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Aluminum Brazing – What Matters Most:

Fundamentals and Case Studies
By Craig Moller and Jim Grann
 Vacuum Aluminum Brazing - What Matters Most
Craig Moller and Jim Grann
Ipsen Incorporated, Cherry Valley, Illinois USA

Abstract include but are not limited to semi-conductor manufacturing,

ceramic to copper brazing and so on; due to the cleanliness of
Vacuum aluminum brazing is a careful balance of time, the vacuum environment flux is not needed. Magnesium is
temperature, and vacuum level. These parameters are used as an additive, or getter, in the vacuum aluminum
controlled to maintain the fundamental brazing success brazing process.
parameters – load the parts, heat the parts, get the braze joints
clean, melt the braze filler, and get the parts out. This is done Vacuum Aluminum Brazing
in a specific work environment utilizing sophisticated controls
to insure fast pumping, low parts per million (PPM) of Benefits of Vacuum Aluminum Brazing
oxygen, and exceptional temperature uniformity combined in
one synergistically designed vacuum furnace system. Brazing has many advantages when compared to other metal-
joining processes. Given that brazing does not melt the base
metal of the joint, it allows for more precise control of
Introduction tolerances and provides a clean joint with no need for
additional finishing. The meniscus (crescent shaped) formed
by the filler metal in the brazed joint is ideally shaped for
Definition of Brazing
reducing stress concentrations and improving fatigue
properties.
The American Welding Society defines brazing as:

“A group of welding processes that produces coalescence of Ideal situations for brazing:
materials by heating them to the brazing temperature in the
presence of a filler metal having a liquidus above 840°F  Joining parts of very thin or thick cross sections
(450°C) and below the solidus of the base metal. The filler  Compact components containing many junctions to be
metal is distributed between the closely fitted faying surfaces sealed (e.g. heat exchangers) or deep joints with restricted
of the joint by capillary action.” [1] access
 Joining dissimilar metals such as copper and stainless
The solidus is the highest temperature at which the metal is steel
completely solid; the temperature at which melting starts. The  Assemblies with a large number of joints
liquidus is the lowest temperature at which the metal is
completely liquid; the temperature at which solidification Specifically, vacuum aluminum brazing minimizes distortion
starts. of the part due to uniform heating and cooling as compared to
a localized joining process. This type of brazing creates a
Types of Aluminum Brazing continuous hermetically sealed bond. Components with large
surface areas and numerous joints can be successfully brazed.
Aluminum brazing can be done with or without flux, and
includes many different methods for creating the bond. Hardening can also be accomplished in the same furnace cycle
if hardenable alloys are utilized and the furnace system is
In flux brazing, the flux flows into the joint and is displaced integrated with a forced cooling system, thus reducing cycle
by the liquidus filler metal entering the joint in order to time.
remove oxides on the part to create a strong, solid braze. Flux
comes in several different forms – paste, liquid or powder. Vacuum furnace brazing offers extremely repeatable results
Some brazing rods are coated with flux or have a flux core in due to the critical furnace parameters that are attained with
order to apply necessary flux during the brazing process. Flux every load, that is, vacuum levels and temperature
brazing processes include torch brazing (manual and uniformities. Capillary joint paths (even long paths) are
automatic), induction, salt bath (dip brazing), and controlled effectively purged of entrapped gas during the initial
atmosphere (CAB). evacuation of the furnace chamber resulting in more complete
wetting of the joint.
Brazing performed in a vacuum furnace is considered fluxless
brazing because it does not use flux to create the joint. Vacuum aluminum brazing is ideal for oxidation sensitive
Fluxless brazing processes are can be performed using inert materials; vacuum brazing is considered a flux-free process
gas atmospheres or in vacuum furnaces. Such processes that eliminates corrosive flux residue. Post-brazed parts are
clean with a matte grey finish. The process is relatively non- Figure 3 Flat Plate Cooler
polluting and no post-braze cleaning is necessary. (Photo Courtesy of API Tech)

Examples of Vacuum Aluminum Brazed Parts Types of Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Furnaces

Examples of vacuum aluminum brazed parts often include Typical vacuum aluminum brazing furnaces are either single-
heat exchangers, condensers, and evaporators used in chamber (batch type) or multiple-chamber (semi-continuous).
automotive, aerospace, nuclear, and energy industries. Some Batch type furnaces are usually loaded horizontally, but can
of these parts are shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3. be designed for a vertical loading operation. Semi-continuous
furnaces are horizontally loaded and are typically automated
using load carriers and external conveyor systems.

Batch furnaces tend to be simpler in design (one

loading/unloading door) than semi-continuous furnaces, less
expensive, and easier to maintain. Semi-continuous furnaces
have higher production rates because of the multi-chamber
design and operate more efficiently by not having to cool
heating zones or heat cooling zones.

Examples of batch type and semi-continuous type furnaces are

shown in Figures 4, 5, and 6.

Figure 1 Vacuum Aluminum Brazed Radiator

(Photo courtesy of API Tech)

Figure 4 Batch Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Furnace

Figure 2 Vacuum Brazed Evaporator

(Ipsen R&D)

Figure 5 Semi-continuous Vacuum Aluminum Brazing

Furnace Layout
 Table 1 Vacuum Protection from Undesirable Gasses

Pressure Total O2 N2 O2 N2
in mbar Vol.-% Vol.-% Vol.-% ppm ppm
1013 100 20 79 200*103 790*103

1 0.1 0.026 0.1 264 1040

10-1 0.01 0.0026 0.01 26.4 104

10-2 0.001 0.00026 0.001 2.64 10.4

Figure 6 Semi-continuous Furnace Load Carrier and 10-3 0.0001 0.000026 0.0001 0.264 1.04
Conveyor System
10-4 0.00001 0.0000026 0.00001 0.026 0.1

Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Process

Magnesium
The vacuum aluminum brazing process is usually a relatively
short cycle due to the fast pumping and heating characteristics A key component of vacuum aluminum brazing is the use of
of the furnace, the excellent temperature uniformity at soak magnesium as an additive to the filler metal and/or the base
temperatures, and the high thermal conductivity of the metal of the parts to be brazed. It is necessary in this fluxless
aluminum parts being brazed. Figure 7 shows a typical brazing environment for the following reasons:
vacuum aluminum brazing cycle.
 When the magnesium vaporizes starting at around 1058°F
(570°C), it acts as a “getter” for oxygen and water vapor,
thus improving the purity of the brazing vacuum.
 Magnesium will also reduce the alumina oxide that exists
on the surface of the aluminum to promote uniform
accelerated wetting of the joint surfaces.

The following reactions occur during the vacuum brazing

process:
Mg + H2O → MgO +H2
Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
3Mg+ Al2O3 → 3MgO + 2Al
Mg + N2 → Mg3N2

The vaporization of the magnesium in a vacuum environment

can be seen in Figure 8. Also known as a “mag burst,” the
vaporization of magnesium produces heavy outgassing for a
short period of time. As seen in Figure 8, the slower the
Figure 7 Typical Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Cycle
heating rate, the smaller the magnesium vaporization rate. Due
to this gas load, the vacuum pumps must be adequately sized
Vacuum Pumping
to maintain a good working vacuum (10-4 to 10-5 torr range).
The vacuum pumping capacity must be adequately sized in
order to minimize the pumpdown time of a new load to a deep
vacuum level, so as to initiate the heating cycle and to have
adequate throughput to keep up with the significant
outgassing that takes place during the heating cycle due to
magnesium vaporization. A deep vacuum level is an important
process parameter, because it ensures a relatively
pure environment for brazing (less PPM of oxygen).
Table 1 illustrates the change in purity levels in relation to
the various vacuum levels.
 temperature starts, the filler metal begins to melt, and the
capillary wetting of the braze joints occurs.

Braze temperature time duration must be kept to a minimum

as the melted filler metal is vaporizing in the deep vacuum as
it is trying to wet the braze joints. Too much loss of filler
metal to vaporization will result in poor joint wetting and
subsequent loss of joint strength and sealing ability.

After the brazing temperature soak duration is complete, it is

followed by an immediate vacuum cooling cycle, which
solidifies the filler metal in the braze joints and stops the
vaporization of material.

The type of precise temperature control and uniformity needed

for vacuum aluminum brazing is achieved through the use of
several heating control zones around the parts while at the
Figure 8 Magnesium Vaporization in Vacuum Versus same time maintaining the surface temperatures of the heating
Temperature elements as near to the part temperature as possible. A large
delta in temperature between the heating elements and the
Heating Control and Temperature Uniformity parts would result in overheating of the parts’ surface,
possibly above the solidus temperature for the material as the
Second to the deep vacuum level, precise temperature control filler metal begins to melt.
and uniformity are also important process parameters.
Accepted temperature uniformity during a brazing cycle is +/-
5°F (3°C) of set point. Braze Joint Fundamentals
Aluminum brazing has a very narrow window of acceptable
Types of Braze Joints
brazing temperatures. The governing rule for aluminum
brazing is that the filler metal has to liquidize before the base
Figures 10 and 11 show typical braze joints used in aluminum
metal reaches its solidus temperature. This temperature
component construction. In general, the difference between
difference may be as small as 10-18°F (5-10°C). Figure 9
the favorable and unfavorable types of joints is the amount of
shows the small process window available for aluminum
overlapping that results in a good braze joint. A stronger braze
brazing.
joint has a large surface area that is wetted by the filler
material. Too much overlapping is detrimental to the joint,
because the filler material will not cover the entire surface
when it flows into the joint. Some of the favorable diagrams
below also show a method for reducing stress concentrations
in the joint area.

UNFAVORABLE FAVORABLE

Figure 9 Temperature Versus Brazing Cycle Steps

For example, a base metal 6061 alloy will have a solidus

temperature of 1099°F (593°C) and a liquidus temperature
of 1206°F (652°C). Brazing temperature range would be
1049-1085°F (565-585°C) depending on the filler metal used.

It is necessary to use a heating step at a soak temperature just

below the solidus point of the filler metal to ensure all the Figure 10 Lap Joints [2]
parts and joints to be brazed reach the correct temperature at
approximately the same time. At this time, the ramp to brazing
 UNFAVORABLE FAVORABLE

Figure 11 T Joints [2]

Figure 13 Clamp Type Fixturing
Braze Joint Strength (Ipsen R&D)

Braze joint strength is dependent on two primary mechanical

characteristics - joint wetted surface area and the size of the
gap into which the filler metal flows. In Figures 10 and 11
improved joint surface area characteristics are shown. In
Figure 12 the importance of a proper joint gap is illustrated.

Gaps of between .003-.008 inch (.08-2 mm) work best for

vacuum furnace brazing. Joint gaps are controlled by the
manufacturing tolerances of the parts to be brazed and by
proper clamping (pre-loading) of the part assemblies to be
brazed.

Figure 14 Band Type Fixturing

(Photo courtesy of API Tech)

Cleaning of Parts

Along with good joint design and fixturing, brazing requires

part assemblies to be cleaned properly prior to assembly, and
then handled with care so as not to introduce contamination
prior to the brazing cycle. All grease, oil, and particulates
must be cleaned off the parent and filler metal surfaces.
Assemblers must be careful not to transfer oils from their skin
to these surfaces when stacking the parts together. Typical
Figure 12 Braze Joint Strength Versus Joint Gap [3] types of cleaning methods are vapor degreasing, hydrocarbon
wash, aqueous washing, acid etching, and vacuum de-oiling.
Fixturing of Parts
Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Furnace
Part assemblies must be fixtured properly for brazing in order
Characteristics
to maintain joint gaps, joint alignment, flow passage
alignment, and overall assembly tolerances. Some examples of
Vacuum Pumping System
fixturing for assemblies are shown in Figures 13 and 14.
As noted previously, one of the key process parameters in
Fixturing materials must be chosen carefully due to different
vacuum aluminum brazing is a deep vacuum level and
coefficients of expansion for varying materials. Fixture
adequate pumping throughput to keep up with the significant
designs are also extremely part dependent, thought out in great
outgassing that takes place during the heating cycle due to
detail, and are proprietary in some cases as they are an integral
magnesium vaporization. Typical vacuum aluminum brazing
part of the manufacturing process.
furnaces have large diffusion pumps and backing pumps to
accomplish these requirements. Figures 15 and 16 show contains a very low PPM of oxygen throughout the brazing
typical pumping arrangements for these furnaces. cycle.

Good design practices for vacuum chambers that have a low

leak-up rate typically include minimal use of pipe thread
joints, use a 63 micro-finish or better on sealing surfaces for
O-rings, and use the correct O-ring material for the
temperature of the sealing area.

Heating Elements

Other important process parameters are precise temperature

control and temperature uniformity. Placing the sensing
junctions of the thermocouples near to the heating elements
results in faster and more accurate control of the process
parameters.
Figure 15 Large Diffusion Pump on a Vacuum Aluminum
Exceptional temperature uniformity +/- 5°F (3°C) is
Brazing Furnace
accomplished by utilizing many heating control zones
arranged within the hot zone. The wideband design provides a
substantial radiating surface to the process parts, which
facilitates faster heating and better temperature uniformities.

Batch-type vacuum aluminum brazing furnaces that contain

ten to twenty individually controlled heating zones are very
common. Heating element surface area as a percentage to load
surface area is important. The larger the surface area of the
heating elements, the lower the watt density is on that surface,
resulting in element temperatures that are only slightly above
the load temperature at steady-state soaking conditions. This is
important to ensure the outside surface of the load does not
get overheated. See Figure 17 representing a typical heating
element for a vacuum aluminum brazing furnace.
Figure 16 Large Batch System with Multiple Pumps

The pumping capacity required for a given aluminum brazing

furnace is dependent on the load, specifically the load surface
area being brazed. The larger the load surface area, the larger
the pumping capacity required. Due to the fact that most of the
magnesium vaporization occurs in the 10-4 to 10-5 torr range, it
is the diffusion pump(s) that must handle the gas load during
the mag burst with adequate backing pumps.

To facilitate the vacuum pumping in the furnace, the cooling

jacket around the vacuum vessel is run at higher than ambient
temperatures. This warm wall design helps prevent
condensation of water vapor inside the vessel when the door is
open for loading/unloading.

Water vapor is the enemy of aluminum brazing. It both slows Figure 17 Wide Band Heating Element
pumping speed and breaks down, releasing oxygen into the
furnace. The warm wall design has also proven to lessen the Vacuum furnaces that can process two loads side by side will
bonding strength of the magnesium oxide that forms during also utilize center heating element banks between the two
the brazing process and ultimately condenses on the inner wall loads. This design allows for the even heating of all surfaces
of the chamber, thus making it easier to mechanically clean. on dual workloads. Figure 18 shows this type of arrangement.

A vacuum aluminum brazing furnace must maintain a low

leak-up rate to avoid outside atmosphere from entering the
furnace during the brazing cycle. The quality of the vacuum
 Figure 18 Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Furnace with Center
Heating Element

Figure 20 Four Year Old Vacuum Aluminum Brazing

Vacuum Aluminum Brazing Furnace Furnace (Normal)
Maintenance
The majority of maintenance time spent on a vacuum Magnesium oxide deposits tend to retain water vapor. Excess
aluminum brazing furnace is devoted to cleaning magnesium retention of water vapor will slow down the vacuum pumping
oxide deposits that form inside the chamber and hot zone characteristics of the furnace. At some point in time, the
during the brazing process. Figures 19 and 20 show before magnesium oxide will build up to a degree that negates the
and after photos of a typical vacuum aluminum brazing furnace’s ability to pump in accordance to acceptable
furnace. parameters and may prevent the required vacuum levels from
being achieved for quality brazing. This is the point at which
the magnesium oxide needs to be removed from the furnace
system.

Mechanical cleaning is the usual method for removing the

magnesium oxide. Scraping of the magnesium oxide from
chamber walls and hot zone shields must be done with non-
ferrous scrapers so as not to create a spark that would ignite
the fast burning oxide. If the magnesium oxide build-up is too
heavy and hard to scrap off, an air burnout cycle may have to
be used to help crack apart the large oxide clusters. After the
majority of the oxide is removed from the furnace chamber
and hot zone, a normal vacuum burnout is done to further
condition the furnace prior to placing the furnace back into
production.

Cleaning of the diffusion pump(s) on the furnace should be

done following the specific instructions of the furnace
manufacturer.
Figure 19 New VAB Furnace
Other maintenance activities include, changing of vacuum
pump oils every two to six months, replacing dynamic seals
such as door seals and poppet valve seals every year, and
replacing jack panel (work thermocouple) parts every year.
Control thermocouple replacement should follow applicable
guidelines. Vacuum sensing gages need to be replaced,
cleaned, or rebuilt as required.
 Conclusions
Vacuum aluminum brazing; what matters most? The key
process parameters are:
 Deep vacuum levels, precise temperature control, and
excellent temperature uniformity all provided by
optimum furnace design and controls
 Keys to successful part brazing include proper joint
design with regards to joint surface area and joint
gaps, cleanliness of the parts, and correct fixturing of
the part assemblies
 Following a routine furnace maintenance program
will allow repeatable, quality brazing results over
time

References

[1] American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook,

American Welding Society, 1991, pg. xvii.

[2] DIN 65169, Date: 1.10.1986

Aerospace; brazing and high-temperature brazing of
components; directions for design.

[3] American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook,

American Welding Society, 1991, pg. 6.

[4] Patrick McKenna

Director of Aerospace Business Development

California Brazing, 37955 Central Court, Newark,

CA 94560
(O) 510-790-2300, (C) 775-338-1034
www.californiabrazing.com