COURSE CODE: BIO101

TITLE: GENERAL LECTURE NOTE FOR PSB

Lecture 1
Interrelation between organisms
Animals live in an array of populaces having, at any rate, two distinct species who are in constant
interaction with one another either directly or indirectly inside a particular geological district in a
natural network. The interaction between the species shapes the reason for some organic
procedures in biological systems, for example, the evolved way of life and the nutrient cycle. The
idea of these interactions relies on the environmental conditions and evolutionary angles wherein
they exist. There are a few characterizations of these interactions which are found in various
environments. These characterizations can be utilized as a framework in dissecting the
environmental network to depict forms that normally happen which thus can be utilized to
anticipate human modifications that may influence the properties and procedures of biological
systems. These interactions can be specific (with various species) or intraspecific (interactions
between the same species). In this topic, we will learn about the types of relationships between
organisms and the interactions between organisms in detail.

What is an interrelationship between organisms?

Ecology: The study of the interrelationships between living organisms and the living and non-
living components and processes in an environment.
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their
physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and
the world around them.
Biome: A major ecological region within which plant and animal communities are similar in
general characteristics and their relationship to the physical environment.

Who gave the concept of the interrelationship of organisms and the environment?
Ecology was originally defined in the mid-19th century when biology was a vastly different
discipline than it is today. The original definitions are from Ernst Haeckel, who defined ecology
as the study of the relationship of organisms with their environment.

What are organisms called?

An organism would, therefore, be any animal, plant, fungus, protist, bacterium, or archaeon
on Earth. … Organisms can also be classified according to their subcellular structures. Those with
a well-defined nucleus are referred to as eukaryotes whereas those without are called prokaryotes.

How living organisms are interrelated with one another?

Individual organisms live together in an ecosystem and depend on one another. … Some
organisms can make their food, and other organisms have to get their food by eating other
organisms. An organism that must obtain its nutrients by eating (consuming) other organisms is
called a consumer, or a heterotroph. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided into
1
three categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers. They are all important parts of an
ecosystem. Producers are green plants.
How does an ecosystem support living organisms?
An organism will only live in an ecosystem that provides it with all its basic needs. …
Food: Although plants can make their food using sunlight, animals need to eat other organisms to
survive.
Air: Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to make food and animals need oxygen to breathe.

Types of interactions Between Organisms

There are five sorts of interaction between living organisms which are given as follows:
1. Competition and Predation
2. Commensalism
3. Parasitism
4. Mutualism
5. Amensalism

1. Competition and Predation

At the point when one animal chases another creature to do the trick its nutritional
requirements, is referred to as predation. A predator is an animal that chases its prey. For
instance, a snake eats a frog. Here the snake is referred to as the predator and the frog is
called its prey. Competition, then again, is when populaces or even an individual seek food
assets. It is frequently alluded to as exploitative or immoderate competition. When there is
a competition for territory it is impedance competition and preemptive competition is the
point at which they go after another bit of territory and have shown up first.
2. Commensalism
It is an imbalanced kind of interaction wherein one animal benefits while the other is
neither harmed nor benefitted. There are four kinds of commensal affiliations.
1. Inquilinism: A animal possesses living natural surroundings of another species
(burrow, home).
2. Compound Commensalism: A microorganism delivers a concoction that supports
another microscopic organism.
3. Phoresy: A living being likely joins itself to another living being for transportation
requirements.
4. Metabiosis: One animal is dependent on another for survival.
3. Parasitism
One animal benefits from different elements and is harmed, but not slaughtered. The animal
that is harmed is the host and the one benefitted is the parasite. At the point when the host
is executed, this sort of conduct is referred to as parasitoidism. These parasites can be living
on the outside of the host, frequently tended to as ectoparasites (insects, leeches) while
endoparasites live inside the host. Endoparasites can be partitioned into intracellular
parasites (live inside cells) and intercellular parasites (live in spaces between cells).

2
 4. Mutualism
The two species engaged in the interaction benefit. These interactions occur in three ways:
1. Facultative Mutualism: Species make due all alone under great conditions.
2. Commit Mutualism: One species is needy for survival on the other.
3. Diffusive Mutualism: One animal can live with different partners.
These connections have three purposes:
1. Cautious mutualism
2. Trophic mutualism
3. Dispersive mutualism
5. Amensalism
In this kind of interaction, when one populace winds up in danger the other populace
isn’t significantly influenced. For example, Tall and wide plants upset the growth of
nearly littler plants. A few plants even discharge animals that stifle the growth of close-
by plants to evaluate the competition.

Lecture 2

Introductory Ecology

I. What is ecology?

origin of the word:

oikos = the family household

logy = the study of

interesting parallel to economy = management of the household

many principles in common – resources allocation, cost-benefit ratios

Different definitions:

a. Haeckel (German zoologist) 1870: “By ecology, we mean the body of knowledge
concerning

the economy of Nature - the investigation of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic

and organic environment.”

b. Burdon-Sanderson (1890s): Elevated Ecology to one of the three natural divisions of

Biology:

Physiology - Morphology – Ecology

3
 c. Andrewartha (1961): “The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of
organisms.”

d. Odum (1963): “The structure and function of Nature.”

e. The definition we will use (Krebs 1972):

“Ecology is the scientific study of the processes regulating the distribution and abundance of
organisms and the interactions among them, and the study of how these organisms, in turn,
mediate the transport and transformation of energy and matter in the biosphere (i.e., the study
of the design of ecosystem structure and function).”

Therefore, the goal of ecology is to understand the principles of operation of natural systems and
to predict their responses to change.

What ecology is not?

Ecology is not environmentalism (environmental right), nor “deep ecology.” Ecology is science,
based on biological, physical, and chemical principles, and should be value-free.
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for
environmental protection and the improvement of its health. It may be referred to as a movement
to control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity.

II. Why study ecology?

Curiosity – How does the world around us work? How are we shaped by our surroundings?

Responsibility – How do our actions change our environment? How do we minimize the
detrimental effects of our actions? Overfishing, habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, climate
change.

Nature as a guide – The living world has been around much longer than we have and has solved
many problems with creative solutions. Ecological systems are models for sustainability. How
can we feed our growing population? Where will we live?

Sustainability – a property of human society in which ecosystems (including humans) are

managed such that the conditions supporting present-day life on earth can continue. For example,
Ecology helps us understand complex problems.

Examples:

Water Hyacinth on waterways

Wolves in Yellowstone

Oil spill etc.

4
III. How to study ecology?

What kinds of experiments do ecologists perform?

A. Observations – Go into the field and see what’s happening. The rule of 10 applies here.

B. Manipulatives – A researcher alters a factor to see how it affects an ecosystem. This can
be done in the field or the laboratory. The disadvantage is that

1. It may not be a true representation of what will happen in the natural ecosystem

2. This experiment may not reveal the mechanism behind any patterns observed.

C. Natural experiments – Manipulations of ecosystems caused by nature. E.g., in the wake

of a natural disaster, climate change, or invasive species introduction, the ecosystem itself
represents an experiment. These experiments do not have control.

Mathematical models – Describe ecosystem interactions as equations, graphs, simulations, and

statistical analyses. Models are used to predict how an ecosystem will change over time or react to
changing conditions in the environment.

Levels of Ecological Study

Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four specific levels, sometimes discretely
and sometimes with overlap: organism, population, community, and ecosystem

Organismal Ecology

Researchers studying ecology at the organismal level are interested in the adaptations that enable
individuals to live in specific habitats. These adaptations can be morphological, physiological, and
behavioral. E.g., the Mast tree in front of the former Faculty of Science building

Population Ecology

A population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of the same species living in
the same area at the same time. (Organisms that are all members of the same species are
called conspecifics.) A population is identified, in part, by where it lives, and its area of the
population may have natural or artificial boundaries: natural boundaries might be rivers,
mountains, or deserts, while examples of artificial boundaries include mowed grass, manmade
structures, or roads

Community Ecology

A biological community consists of the different species within an area, typically a three-
dimensional space, and the interactions within and among these species. Community ecologists
are interested in the processes driving these interactions and their consequences. Questions about

5
conspecific interactions often focus on competition among members of the same species for a
limited resource. Ecologists also study interactions among various species; members of different
species are called heterospecifics. Examples of heterospecific interactions include predation,
parasitism, herbivory, competition, and pollination. These interactions can have regulating effects
on population sizes and can impact ecological and evolutionary processes affecting diversity.

Ecosystem Ecology

Ecosystem ecology is an extension of organismal, population, and community ecology. The

ecosystem is composed of all the biotic components (living things) in an area along with
the abiotic components (non-living things) of that area. Some of the abiotic components include

1. Climatic e.g., rainfall, temperature, light, wind, and humidity

2. Edaphic factors concern the physical and chemical properties of the soil

3. Topography factors include undulation elevation (altitude) slope etc.

Ecosystem biologists ask questions about how nutrients and energy are stored and how they move
among organisms and the surrounding atmosphere, soil, and water.

Study questions

 What is the relationship between ecology and environmentalism?

 What is an invasive species? Why do they pose such a serious problem for ecologists?
 Give an example of an ecosystem, and explain what the associated community would
consist of.
 What kinds of experiments do ecologists perform?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

6
Lecture 3

GENETICS (HEREDITY)

Heredity is the passing of phenotypic traits from parent to offspring. The study of heredity is called
genetics. Genetics is a branch of biology that deals with heredity and the expression of inherited
traits. For thousands of years, humans have used the techniques of genetics in the improvement of
domestic animals and crops without having any real knowledge of the mechanisms which underlie
these practices.

The first scientific insight into the mechanism involved in the inheritance of biological traits was
made available by Gregor Mendel in 1866 in his published article involving the results of various
experiments. This laid the foundation for the discipline of genetics.

Mendel first reported the result of some simple genetic crossing between certain strains of garden
pea (Pisum sativum) in 1865. He showed remarkable insight into the methodology necessary for
good experimental work. He chose an organism that is easily grown and hybridized artificially.
The pea plant is self-fertilizing in nature but can be cross-bred experimentally.

Mendel followed seven visible characteristics or features each representing contrasting forms or
traits e.g. stem height, seed shape and colour, pod shape and colour, and flower arrangement. The
original parents are the P1 or parental generation. Their offspring are F1 or first filial generation
and the individual resulting from the selfed F1 generation are the F2 or second filial generation.

Mendel established the concept of dominance and recessiveness of traits. With regards to height,
tallest is dominant to shortest, and with regard to pod; the colour green is dominant to yellow.

A Monohybrid cross is the cross between two parents differing in a single pair of contrasting
characters.

TT X tt

Segregation: T T t t

Random fertilization: Tt Tt Tt Tt

Mendel’s First Three Laws

1. Genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in pairs in individual organisms.

2. When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single character are present in a single
individual, one unit factor is dominant to the other which is recessive.

3. During gamete formation, a pair of units segregate randomly so that each gamete receives
one or the other with equal likelihood.

7
The term factor as the basic unit of heredity was replaced by Johannsen in 1909, with the term
gene. Gene is the unit of heredity, and it is the alternative forms of the gene called alleles that
influence phenotypic expression. The alleles occupy the same loci on homologous chromosomes.

Lecture 4

EVOLUTION

The word evolution means change over a period of time. It is one of the most powerful ideas in
biology that living things may have evolved from relatively simple chemicals. The study of
evolution provides a focus for investigations into the nature of life itself, the origins of life, the
great diversity of living things, and the underlying similarities in structure and function which they
have.

Evolution can be defined as the process of gradual and orderly change from one condition
to another. Such gradual and orderly changes take place in all living, as well as non-living things.
The evolution therefore may be of two types:

1. Inorganic evolution and

2. Organic evolution.

INORGANIC EVOLUTION: This explains the changes that take place in non-living objects.
The planets, stars, the earth’s topography, chemical compounds, and chemical elements which
form the inorganic world have undergone several changes in the past and shall remain in changing
state in the future also.

ORGANIC EVOLUTION: It is concerned with the living world. Organic evolution refers to the
continuous process by which living beings have come to their present forms and functions.

Evolution may speed in either progressive or retrogressive ways. Progressive evolution

leads the simple forms towards complex both in structural and physiological organizations e.g.
evolution of multicellular organisms from unicellular organisms. There are, however, many
examples among plants and animals in which evolutionary transformations lead them from high
complexity to decreased complexity. Thus, structurally more complex organic forms produce
simplified individuals such a type of evolution is called retrogressive evolution. The possible
derivation of fungi from algal ancestors as a result of loss of chlorophyll, the development of
structurally simplified types of flower from more elaborate and complex flowers, change from
autotrophic nature to parasitic mode of nutrition in Cuscuta due to loss of chlorophyll are some of
the important examples of retrogressive evolution in the plant kingdom.

PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION

8
 Evolution over time can follow several different patterns. A species will develop according
to the environment in which it exists, and predators, climatic changes, and other environmental
factors can also create reasons for a species to adapt. These adaptations are part of the evolution
of the species, allowing it to change in a way that will increase its chances of survival. The patterns
are of three types:

1. Divergent evolution: Divergent evolution occurs when a group from a specific population
develops into a new species. To adapt to various environmental conditions, the two groups
develop into distinct species due to differences in the demands driven by the environmental
circumstances. A good example of how divergent evolution occurs is in comparing how a
human foot evolved to be very different from a monkey’s foot, despite their common
primate ancestry. It is speculated that a new species (humans) developed because there was
no longer a need for swinging from trees.
2. Convergent evolution: It explains how two or more species can develop similar traits in
separate types of environments. Convergent evolution occurs when two species without a
close common ancestor evolve a similar trait independently of each other. For instance,
birds and bats have very different ancestors indeed. Bats are mammals and birds are aves,
but both have wings with the capacity for flight.
3. Parallel evolution: Convergent and parallel evolutions are very similar and are easily
confused. When two separate species in the same environment develop the same
adaptations for survival, it is called parallel evolution. One example of parallel evolution
is the North American Cactus and the African euphorbia. These two plants belong to
different families, but share the same sort of environment. Because of that, they have
developed the same adaptations for survival; the ability to store water in their thick stems
and sharp quills to ward off predators. Both plants can survive in hot, dry climates

THEORIES ON THE HISTORY OF LIFE

This world is occupied by millions of different kinds of plants and animals. These plants and
animals are adapted to different kinds of habitats and niches. How did these different organisms
come to exist in the world? This is the question scientists have been battling to answer for hundreds
of years now. There are TWO theories on the history of life.

1. Theory of Special/ Divine creation (creationism): This theory states that all living
organisms were created by God (Divine creation) as described in Genesis in Christian
Bible, or by a supernatural being. Each living organism was given life and necessary
features to enable it to adapt to its environment. The Bible and Koran believe that divine
creation lasted for six days whiles others believe that creation happened several times with
each population dying away and being replaced with another population and all different
organisms (species) have remained unchanged since they were created like that by God.
2. The theory of Organic evolution states that a. The first living organism is believed to have
come from certain molecules (methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapour). These

9
 molecules combined under particular ultraviolet radiation from the sun and electrical
lightening of the hot atmosphere to form the first living thing about two billion years ago.

b. The various simple organisms present in the world today evolved from the first living
organism.

c. complex organisms evolved from simple organisms.

d. All living organisms change from generation to generation, producing descendants with new
modifications.

e. The process has been operating since the beginning of life resulting in different groups and
varieties of living organisms we have today, those that once lived have become extinct (died away).

f. These different living organisms are related to each other in one way or the other.

Organic evolution is, therefore, the series of gradual changes which living organisms had
undergone in response to changes in the environment, since the beginning of life.

THEORIES EXPLAINING THE CAUSES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

1. Lamarck’s theory: Jean-Baptist Lamarck, a French biologist was one of the first biologists to
put forward the theory of organic evolution in 1801. His idea of organic evolution was hinged on
three theories:

i. The theory of need: This states that the development of a new part or organ by an
organism (plant or animal) results from the need for an organ for the organism. For
example, the early ancestors of snakes had short bodies and legs. As the land was
changing during its formation, many narrow places and dense vegetation were
formed. For snakes to walk through narrow places and dense vegetation, they
started stretching their bodies to become elongated so that they could easily crawl
through the narrow places and dense vegetation instead of walking which would
be rather difficult.
ii. The theory of use and disuse: This theory states that organs become well-developed
and active when being used but slowly degenerate, become functionless, or
disappear with disuse. For example, each generation of snakes continued to stretch
their bodies resulting in the strengthening of their bodies. Their legs became
useless and strengthless and finally disappeared since they would hinder crawling
through narrow places and dense vegetation.
iii. Theory of acquired characteristics by inheritance: This theory states that all
characteristics or variations acquired by organisms during their lifetime are
transmitted to the next generation by inheritance. For example, the modern giraffe,
Lamarck believed, evolved from a giraffe with a short neck and short legs. When

10
 competitions for low grasses among the herbivorous animals became too keen, the
short-necked and short-legged giraffe started to stretch its neck and forelegs to
reach the leaves of trees. These characteristics of long neck and long forelegs were
inherited by subsequent generations including the modern giraffe.

CRITICISM OF LAMARCK’S THEORY

Not all scientists at that time supported Lamarck’s theory. Many biologists did carry out
experiments to disapprove of Lamarck’s theory of acquired inheritance. The most credible work
was that of August Weismann, a German zoologist. He cut off the tails of mice (males and females)
and allowed them to mate. The offspring of all the tailless mice had normal tails. Weismann carried
out his experiment for 21 generations. The offspring of the 21st generation had normal tails as the
first generation. None of the offspring had a cut tail throughout the 21 generations.

Weissmann then explained that the body of a living organism consists of two parts namely:
Somatoplasm (somatic part) and germplasm (reproductive part). The germplasm is developed into
special organs which produce reproductive cells that bring about variations in organisms that are
inherited by offspring. Germplasm is subject to no destruction or alteration and is outside the
influence of environmental factors. The somatoplasm is responsible for the production of all the
somatic (body) cells of an organism. The somatic cells are influenced by environmental factors
resulting in acquired variations that are never inherited by offspring since such variations are never
transferred to germplasm for inheritance. Therefore, Lamarck’s theory of acquired inheritance was
set outside.

2. Darwin’s theory of organic evolution by natural selection: Charles Darwin, a British

biologist, 1859 propounded a theory of organic evolution by natural selection leading to the origin
of species. His theory is as follows:

i. Overproduction: All living organisms produce more offspring than can survive.
ii. Struggle for existence: Due to the overproduction of offspring, there is a
constant struggle (competition) for existence among the offspring.
iii. Offspring show variations: No two individuals are the same.
iv. Adaptive characteristics: Some of the offspring are well adapted (fitted) to
survive the competition than others.
v. Inheritance of adaptive characteristics: The well-adapted ones (or the fittest)
will transmit such variations to their offspring. Those with poor adaptations will
die off.
vi. Development of new species: An accumulation of favourable variations will for
a long time lead to a divergence (spread) from the original stock resulting in the
formation of new species.

11
Lecture 5

INTRODUCTION TO PLANT IDENTIFICATION AND USE OF TAXONOMIC KEYS

Part One (1): Introduction to plant taxonomy and plant identification.

INTRODUCTION

Plant taxonomy simply put is the study of the orderly arrangement of plants.

Olorode and Illoh, 2012 states that plant taxonomy is the science of identification, classification,
and naming (nomenclature) of plants, implying that bio-systematic botany is the wider subject of
taxonomy involving the gathering and assessment of data for classification purposes. Olorode and
Illoh (2012) defined systematics as the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and
any and all relationships among them.

Stace (1980) defined plant taxonomy and bio-systematics as that particular branch of botany
dealing with plant variations, the investigation of the causes, and the consequences of these
variations.

We are all aware of the fact that classifying objects is a basic practical activity for every human
being. In this regard, Hopwood (1959) says that the urge to classify objects is a fundamental human
instinct, like the pre-disposition to sin, it accompanies us into the world at birth and stays with us
to the end (death). In fact, we do witness some sort of classification in our daily life e.g. in a library
when books are arranged according to specializations-Archeology, Anthropology, Biochemistry,
Botany, Chemistry, Computer Science, Criminology, etc.

Heywood (1977) collaborated with Gill (1988) says that one of the major roles of plant
taxonomy is to produce a system of classification that best reflects the totality of the organisms’
similarities and differences. Plant taxonomy and biosystematics botany according to Jeffery
(1982) is neither difficult nor complicated, many people think that it is such a learned academic
activity that cannot be readily understood, while others regard it as an old-fashioned, a relic of the
by-gone age of science that no longer demands serious attention.

These are enormous numbers of living organisms in the globe and they show considerable
variations in their shapes and sizes. There are more than 500,000 species of plants in the world and
many more are being discovered every year.

Arranging and naming of living organisms is the prime or basis of taxonomy and the need
for such a system was felt as early as the time of Aristotle (384 – 322BC).

The aims/objectives of plant taxonomy and bio-systematic botany are three (3) folds.

1. To provide a convenient method of identification, naming, and classification

12
 2. To provide a classification that as far as possible expresses the natural relationship of
organisms

3. To detect evolution at work, discover its processes, and interpret its results.

There are three interrelated aspects of plant taxonomy and biosystematic botany.

i. Identification

ii. Description and nomenclature (Naming)

iii. Classification

IDENTIFICATION

It deals with the determination of a taxon has been identified, and is similar to or different
from an already known organism. Taxon can be defined as the category or group of organisms
being described.

Plant identification can be achieved with the aid of taxonomic or botanical literature in the
form of illustrations or drawings or sketches, and pictures (photographs) from botanical or
horticultural gardens or from the wilds. Natural history museum(s) or by comparison with plants
of known identities-pressed and labeled plant specimens such as herbarium specimens.

An herbarium is where pressed, dried, and nicely (finely) preserved plant specimens
usually in large collections are kept and arranged in a sequence of an accepted system of
classification i.e. Bentham and Hooker’s British system Hutchinson and Dalziel”s system is also
a British system, De-Jussiaeu- is a French system, Engler and Prantl’s system – is a German
system, Hutchinson and Dalziel system is also a British system.

Descriptions and keys of biological textbooks, floras, herbals, manuals, periodicals,

journals, and other taxonomic publications are also used in plant identification.

2. DESCRIPTION AND NOMENCLATURE (NAMING)

Man has always been a nomenclaturist he has always used names for plants, animals, and
objects with or without special terminologies or system(s).

Nomenclature simply defines means a system of naming, this botanical nomenclature is a

system of naming plants

The allocation of names to Taxon- singular. Taxon-plural

Nomenclature deals with the determination or allocation of correct names to organisms

CLASSIFICATION

13
 This is the study of the theory and practical methods of organization of taxa. Classification
involves grouping organisms together on the basis of what they have in common or it involves
grouping organisms together on the basis of characters, features, or traits that they have in
common.

Taxonomic Characters

This is an attribute of an organism that can be considered to vary independently of any

other attribute (Olorode, 2012). Classification involves the placing of plants in categories or groups
according to a particular plan or system i.e. Hutchinson and Dalziel British system.

TYPES OF TAXONOMY

These are two main (major) types of taxonomy

(1). Pioneer phase – Alpha taxonomy, Classical taxonomy, and (or) Descriptive taxonomy

(2). Bio systematic phase – Omega taxonomy and (or) experimental taxonomy

1. PIONEER PHASE – ALPHA TAXONOMY

This can be based on the morphology (external features, habit, form, or structure) life span;
economic importance or geographical distribution, etc.

Morphology or habit can be herb, under-shrub, shrub, liana, or tree life span habit may also
be herbaceous – annual or it may be biennial or perennial e.g. herbaceous perennial as in a banana
plant or woody perennial as in Mango tree.

Plants may be grouped based on economic importance as medicinal plants or as cereal plants, fiber,
(fiber) plants, legume plants, ornamental plants, vegetable plants, timber-wood plants, etc.

2. BIO-SYSTEMATIC PHASE-OMEGA TAXONOMY

Bio-systematic botany is a phase of botany that delimits plants into natural units
experimentally and classifies or groups them objectively as taxa of different magnitudes such as
Kingdom, Division, Class, Order, Family, Tribe, Genus Species, etc.

The ultimate objective of bio-systematic botany is the arrangement of plants in such a manner that
will give clues or ideas of their evolutionary (phylogenetic) sequence in the plant Kingdom.

Plant bio-systematics is also known as experimental taxonomy or Omega taxonomy

There is another minor type of plant taxonomy known as folk taxonomy or ethnobotany

14
 In all cultures, there is a system of ordering plant and animal life, serving as a system of
reference to particular organisms. Some of the systems of naming local plants are based on the
experience of the community with respect to the utilization of the plant. Other systems of reference
rest on the perceived relationships among the plants.

Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, we find examples of purely utilitarian and artificial plant
classifications. Most common vegetables among the Yoruba can be referred to by the common
name “Efo” which will appropriately be a supra-generic category, thus all species of Talinum
(Partulacaceae/Talinaceae) are “Efo Gbure” and all edible species of Amaranth leafy vegetable is
botanically known as Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus hybridus or A. viridis or also spiny
Amaranth (Amaranthus) known scientifically as A. spinosus.

Also, the Citrus genus (Rutaceae family) among the Yoruba is Osans with specialized berry
fruits-the hesperidium fruits-

Grape-Citrus paradisi.Lime-Citrus aurantiifolia.Lemon-Citrus limoni. Shaddock-Citrus

decumana/Citrus grandis. Sweet orange-Citrus sinensis and Tangerine-Citrus reticulata.

Yoruba call Lime as Osan wewe/Orombo wewe and Sweet orange as Osan mimu/Orombo
mimu.

Note that there are no local (vernacular nor native) names for grape, lemon, shaddock, and
tangerine, the Yoruba also call the highly divergent African Star apple as Osans-Osan Agbalumo-
Chrysophyllum albidum(Sapotaceae family).

The herbaceous perennial-Musa spp with longish berry fruits-the edible banana-Musa
sapientum L. is called Ogede by the Yoruba and the edible boilable/cookable/fry-able plantain-
Musa paradisiaca L. is called Ogede Agbagba and with Carolius (Karl) Linnaeus as the cited
authority.

All these point to the inadequacies of the minor (local/native) folk taxonomy and the
universality of alpha-taxonomy and omega-taxonomy(bio-systematics).

ECOLOGICAL (ECO)- TAXONOMY

Among the Yorubas, the corresponding generic name for Terminalia (Combretaceae) is
Idi or Udi, thus are Idi Igbo or Udi Igbo and Idi odan or Udi odan (Terminalia ivorensis and
Terminalia (.T.) glaucescent respectively) Igbo and Odan are specific (species), ecologically
derived epithets meaning forest and savannah environments respectively.

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

There are two main (major) systems of classification

1. Artificial system

15
 2. Natural system

ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

An artificial system of classification is the same thing or equal to the Alpha, Classical,
Pioneer or largely descriptive, morphology (morphological) or external features; stage, or level.
As earlier mentioned, plants may be classified based on their habit, geographical location (habitat)
or vegetation location, economic importance, etc.

Attributes or characteristics of the artificial system of classification

The artificial system of classification is based on easily observable characteristics with an

emphasis on convenience and simplicity i.e.

i. It contains very little information

ii. It has little predictive value

iii. It is a special purpose classification chosen to suit the purpose for which it is designed

NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

The natural system of classification is the same thing or equal to the bio-systematic phase,
experimental taxonomy, or omega taxonomy stage.

A natural system of classification is based on overall similarities and differences in a

number of attributes, characters, features, or traits. The more features a classification entails, the
greater the information it carries or conveys.

The natural system of classification groups together organisms that are closely related
phylogenetically (evolutionary-wise) and takes the genetic constitution of an organism into
consideration.

The attributes of a natural system of classification are:

i. Highly informational or highly informative

ii. It has a high predictive value

iii. It is based on overall similarities or differences in a high number of traits. And as earlier
said, the more attributes, characters, features, or traits a classification entails the greater the
information its carries or conveys.

16
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY

The arrangement of taxonomic categories in descending series from the highest to the
lowest categories or vice versa is known as Taxonomic hierarchy.

The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) now named the International
Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants (ICNAFP) which is the internationally agreed-
rule book has recognized thirteen (13) major ranks and other minor ranks.

1. Kingdom

Sub-kingdom

2. Division

Sub-Division

3. Class

Sub-Class

4. Order

Sub-Order

5. Family

Sub-Family

6. Tribe

Sub-Tribe

7. Genus

Sub-Genus

8. Section

Sub-Section

9. Series

Sub-Series

10. Species

Sub-Species

17
11. Variety

Sub-Variety

12. Form (Forma)

Sub-Form (Sub-Forma)

13. Clone

Sub-Clone – According to A.Clive. Stace (1980)

TYPES OF NOMENCLATURE

The two major (main) types of Nomenclature are

1. Polynomial Nomenclature

2. Trinomial Nomenclature

3. Binomial Nomenclature

1. Polynomial Nomenclature

Poly= Many=

Polynomial nomenclature involves naming with long descriptive:

Ranunculus folis ovatis serratis, scapo, nudo, uniflorus.

Meanings

Ranunculus with ovate, and serrated leaf with solitary, unisexual flowers-(one-sexed flowers) with
naked scape:- A plant that is leafless, while flowering.

2) Trinomial Nomenclature-These are three (-3-) named nomenclature plant/(or)animal i:e

Hibiscus tiliaceus variegatus

Homo sapiens sapiens

Cabbage: Brassica oleracea capitata

Binomial Nomenclature

This is a biological naming based on the binominal nomenclature bi = two nominal nomenclature
– two named nomenclature pioneered by Carl (Carlius (Karl) Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1753 and
lesserly Caspar/Gapar /Kaspar Bauhin (
18
1753-was the starting point of the introduction of Binominal Nomenclature by him, in this
binominal system, each organism either plant or animal organism must have two (-2- ) Latinized
names.

A Generic (Genus) Name beginning with a capital letter and a species (specific)name=specific
epithet beginning with a lowercase letter, for example, the new binominal of Ranunculus and
bulbosus is more convenient instead of the former polynomial of Ranunculus folis ovatis scape
nudo uniflorus.

PART TWO (2): USE OF TAXONOMIC KEYS

Specimen Identification and the Use of Taxonomic (Identification Keys).

According to the English Dictionary, a key is a word or a list of symbols for interpreting a code or
a set of answers to problems or something that provides access, or control or insight.

A Taxonomic key is an outline prepared for use in identifying both plant and animal organisms by
a process of elimination (Benson, ).

In biology, an identification key or Taxonomic key is usually a printed or more recently,

rarely a computer aided device that aids the identification of biological entities such as plants,
animals, fossils, micro-organisms, pollen grains and spores.

Identification keys are also used in other scientific and technical fields to identify diseases,
soil types, geological minerals, and archeological materials.

Recently there has been considerable research in developing computerized keys that have
multiple entries derived from a detailed database of the taxa. The interactive nature of
computerized keys makes them highly desirable and allows users to identify a plant. As software
programs improve there is the likelihood of increased use of computer-generated keys.

The main purpose of an identification key or taxonomic key is to facilitate identification or

to distinguish one type or one kind of organism from another.

Identification errors may have serious consequences in both pure and applied disciplines

Pure discipline i.e. ecology

Applied discipline i.e. medical diagnosis, forensic science, etc. Therefore identification keys must
be constructed with great care in order to minimize the incidence of such errors.

A Taxonomic key reflects ideas of evolutionary or phylogenetic relationships if it is a

natural key and vice versa if it’s at an artificial key, it will not reflect the information of
evolutionary or phylogenetic relationships.

19
Before one can key vascular plants, for example, it is necessary to gain an understanding of basic
morphological terms.

Reproductive characters- those pertaining to the asexual sporangia, to the sexual cones, flowers,
seeds or fruits are commonly used in keys because they are more reliable since they usually show
little, if any variation. When characters are stable and not environmentally variable, they are
termed conservative.

In contrast, vegetative characters, e.g. leaf are more variable, more so, when individuals of the
same plant species are grown in differential environmental regimes/conditions.

This explains why keys using only vegetative character such as leaf is not as reliable as keys using
both vegetative and reproductive characters. It is highly recommended that both vegetative and
reproductive characters be included in a Taxonomic key or Identification key.

Keys provide statements called leads numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, each leads dealing with
a particular observable character of the plant.

Character(s) used in Taxonomic keys are usually observable morphological features and
may be qualitative such as the leaf, stem, roots, flower, seed, and fruits, or quantitative such as the
number(s) of leaves, stem, root, flowers, seed, and fruits.

Both qualitative and quantitative characters may be used, but the character/characteristic
must be (a) constant for a species and not subject to variation as a result of environmental
influences. In this respect, size is often a bad example, since size can be readily influenced by the
environment [Environmental factors].

Types of keys

There are various types of diagnostic keys in taxonomic studies, but they can be divided
into two major (main) key types

1. Natural Key and

2. Artificial Key

1. Natural Key

In Natural Key, many character(s), and characteristics are observable scientifically research-wise
on the plant for example – a) the Anatomy- Gross internal structure - Anato-Taxonomy,b) the
Chemistry/Phyto-Chemical or chemical constitution- Chemo-Taxonomy c) [Chromosome
constitution- Cyto-Taxonomy and the Palynology-Pollen Grain Types, Nature of Aperture and
Nature of spores- Palyno-Taxonomy.

20
 The natural key is at the level of Bio-systematic botany experimental Taxonomy or Omega
–Taxonomy equal to the Natural system of classification.

2. Artificial key

a. A numerical/Arithmetical Key is an example of an Artificial Key

2a. Arithmetical/Numerical Key e.g. for leaf

Arrangement

For example, if the character or these characteristics are present, such character/characteristics will
be indicated by writing one (1) if such character/character are not present, it will be indicated by
writing down zero (0).

i.e.

Compound = 1

or

Simple = 2

Pinnate = 3

Obovate = 4

Palmately lobed = 5

Parallel Veined (Venation) = 6

Net (Reticulate) Veined (Venation) = 7

Gmelina tree-Gmelina arborea tree leaf: =0100001

Pawpaw tree- Carica papaya Linn Leaf = 0100101

Siamea Tree-Cassia siamea/Senna siamea Leaf = 1010001

Country almond/Indian almond Terminalia catappa tree Leaf = 0001001

Indian Corn/Maize = Zea mays Linn, Leaf = 0100010

21
Another example of the character or characteristics are present, in the case; such
character/characteristics will be indicated by verifying the actual (real) number/ numeral involved,
but if such character/ characteristics are not present, it will be indicated by writing down/ zero (O).

Compound = 1

Simple = 2

Pinnate = 3

Obovate = 4

Palmately lobed = 5

Parallel veined (Venation) = 6

Net (Reticulate) Veined (Venation) = 7

Gmelina arborea = 0200007

Pawpaw- Carica papaya leaf = 0200007

Siamea Tree – Cassia siamea/ Senna siamea leaf = 1030007

Cassia is a synonym of Senna, that is Cassia is synonymous with Senna Genus. Synonym refers
to the discarded name or to the series of discarded names applied to a single taxon.

Country almond/Indian almond – Terminalia catappa leaf = 0204007

Indian corn/ Maize = Zea mays leaf = 0200060

Artificial key is at the level of alpha, classical, pioneer or largely descriptive, morphology
(morphological), or external features stage or level; equal to the artificial system of classification.

Advice for using taxonomic key/identification key

1. Never guess at all- if you don’t know the precise meaning of terms used in plant
descriptions; consult the list of abbreviations and botanical glossary for the meaning of
terminologies.

2. If the plant features are very small, use appropriate magnifying tenses to inspect them
clearly and carefully.

3. Where measurements are required, use a graduated ruler, never guess sizes. Give exact
measurements or ratios. The terms large and small have no meaning in the absence of quantitative
records.

22