AP Biology Calculations:

Descriptive Statistics, Standard Deviation

and Standard Error
SBI4UP
 The Scientific Method &
Experimental Design
Scientific method is used to explore observations and answer
questions.

Scientists will use labs, field investigation, models, simulations and data
sets to test these observations and prove whether or not a hypothesis is
correct.

Hypothesis: is the first step in scientific method and it is based on prior

knowledge and observation.
The Scientific Method:
1. Make Observation
2. Statement of problem, ask a question
3. Hypothesis: propose a tentative answer
4. Design & conduct an experiment
(Use quantifiable data  math is extremely important)
5. Use statistical tests to evaluate the significance of your results
(Χ2 test, null hypothesis)
6. Acceptance or rejection of hypothesis.
Hypothesis is Scientific Method
Observations

A scientific hypothesis must

have two important qualities
◦ It must be testable Questions

◦ It must have the Hypothesis # 1:

Dead batteries
Hypothesis # 2:
Burnt-out bulb
potential of being
Prediction: Prediction:
rejected Replacing batteries Replacing bulb
will fix problem will fix problem

Test prediction Test prediction

Figure 1.25 Test falsifies hypothesis Test does not falsify hypothesis
Designing Controlled Experiments
In controlled experiments we start with two (or more) groups
that are as similar as possible and we devise a method to manipulate
only ONE variable.

Independent Variable =the variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable = the response that is measured

Data Collection
When you work with data during an experiment,
you need to:
◦ Make accurate and precise measurements.
◦ Account for error in measured values
◦ Develop techniques and consistency for collecting data
◦ Understand the units and properties of the data.
◦ Make observations of trends and patterns in the data.
◦ Produce visual representation of data, GRAPHS and CHARTS.
Graphical Representation
Depending on the data collected, you can represent your findings using
a variety of graphs. You must select a graph that can best illustrate your
findings.

Types of graphs:
▪ Bar graphs *
▪ Histograms
▪Pie Graphs *
▪Line graphs *
▪Scatter Plots *
 Bar Graphs

Bar graphs are most

commonly used to represent
data that does not have a
numerical value and when a
person needs to compare
various categories side by
side.
Pie Graphs
These can be used instead of bar
graphs when you want the
proportions of the data to have
more of an impact when
communicating the findings.

The dependent variable will have a

numerical value in the form of a
percentage.

Need to have 6 categories or less.

Line Graphs
Line graphs are the most commonly used graphs in scientific experiments.
Most scientific experiments will have a dependent and independent
variable, that can be easily depicted onto a line graph. By looking at the
direction of the line one can determine the relationship of both variables.
 Making a Line Graph
▪ Identify the independent and dependent variable.
▪ The independent variable is on the x-axis.
▪ The dependent variable is on the y-axis.
▪ Choose your scale carefully (must be consistent intervals).
Make your graph as large as possible by spreading out the data on
each axis. Let each square grid on your axis represent a convenient
interval. Do not number every grid on your axis.

▪ Plot each point as a dark dot

 Making a Line Graph
▪ Label each axis with the name of the variable and the units
of measure.
▪ Title your graph. The title should be short and clearly state
the purpose of the graph. The title could include the independent and
dependent variables. General the titles are written as the y variable vs. the x
variable.

▪ Use a single sheet of graph paper for each graph. Do not use
the back of a sheet graph paper.
 Line of Best Fit:
Draw the line so that there
are equal numbers of data
points above and below the
line you draw. Try to draw
the line so that it comes as
close to all data points as
possible.
 Different type of
relationships between
the dependent and
independent variable.
Descriptive Statistics

▪ Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic

features of the data in a study.
▪ They provide simple summaries about the sample and the
measures.
▪ Together with graphics analysis, they form the basis of
virtually every quantitative analysis of data.
The Normal Curve
Properties of the normal curve:

1) Represents a frequency
distribution of a large
population
2) The graph is symmetrical and
bell-shaped
3) Most of the data occurs
around the mean, mode and
median
4) A small portion of the data
occurs at the tail of the curve
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: the average of all data points (take the sum of all values and divide
by the total amount of values
▪ Eg. 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ,9, 9
▪ Mean =
Mode: the most frequent observation
▪ Eg. 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ,9, 9
▪ Mode =
Median: the number in the middle of an ordered series of numbers
▪ Eg. 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ,9, 9
▪ Median =
Practice Activity
Standard Deviation (s)
A measure of how spread out the data is from the mean
Standard Deviation (s)
Lower standard deviation:
◦ Data is closer to the mean
◦ Greater likelihood that the independent variable is causing the
changes in the dependent variable

Higher standard deviation:

◦ Data is more spread out from the mean
◦ More likely factors, other than the independent variable, are
influencing the dependent variable
 The magnitude of the
standard deviation depends
on the spread of the data
set

Two data sets: same mean;

different standard deviation
Actual data sets aren’t always so pretty...
Calculating standard deviation (s)
1. Calculate the mean (x)
2. Determine the difference between
each data point, and the mean
3. Square the differences
4. Sum the squares
5. Divide by sample size (n) minus 1
6. Take the square root
Practice Activity
Sunflower Stomata (per (xi – x) 2 Calculations:
Plant examination area)

1 88
2 93
3 90
4 92
5 75
6 78
n= Mean (X)= ෍=
Standard Error (SE )
Indication of how well the mean of a sample (x) estimates the
true mean of a population (μ)

Measure of accuracy, if the true mean is known

Measure of precision, if true mean is not known
Accuracy – How close a measured value is to the actual (true) value

Precision – How close the measured values are to each other.

Calculating Standard Error, SE

1. Calculate standard deviation

2. Divide standard deviation by
square root of sample size
How do we use Standard Error?

Create bar graph:

▪mean on Y-axis
▪sample(s) on the X-axis
Add error bars!
± SE
Indicate in figure caption that
error bars represent standard
error (SE)
Analyze!
Look for overlap of error lines:
◦ If they overlap: The difference is
not significant
◦ If they don’t overlap:
The difference may be significant
Standard Deviation vs. Standard Error

Standard deviation – measures how each individual data

point deviates from the sample mean.

Standard error – measures how the sample mean deviates

from the population mean.
95 % Confidence Interval
When conducting a study, most samples should be compared to a 95%
interval of confidence (+2 SD).

When using the 95% Confidence Interval you must refer to the t-table
and determine degrees of freedom (df).

* This formula is used only when the

population is less than 30.
95 % Confidence Interval (t-table)