distances change with the vehicle’s velocity. Some countries
measure the reaction times of people before they are given a 5
A
driving licence.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time/s

◆ Spreadsheet (computer) ■ Acceleration–time graphs

Electronic document in
which data is arranged In this topic, we are mostly concerned with constant accelerations. The graphs in Figure A1.31
in the rows and columns show five straight lines representing constant accelerations. A changing acceleration would be
of a grid, and can be represented by a curved line on the graph.
manipulated and used
in calculations. a a a
+ + D +
B
E
A
0 0 0
t t t
C
− − −

■ Figure A1.31 Graphs of constant acceleration

l Line A shows zero acceleration, constant velocity.

l Line B shows a constant positive acceleration (uniformly increasing velocity).
l Line C shows the constant negative acceleration (deceleration) of an object that is slowing
down at a uniform rate.
l Line D shows a (linearly) increasing positive acceleration.
l Line E shows an object that is accelerating positively, but at a (linearly) decreasing rate.

A.1 Kinematics 15

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 Areas under acceleration–time graphs
Figure A1.32 shows the constant acceleration of a moving car.
Δv
Acceleration/m s−2

1.5 Using a = , between the fifth and thirteenth seconds, the velocity of the car
Δt
increased by:

Δv = aΔt = 1.5 × (13.0 – 5.0) = 12 m s−1

Δt
0 The change in velocity is numerically equal to the area under the line between t = 5 s and t =
0 5 13
Time/s 13 s (the shaded area in Figure A1.32). This is always true, whatever the shape of the line.
■ Figure A1.32 Calculating change of The area under an acceleration–time graph is equal to the change of velocity.
velocity from an acceleration–time graph

17 Draw an acceleration–time graph for a car that starts from rest, accelerates

Acceleration/m s–2
5.0
at 2 m s−2 for 5 s, then travels at constant velocity for 8 s, before decelerating
uniformly to rest again in a further 2 s. 4.0

18 Figure A1.33 shows how the acceleration of a car changed during a 6 s interval. 3.0
If the car was travelling at 2 m s−1 after 1 s, estimate a suitable area under
2.0
the graph and use it to determine the approximate speed of the car after
another 5 s. 1.0
19 Sketch displacement–time, velocity–time and acceleration–time graphs for a
0
bouncing ball that was dropped from rest. 0 2 4 6
Continue the sketches until the third time that the ball contacts the ground. Time/s

■ Figure A1.33 Acceleration–time

graph for an accelerating car

◆ Calculus Branch of
mathematics which deals TOK
with continuous change.
◆ Differentiate
Mathematics and the arts
Mathematically determine l Why is mathematics so important in some areas of knowledge, particularly the natural sciences?
an equation for a rate If you study Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches (SL or HL) or Mathematics: Applications and
of change. Interpretations (HL) you will explore how calculus is used to mathematically describe changing
functions. The gradient of a function is found using the process of differentiation and the area under a
curve is found using the process of integration. The mathematical procedures for calculus were developed
by Isaac Newton and he first published his ‘method of fluxions’ as an appendix to his book Opticks
in 1704. Newton is usually therefore credited with the ‘invention’ of calculus – although historians of
HE
I B L E AR N
science point to the earlier work of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, published in 1684. Newton accused
ER
T

PROFILE

Leibniz of plagiarism, even though Leibniz’s work was published first! In fact, it is Leibniz’s notation
that we still use today. So, who invented calculus?

16 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 16 04/01/2023 19:29

 ◆ Equations of motion
Equations that can be used
Equations of motion for uniformly
to make calculations about
objects that are moving
accelerated motion
with uniform acceleration.
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 The equations of motion for solving problems with uniformly accelerated motion as given by:
(u + v)
s= t
2
v = u + at
1
s = ut + at2
2
v2 = u2 + 2as

The five quantities u, v, a, s and t are all that is needed to fully describe the motion of an object
that is moving with uniform acceleration.
l u = velocity (speed) at the start of time t
l v = velocity (speed) at the end of time t
l a = acceleration (constant)
l s = displacement occurring in time t
l t = time taken for velocity (speed) to change from u to v and to travel a distance s.

If any three of the quantities are known, the other two can be calculated using the first two
equations highlighted below.
If we know the initial velocity u and the uniform acceleration a of an object, then we can
determine its final velocity v after a time t by rearranging the equation used to define acceleration:
(v – u)
a=
t
This gives:

DB v = u + at

If an object moving with velocity u accelerates uniformly to a velocity v, then its average velocity is:
(u + v)
2
Then, since distance = average velocity × time:
(u + v)
s= t DB
LINKING QUESTION 2
l How are the
These two equations can be combined mathematically to give two further equations, shown below.
equations for
rotational motion These very useful equations do not involve any further physics theory, they just express the same
related to those for physics principles in a different way.
linear motion? 1
This question links s = ut + at2
2
DB
to understandings in
Topic A.4. v2 = u2 + 2as

A.1 Kinematics 17

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 17 04/01/2023 19:29

 WORKED EXAMPLE A1.5
A Formula One racing car (see Figure A1.34) accelerates a Calculate its speed after 3.0 s.
from rest at 18 m s−2. b Calculate how far it travels in this time.
c If it continues to accelerate at the same rate, determine
its velocity after it has travelled 200 m from the start.

Answer
a v = u + at = 0 + (18 × 3.0) = 54 m s−1
(u + v) (0 + 54)
b s = t= × 30 = 81 m
2 2
But note that the distance can be calculated directly,
without first calculating the final velocity, as follows:
1
s = ut + at2 = (0 × 3.0) + (0.5 × 18 × 3.02) = 81 m
2
v2 = u2 + 2as = 02 + (2 × 18 × 200) = 7200
c
v = 85 m s−1

■ Figure A1.34 Formula One racing cars at the starting grid

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.6

A train travelling at 50 m s−1 (180 km h−1) needs Answer
to decelerate uniformly so that it stops at a station v2 = u2 + 2as
a
2.0 kilometres away.
02 = 502 + (2 × a × 2000)
a Determine the necessary deceleration.
a = −0.63 m s−2

b Calculate the time needed to stop the train.
v = u + at
b
0 = 50 + (−0.63) × t
t = 80 s

(u + v)
Alternatively, you could use s = t
2

In the following questions, assume that all accelerations 21 An aircraft accelerates from rest along a runway and
are uniform. takes off with a velocity of 86.0 m s−1. Its acceleration
during this time is 2.40 m s−2.
20 A ball rolling down a slope passes a point P with a
a Calculate the distance along the runway that the
velocity of 1.2 m s−1. A short time later it passes point Q
aircraft needs to travel before take-off.
with a velocity of 2.6 m s−1.
b Predict how long after starting its acceleration the
a What was its average velocity between P and Q?
aircraft takes off.
b If it took 1.4 s to go from P to Q, determine the
distance PQ.
c Calculate the acceleration of the ball.

18 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 18 04/01/2023 19:29

 22 An ocean-going cruiser can decelerate no quicker than 24 A car travelling at a constant velocity of 21 m s−1 (faster than
0.0032 m s−2. the speed limit of 50 km h−1) passes a stationary police car.
The police car accelerates after the other car at 4.0 m s−2
for 8.0 s and then continues with the same velocity until it
overtakes the other car.
a When did the two cars have the same velocity?
b Determine if the police car has overtaken the other
car after 10 s.
c By equating two equations for the same distance at
the same time, determine exactly when the police car
overtakes the other car.
25 A car brakes suddenly and stops 2.4 s later, after
travelling a distance of 38 m.
■ Figure A1.35 Ocean-going cruise liner a Calculate its deceleration.
a Determine the minimum distance needed to stop if b What was the velocity of the car before braking?
the ship is travelling at 10 knots. (1 knot = 0.514 m s−1)
26 A spacecraft travelling at 8.00 km s−1 accelerates at
b How much time does this deceleration require?
2.00 × 10−3 m s−2 for 100 hours.
23 An advertisement for a new car states that it can travel a How far does it travel during this acceleration?
100 m from rest in 8.2 s. b What is its final velocity?
a Discuss why the car manufacturers express the
27 Combine the first two equations of motion (given on
acceleration in this way (or the time needed to reach a
page 17) to derive the second two equations:
certain speed).
v2 = u2 + 2as
b Calculate the average acceleration. 1
c Calculate the velocity of the car after this time. s = ut + at2
2

Acceleration due to gravity ruler

The motions of objects through the air are common electromagnet

events and deserve special attention. steel ball

At the start, we will consider only objects that are moving

vertically up, or down, under the effects of gravity s
timer
only. That is, we will assume (to begin with) that air trapdoor
resistance has no significant effect.
When an object held up in the air is released from rest, it
◆ Air resistance Resistive
force opposing the motion will accelerate downwards because of the force of gravity.
of an object through air. Figure A1.36 shows a possible experimental arrangement ■ Figure A1.36 An experiment to
A type of drag force. that could be used to determine a value for this acceleration. measure the acceleration due to gravity

Inquiry 2: Collecting and processing data

Collecting data
Figure A1.36 shows how the time for a steel ball to fall a certain distance can be
determined experimentally.
Describe how this apparatus can be used to collect and record sufficient, relevant
quantitative data which will enable an accurate value for the acceleration of free fall to be
determined from a suitable graph.

A.1 Kinematics 19

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 In the absence of air resistance, all objects (close to the Earth’s surface) fall towards the Earth
with the same acceleration, g = 9.8 m s−2
DB g is known as the acceleration of free fall due to gravity (sometimes called acceleration due to
free fall).
◆ Acceleration due to
gravity, g Acceleration g is not a true constant. Its value varies very slightly at different locations around the world.
of a mass falling freely Although, to 2 significant figures (9.8) it has the same value everywhere on the Earth’s surface.
towards Earth. On, or
near the Earth’s surface,
A convenient value of g = 10 m s−2 is commonly used in introductory physics courses.
g = 9.8 ≈ 10 m s−2. Also The acceleration of free fall (g) reduces with distance from the Earth. (For example, at a height
called acceleration of of 100 km above the Earth’s surface the value of g is 9.5 m s−2.) We will return to this subject in
free fall.
Topic D.1.
◆ Free fall Motion
through the air under
the effects of gravity but WORKED EXAMPLE A1.7
without air resistance.
A ball is dropped vertically from a height of 18.3 m. Assuming that the acceleration of free
◆ Negligible Too small to
be significant.
fall is 9.81 m s−2 and air resistance is negligible, calculate:
a its velocity after 1.70 s
b its height after 1.70 s
c its velocity when it hits the ground
d the time for the ball to reach the ground.

Answer
a v = u + at = 0 + (9.81 × 1.70) = 16.7 m s–1
1
2
1
( )
b s = ut + at2 = 0 + × 9.81 × 1.702 = 14.2 m
2
So, height above ground = (18.3 – 14.2) = 4.1 m
v2 = u2 + 2as = 02 + (2 × 9.81 × 18.3) = 359
c
v = 18.9 m s−1

d v = u + at
18.9 = 0 + (9.81 × t)
t = 1.93 s

Tool 3: Mathematics

Appreciate when some effects can be neglected and why this is useful
When studying physics, you may be advised to make Calculating the time for a table-tennis ball dropped
assumptions when answering numerical questions. For 50 cm to the ground will result in an underestimate if air
example: ‘assume that air resistance is negligible / is resistance is ignored, but the answer can be interpreted as
insignificant’. It is possible that this is a true statement, for a lower limit to the time taken, and you may be questioned
example, air resistance will have no noticeable effect on on your understanding of that.
a solid rubber ball falling 50 cm to the ground. However,
Other examples will be found in all topics. Examples
the usual reason for advising you to ignore an effect is to
include: assuming friction between surfaces is negligible
make the calculation simpler, and not go beyond what is
(Topic A.2); assuming thermal energy losses are
required in your course.
negligible (Topic B.1); assuming the internal resistance of
a battery is negligible (Topic B.5).

20 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 20 04/01/2023 19:29

 ■ Moving up and down
If gravity is the only force acting, all objects close to the Earth's surface have the same
acceleration (9.8 m s−2 downwards), whatever their mass and whether they are moving down,
moving up or moving sideways.

The velocity of an object moving freely vertically downwards will increase by 9.8 m s−1 every
second. The velocity of an object moving freely vertically upwards will decrease by 9.8 m s−1
every second.

Top tip!
Displacement, velocity and acceleration are greatest
all vector quantities and the signs used for height
motions up and down can be confusing. displacement
positive
If displacement measured up from the
ground is considered to be positive, then negative acceleration
velocity acceleration
the acceleration due to gravity is always positive
negative
negative. Velocity upwards is positive, positive
OR velocity
while velocity downwards is negative. velocity negative
velocity
If displacement measured down from the positive
displacement
highest point is considered to be positive, positive
then the acceleration due to gravity is always
positive. Velocity upwards is negative, while
velocity downwards is positive. ■ Figure A1.37 Directions of vectors

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.8

A ball is thrown vertically upwards and reaches a maximum height of 21.4 m. For the
following questions, assume that g = 9.81 m s–2.
a Calculate the speed with which the ball was released.
b State any assumption that you made in answering a.
c Determine where the ball will be 3.05 s after it was released.
d Calculate its velocity at this time.

Answer
v2 = u2 + 2as
a
02 = u2 + (2 × [−9.81] × 21.4)
u2 = 419.9

u = 20.5 m s−1

In this example, the vector quantities directed upwards (u, v, s) are considered positive
and the quantity directed downwards (a) is negative. The same answer would be
obtained by reversing all the signs.
b It was assumed that there was no air resistance.
c
1 1
(
s = ut + at2 = (20.5 × 3.05) + × [–9.81] × 3.052
2 2 )
s = +16.9 m (above the ground)
d v = u + at = 20.5 + (−9.81 × 3.05)
= −9.42 m s−1 (moving downwards)

A.1 Kinematics 21

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 21 04/01/2023 19:29

 In the following questions, ignore the possible effects of 31 A falling ball has a velocity of 12.7 m s−1 as it passes a
air resistance. window 4.81 m above the ground.
Predict when the ball will hit the ground.
Use g = 9.81 m s−2.
32 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of
28 Discuss possible reasons why the acceleration due to
18.5 m s−1 from a window that is 12.5 m above the ground.
gravity is not exactly the same everywhere on or near the
a Determine when it will pass the same point
Earth’s surface.
moving down.
29 a How long does it take a stone dropped from rest from b With what velocity will it hit the ground?
a height of 2.1 m to reach the ground? c Calculate how far above the ground the ball was after
b If the stone was thrown downwards with an initial exactly 2.00 s.
velocity of 4.4 m s−1, calculate the speed with which it
33 Two balls are dropped from rest from the same height.
hits the ground.
If the second ball is released 0.750 s after the first, and
c If the stone was thrown vertically upwards with an
assuming they do not hit the ground, calculate the
initial velocity of 4.4 m s−1, with what speed would it
distance between the balls:
hit the ground?
a 3.00 s after the second ball was dropped
30 A small rock is thrown vertically upwards with an initial b 2.00 s later.
velocity of 22 m s−1.
34 A stone is dropped from rest from a height of 34 m.
a Calculate when its velocity will be 10 m s−1.
Another stone is thrown downwards 0.5 s later.
b Explain why there are two possible answers to a.
If they both hit the ground at the same time, show that
the second stone was thrown with a velocity of 5.5 m s−1.

Projectile motion
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 The behaviour of projectiles in the absence of fluid resistance, and the application of the equations of
motion resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
 The qualitative effect of fluid resistance on projectiles, including time of flight, trajectory, velocity,
acceleration, range and terminal speed.

◆ Projectile An object In our discussion of objects moving through the air, we have so far only considered motion
that has been projected vertically up or down. Now we will extend that work to cover objects moving in any direction.
through the air and which A projectile is an object that has been projected through the air (for example: fired, launched,
then moves only under
the action of the forces of thrown, kicked or hit) and which then moves only under the action of the force of gravity (and air
gravity and air resistance. resistance, if significant). A projectile has no ability to power or control its own motion.
◆ Resolve (a vector) To
express a single vector Tool 3: Mathematics
as components (usually
two components which Resolve vectors
are perpendicular to each
other). This process occurs in several places during the course, but the most prominent examples
are resolving velocities (as below) and forces.

■ Components of a projectile’s velocity

The instantaneous velocity of a projectile at any time can conveniently be resolved into vertical
and horizontal components, vV and vH, as shown in Figure A1.38.

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 vertical velocity of
component
Common of velocity
projectile, v

mistake vV = v sin θ

When using these

equations make sure that
the angle θ is the angle horizontal
between the velocity and θ component
of velocity
the horizontal.
vH = v cos θ ■ Figure A1.38 Vertical and horizontal components of velocity

Vertical and horizontal components of velocity, v:

v V = v sin θ
DB
vH = v cos θ

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.9

A tennis player strikes the ball so that it leaves the racket with
a velocity of 64.0 m s−1 at an angle of 6.0° below the horizontal.
Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of this velocity.

Answer
◆ Stroboscope Apparatus
v H = v cos θ = 64.0 × cos 6.0 = 64 m s−1 (63.649... seen on calculator display)
used for observing rapid
motions. It produces v V = v sin θ = 64.0 × sin 6.0 = 6.7 m s−1 downwards ■ Figure A1.39 A tennis
regular flashes of light at player serving a ball
an appropriate frequency
chosen by the user.
◆ Trajectory Path Components perpendicular to each other can be analysed separately
followed by a projectile.
◆ Parabolic In the
The vertical and horizontal components of velocity can be treated separately (independently)
shape of a parabola. The in calculations.
trajectory of a projectile is
parabolic in a gravitational l Earlier in this topic, we stated that any object (close to the Earth's surface) which is affected
field if air resistance
only by gravity (no air resistance) will accelerate towards the Earth with an acceleration of
is negligible.
9.8 m s−2. This remains true even if the object is projected sideways (so that its velocity has a
◆ Range (of a projectile)
Horizontal distance horizontal component).
travelled before impact l If there is no air resistance, the horizontal component of a projectile’s velocity will remain
with the ground. constant (until it comes into contact with something else).
Figure A1.40 shows a stroboscopic picture of a bouncing
ball. The time intervals between each image of the ball are all
the same.
The horizontal separations of successive images of the
ball are all the same because the horizontal component of
velocity is constant. The vertical separations of successive
images of the ball increase as the ball accelerates as it falls,
and the separations decrease as the ball decelerates as it
moves upwards after bouncing on the ground.
The path followed by a projectile (as seen in Figure A1.40)
is called its trajectory. The typical shape of a freely moving
projectile is parabolic. The horizontal distance covered is
■ Figure A1.40 Parabolic trajectory of a bouncing ball called the range of the projectile.

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 initial horizontal velocity Figure A1.41 compares the trajectory of an object dropped vertically to the trajectory of an
object projected horizontally at the same time. Note that both objects fall equal distances in
the same time. This is true whatever the horizontal component of velocity (assuming
negligible air resistance)
object
projected WORKED EXAMPLE A1.10
horizontally
Object projected horizontally
object dropped A bullet was fired horizontally with a speed of 524 m s−1 from a height of 22.0 m
vertically above the ground. Calculate where it hit the ground. Assume that air resistance was
negligible.

Answer
First, we need to calculate how long the bullet is in the air. We can do this by finding
■ Figure A1.41 The parabolic the time that the same bullet would have taken to fall to the ground if it had been
trajectory of an object projected dropped vertically from rest (so u = 0):
horizontally compared with an
1
object dropped vertically s = ut + at2
2
22.0 = 0 + (0.5 × 9.81 × t2)
t = 2.12 s
Without air resistance the bullet will continue to travel with the same horizontal
component of velocity (524 m s−1) until it hits the ground 2.12 s later. Therefore:
horizontal distance travelled = horizontal velocity × time
horizontal distance = 524 × 2.12 = 1.11 × 103 m (1.11 km)

ATL A1A: Thinking skills

table top
Providing a reasoned argument to h

support conclusions pro

jec
Figure A1.42 shows an experimental arrangement in which a t
ile
steel ball can be projected horizontally from a table top.
pa
th

Sketch a graph to show the pattern of results that you would

expect to see when the range x was measured for different
heights, h. Explain your reasoning.

■ Figure A1.42 Investigating range, x, travelled by a projectile

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.11

Object projected at an angle to the horizontal
A stone was thrown upwards from a height 1.60 m above the ground with a speed of 18.0 m s−1
at an angle of 52.0° to the horizontal. Assuming that air resistance is negligible, calculate:
a its maximum height
b the vertical component of velocity when it hits the ground
c the time taken to reach the ground
◆ Impact Collision
d the horizontal distance to the point where it hits the ground
involving relatively large
forces over a short time. e the velocity of impact.

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 Top tip! Answer
If we know the First, we need to know the two components of the initial velocity:
velocity and position v V= v sin θ = 18.0 sin 52.0° = 14.2 m s−1
of a projectile, we can
always use its vertical v H= v cos θ = 18.0 cos 52.0° = 11.1 m s−1
component of velocity a Using v2 = u2 + 2as for the upwards vertical motion (with directions upwards
to determine: considered to be positive), and remembering that at the maximum height v = 0, we get:
l the time taken
0 = 14.22 + [2 × (−9.81) × s]
before it reaches its
maximum height, s = +10.3 m above the point from which it was released; a total height of 11.9 m.

and the time before b Using v2 = u2 + 2as for the complete motion gives:
it hits the ground v2 = 14.22 + [2 × (−9.81) × (−1.60)]

l the maximum height
reached (assuming v = 15.27 = 15.3 m s−1 downwards

its velocity has c Using v = u + at gives:
an upwards –15.27 = 14.2 + (−9.81)t
component).
t = 3.00 s
The horizontal
d Using s = vt with the horizontal component of velocity gives:
component can then
be used to determine s = 11.1 × 3.00 = 33.3 m

the range. e Figure A1.43 illustrates the information we have so far, and the unknown angle, θ, and
velocity, vi.
vi
18.0 m s–1

10.3 m
14.2 m s–1 15.3 m s–1

52°
11.1 m s–1 θ
1.6 m 11.1 m s–1

33.3 m

■ Figure A1.43 Object projected at an angle to the horizontal

From looking at the diagram (Figure A1.43), we can use Pythagoras’s theorem to
calculate the velocity of impact.
(velocity of impact)2 = (horizontal component)2 + (vertical component)2
vi2 = 11.12 + 15.32

vi = 18.9 m s−1

The angle of impact with the horizontal, θ, can be found using trigonometry:
15.3
tan θ =
11.1
θ = 54.0°

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 ◆ Imagination Formation
of new ideas that are not TOK
related to direct sense
perception or experimental The natural sciences
results. l What is the role of imagination and intuition in the creation of hypotheses in the natural sciences?
◆ Intuition Immediate
The independence of horizontal and vertical motion in projectile motion may seem unexpected and
understanding, without
reasoning.
counterintuitive. It requires imagination (some would say genius) to propose ideas and theories which are
contrary to accepted wisdom and ‘common sense’. This is especially true in understanding the worlds of
◆ Inspiration Stimulation
relativity and quantum physics, where relying on everyday experiences for inspiration is of little or no use.
(usually to be creative).
It is worth remembering that many of the well-established concepts and theories of classical physics that
are taught now in introductory physics lessons would have seemed improbable to many people at the time
they were first proposed. For example, many people would say (incorrectly) that a force is needed to keep
an object moving at constant speed (see Topic A.2).

■ Fluid resistance and terminal speed

So far, we have only considered projectile motion in which air resistance is negligible. We will
now broaden the discussion.

◆ Drag Force(s) opposing As any object moves through air, the air is forced to move out of the path of the object. This causes
motion through a fluid; a force opposing the motion called air resistance, also known as drag. Drag forces will oppose the
sometimes called fluid motion of an object moving in any direction through any gas or liquid. (Gases and liquids are both
resistance.
described as fluids because they can flow.) Such forces opposing motion are generally described
◆ Fluid Liquid or gas.
as fluid resistance.
◆ Fluid resistance
(friction) Force(s) opposing Figure A1.44 gives a visual impression of air resistance. It shows the movement of air (marked by
motion through a fluid; streamers) past a model of a car. (The picture was taken in a wind tunnel, in which moving air was
sometimes called drag. directed towards the vehicle.)

■ Figure A1.44 Air flow over a clay aerodynamic model of a high-performance sports vehicle

26 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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 Figure A1.45 represents the motion of an object falling towards Earth.
v/m s–1
200
Line A shows the motion without air resistance and with a constant acceleration of
150 9.8 m s−2 (≈ 10). Line B shows the motion more realistically, with air resistance.
terminal A When any object first starts to fall, there is no air resistance. As the object falls
100 speed faster, the air resistance increases, so that the rate of increase in velocity becomes
B less. This is shown in the Figure A1.45 by line B becoming less steep. Eventually
50
the object reaches a constant, maximum speed known as the terminal speed or
terminal velocity (‘terminal’ means final).
0
0 5 10 15 20
t /s Objects falling through fluids (such as air) have a maximum speed, called
■ Figure A1.45 An example of a graph terminal speed, which occurs when their acceleration has reduced to zero
of velocity against time for an object because of increasing fluid resistance (as their velocity increases).
falling under the effect of gravity, with
(B) and without (A) air resistance

◆ Terminal speed The value of an object’s terminal speed will depend on its cross-sectional area, shape and weight,
(velocity) The greatest as discussed in Topic A.2. The terminal speed of skydivers (Figure A1.46) is usually quoted at
downwards speed of about 200 km h−1 (56 m s−1).
a falling object that is
experiencing resistive Terminal speed also depends on the density of the air. In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner (Figure
forces (for example, air A1.47), an Austrian skydiver, reached a world record speed of 1358 km h−1 by starting his jump
resistance). It occurs when
from a height of about 39 km above the Earth’s surface, where the density of air is about 250 times
the object’s weight is equal
to the sum of resistive less than near the Earth’s surface. In 2014 Alan Eustace completed a jump from greater altitude,
forces (+ upthrust). but at 1323 km h−1 he did not break Baumgartner’s speed record.

Top tip!
The concept of a top
(terminal) speed can
also be applied to the
horizontal motion of
vehicles, like trains, cars
and aircraft. As they
travel faster, increasing
air resistance reduces
their acceleration
to zero.
■ Figure A1.46 Skydivers at their terminal speed ■ Figure A1.47 Felix Baumgartner about
to jump from a height of 39 km

Effect of fluid (air) resistance on projectiles

without air Without air resistance we assume that the horizontal component of a
resistance projectile’s velocity is constant, but with air resistance it decreases. Without
air resistance the vertical motion always has a downwards acceleration of
with air
resistance 9.8 m s−2, but with air resistance the acceleration will be reduced for falling
objects and the deceleration increased for objects moving upwards.
Figure A1.48 shows typical trajectories with and without air resistance (for
the same initial velocity).

Air resistance reduces the range of a projectile and its trajectory will not
■ Figure A1.48 Effect of air resistance be parabolic.
on the trajectory of a projectile

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 Tool 2: Technology

Carry out image analysis and video analysis of motion

I B L E AR N
HE

Video-capture technology is used in sports, such as tennis and soccer. Capturing the

ER
T

PROFILE
trajectory of a projectile on video allows us to analyse its motion frame-by-frame. For
example, the cameras used in VAR in football usually capture 50 frames per second, so the
motion of the projectile (the ball) can be observed at time intervals of 0.02 s.

◆ Video analysis Analysis Explain how you could use video analysis of motion to investigate the motion of a
of motion by freeze-frame shuttlecock in a game of badminton.
or slow-motion video
replay.

■ Figure A1.49 Consider how video analysis could be used to investigate the motion of a badminton shuttlecock.

In the following questions, ignore the possible effects of air 38 A jet of water from a hose is aimed directly at the base of
resistance. Use g = 9.81 m s−2. a flower, as shown in Figure A1.50. The water emerges
from the hose with a speed of 3.8 m s−1.
35 At an indoor rifle range, a bullet was fired horizontally
a Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of
at the centre of a target 36 m away. If the speed of the
the initial velocity of the water.
bullet was 310 m s−1, predict where the bullet will strike
b How far away from the base of the plant does the
the target.
water hit the ground?
36 Repeat Worked example A1.11 for a stone thrown with
a velocity of 26 m s−1 at an angle of 38° to the horizontal
from a cliff top. The point of release was 33 m vertically
above the sea. 0.84 m

37 It can be shown that the maximum theoretical range of θ

a projectile occurs when it is projected at an angle of
2.0 m
45° to the ground (once again, ignoring the effects of air
■ Figure A1.50 Water from a hose aimed at the base of a flower
resistance). Calculate the maximum distance a golf ball
will travel before hitting the ground if its initial velocity is 39 If the maximum distance a man can throw a ball is
72 m s−1. (Because you need to assume that there is no air 78 m, what is the minimum speed of release of the ball?
resistance, your answer should be much higher than the (Assume that the ball lands at the same height from
actual ranges achieved by top-class golfers. Research to which it was thrown and that the greatest range for a
determine the actual ranges achieved in competition golf.) given speed is when the angle is 45°.)

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 40 Figure A1.51 shows a player making a basketball shot. a In practice, air resistance can be considered negligible
for a basketball. Suggest a reason why.
b Make a copy of the figure and add to it two other
possible trajectories which will result in the ball
arriving at the basket.
c Suggest which trajectory is best and explain
your reasoning.
d Add to your drawing a possible trajectory that would
enable a light-weight sponge ball to reach the basket.
■ Figure A1.51 Basketball player making a shot

Nature of science: Models

The motions of all projectiles are affected – often considerably – by air resistance. But the mathematics
we have used to make predictions has assumed that air resistance is negligible. This is a recurring theme
in physics: when theories are first developed, or when you are first introduced to a topic, the ideas are
simplified. A ‘complete’ understanding of projectile motion may be expected at university level, but the
topic is important enough that you should be introduced to the basic ideas at an earlier age.
LINKING QUESTION In Worked example A1.10, the calculated answer predicts that a bullet will travel 1.1 km before striking
l How does the the ground, although we should stress that this ‘assumes that there is no air resistance’. In reality, it
motion of an object should be well understood that air resistance cannot be ignored, and the bullet will not travel as far as
change within a calculated. This should not suggest that the calculation was not useful.
gravitational field? As your knowledge and experience increase, mathematical theories of projectile motion can be expanded
This question links to include the effects of air resistance – but this is beyond the limits of the IB Course. Similar comments
to understandings in can be applied to all areas of physics. This simplifying approach to gaining knowledge is not unique to
Topics A.3 and D.1. physics but it is, perhaps, most obvious in the sciences.

Ballistics
The study of the use of projectiles is known as ballistics. Because of its close links to hunting and
fighting, this is an area of science with a long history, going all the way back to spears, and bows
and arrows. Figure A1.52 shows a common medieval misconception about the motion of cannon
balls: they were thought to travel straight until they ran out of energy.

■ Figure A1.52 Trajectories of cannon balls were commonly misunderstood

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 Photographs taken in quick succession became useful in analysing many types of motion in
the nineteenth century, but the trajectories of very rapidly moving projectiles were difficult to
determine until they could be filmed or illuminated by lights flashing very quickly (stroboscopes).
The photograph of the bullet from a gun shown in Figure A1.53 required high technology, such
as a very high-speed flash and very sensitive image recorders, in order to ‘freeze’ the projectile
(bullet) in its rapid motion (more than 500 m s−1).

◆ Thought experiment
An experiment that is
carried out in the mind,
rather than actually being
done, normally because it
is otherwise impossible.

■ Figure A1.53 A bullet ‘frozen’ by high-speed photography

A ‘Newton’s cannonball’ is a famous thought experiment concerning projectiles, in which Newton

B
imagined what would happen to a cannonball fired (projected) horizontally at various very high
speeds from the top of a very high mountain (in the absence of air resistance). See Figure A1.54.
The balls labelled A and B will follow parabolic paths to the Earth’s surface. B has a greater range
C
than A because it was fired with greater velocity. Cannonball C has exactly the correct velocity
that it never falls back to the Earth’s surface and never moves further away from the Earth. (The
■ Figure A1.54
Newton’s cannonball required velocity would be about 7 km s−1, but remember that we are assuming that there is no air
thought experiment resistance.) These ideas are developed further in Topic D.1.

Nature of science: Models

In a thought experiment, we use our imagination to answer
scientific ‘what if…?’ type questions. Known principles or
a possible theory are applied to a precise scenario, and the
consequences thought through in detail. Usually, but not always,
it would not be possible to actually carry out the experiment.
At the time of ‘Newton’s cannonball’ thought experiment
(published in 1728) it would have been impossible to make any
object move at 7 km s−1 and, even if that had been possible, air
resistance would have quickly reduced its speed. Nevertheless,
the thought processes involved advanced understanding and led to
ideas of satellite motion. The first satellite to orbit the Earth was
the Russian Sputnik 1 in 1957, which had a maximum speed of ■ Figure A1.55 Galileo’s famous experiment to
about 8 km s−1 and avoided air resistance by being above most of demonstrate acceleration due to gravity
the Earth’s atmosphere.
Two further famous thought experiments in physics are Maxwell’s
Another (possible) thought experiment connected to this topic, demon and Schrödinger’s cat. Research online to find out how
and involving an assumption of no air resistance, is the dropping these thought experiments prompted new hypotheses and theories
of two spheres of different masses from the same height on the in physics.
Tower of Pisa. See Figure A1.55. Most historians doubt if there
was an actual experiment at the Tower of Pisa that confirmed
Galileo’s theory that both masses would fall at the same rate.

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