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Metric Spaces

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Metric Spaces

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Metric Spaces

MATH 487 — Dr. Kang

Lecture Notes

d(f, g)
f
g

a b
Contents
Lecture 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Lecture 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Lecture 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Lecture 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Lecture 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Lecture 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Lecture 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Lecture 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Lecture 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Lecture 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Lecture 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Lecture 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2
MATH 487

Lecture 1

We have the following definition of a metric space.

Metric Space Definition

A metric space (X, d) is a set X with a function d : X × X → [0, ∞) such that

• d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y,

• d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X, and

• d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z ∈ X.

Example 1.1

Given two points x, y on the real line, we


can define a metric d : R × R → R by
x y
d(x, y) = |x − y|.

Example 1.2

y
Given two points

x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 )


(x1 , x2 )
(y1 , y2 ) in the Cartesian plane, we can define a
metric d : R2 × R2 → R by
x p
d(x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 .

More generally, we can define a metric d : Rn × Rn → R on the points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and


y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) by

n
!1
X 2

d(x, y) = (xi − yi )2 .
i=1

Proof. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) and z = (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) be elements of Rn .


Then !1
X n 2
2
d(x, y) = (xi − yi ) =0
i=1

if and only if
n
X
(xi − yi )2 = 0.
i=1

But as (xi − yi )2 ≥ 0, then (xi − yi )2 = 0 for all i ∈ N. Hence xi − yi = 0 and xi = yi , which

3
Metric Spaces

implies x = y. Furthermore,

n
!1 n
!1
X 2 X 2

d(x, y) = (xi − yi )2 = (yi − xi )2 = d(y, x).


i=1 i=1

Now let ai = xi − yi and bi = yi − zi . Then ai + bi = xi − zi and


n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X
2 2
[d(x, z)] = (ai + bi ) = a2i + 2ai bi + b2i = a2i +2 ai bi + b2i
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
!1 n
!1 n
X X 2 X 2 X
≤ a2i +2 a2i b2i + b2i
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

n
!1 n
! 1 2
X 2 X 2

= a2i + b2i 
i=1 i=1
2
= [d(x, y) + d(y, z)]

by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. This implies d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) and (Rn , d) is a
metric space. ■

Example 1.3

Let X = {f : [a, b] → R | f is continuous on [a, b]} = C([a, b]) and

d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]}.

Then (X, d) is a (non-Euclidean) metric space.

d(f, g)
f
g

a b

Proof. Let f, g, h ∈ C([a, b]). Then as f − g is continuous on the closed, bounded interval
[a, b], we know {|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} has a maximum value by the Maximum-Minimum
Theorem. Hence, {|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} is bounded above and

sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]}

exists by the supremum property. Thus 0 ≤ d(f, g) < ∞ and d is well-defined. Furthermore,
d(f, g) = 0 if and only if sup{|f (x)−g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} = 0, which implies 0 ≤ |f (x)−g(x)| ≤ 0
and f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. Thus f = g on [a, b]. Moreover,

d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} = sup{|g(x) − f (x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} = d(g, f ).

4
MATH 487

Lastly,

|f (x) − h(x)| ≤ |f (x) − g(x)| + |g(x) − h(x)|


≤ sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} + sup{|g(x) − h(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]}
= d(f, g) + d(g, h)

for all x ∈ [a, b] by the triangle inequality. Then by the definition of supremum,

d(f, h) = sup{|f (x) − h(x)| : x ∈ [a, b]} ≤ d(f, g) + d(g, h)

and hence, (X, d) is a metric space. ■

Example 1.4

Let

( )
X
X= (xn )∞
n=1 : xi ∈ R, i ∈ N and 2
|xn | < ∞ := l2 (N)
n=1

and !1

X 2
2
d(x, y) = (xi − yi )
i=1

where x = (xn )∞ ∞
n=1 , y = (yn )n=1 ∈ X. Then (X, d) is a metric space.

5
Metric Spaces

Lecture 2
Open Ball Definition

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the open ball with radius r > 0 centered at x0 ∈ X is
the set
B(x0 , r) = {y ∈ X : d(x0 , y) < r}.

Below are visualizations of open balls in R and R2 , defined on their usual metrics.

( )
x0
x0 − r x0 + r
y

r
x0

Open Set Definition

Let O ⊆ X. Then O is open if for all x ∈ O, there exists some r > 0 such that B(x, r) ⊆ O.

Proposition 2.1

B(x0 , r) is an open set.

Proof. Let x ∈ B(x0 , r) and s = r − d(x, x0 ). Then for all y ∈ B(x, s), we have

d(x0 , y) ≤ d(x0 , x) + d(x, y) = d(x, y) + d(x, x0 ) < s + d(x, x0 ) = r.

Thus B(x, s) ⊆ B(x0 , r) and B(x0 , r) is open. ■

6
MATH 487

Lecture 3
Example 3.1

Let E = n1 : n ∈ N . Then a subset F of E is closed if and only if F is a finite set. In




fact, this implies that E does not contain a “largest” closed set.

Proof. We prove the forward through contradiction. Suppose that F ⊂ E is closed but infinite.
Then F must contain a sequence (xn ) such that xn → 0, which implies 0 is a contact point of
F . But as F is closed, then 0 ∈ F ⊂ E, a contradiction. ■

Interior Point Definition


Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. A point x0 ∈ X is an interior point of A if there
exists some r > 0 such that B(x0 , r) ⊆ A.

Interior of a Set Definition


Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then the interior of A is the set

A0 = {x ∈ X : x is an interior point of A}.

Proposition 3.1

Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then A0 ⊆ A.

Proof. Let x ∈ A0 . Then x is an interior point of A and there exists some r > 0 such that
x ∈ B(x, r) ⊆ A. ■

Remark

It is possible that A0 = ∅. For example, let A = Q in the space (R, | · |). Then A0 = ∅ as
any open ball around any real number contains irrational numbers.

Proposition 3.2

Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then. . .

1. A0 is open.

2. If O ⊆ A and O is open, then O ⊆ A0 . In other words, A0 is the largest open set


contained in A.

3. Let U = O⊆A O where each O is open. Then A0 = U .


S

4. A = A0 if and only if A is open.


0
5. A0 = A0 .

Proof of 1. Let x ∈ A0 . Then x is an interior point of A and there exists some r > 0 such
that B(x, r) ⊆ A. Now let y ∈ B(x, r). Then as B(x, r) is open, there exists some ε > 0 such
that B(y, ε) ⊆ B(x, r) ⊆ A. Hence, y ∈ A0 , which implies B(x, r) ⊆ A0 and A0 is open. ■

7
Metric Spaces

Proof of 2. Let O ⊆ A be open and x ∈ O. Then there exists some r > 0 such that
B(x, r) ⊆ O ⊆ A which implies x ∈ A0 . Hence, O ⊆ A0 . ■
Proof of 3. Let U = O⊆A O where each O is open. As A0 ⊆ A is open, then clearly A0 ⊆ U
S

by Propositions 3.1, 3.2.1. Furthermore, for every open set O ⊆ A, it follows that O ⊆ A0 by
Proposition 3.2.2. Thus, U ⊆ A0 and A0 = U . ■
Proof of 4. The forward follows from Proposition 3.2.1. Then we prove the converse: suppose
A is open. Note that A0 ⊆ A by Proposition 3.1 and A ⊆ A. Then A ⊆ A0 by Proposition
3.2.2. ■
Proof of 5. Follows from Proposition 3.2.4. ■

8
MATH 487

Lecture 4
Contact Point Definition
Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then x ∈ X is a contact point of A if and only
if for all r > 0, there exists some y ∈ A such that y ∈ B(x, r).

Closed Set Definition


Let (X, d) be a metric space. A set E ⊆ X is closed if E contains all of its contact points.

Sequence Convergence Definition

Let (xn )∞n=1 be a sequence in (X, d) and let x ∈ X. We write limn→∞ xn = x or xn → x


if for all r > 0, there exists some N (r) ∈ N such that if n > N (r), then d(xn , x) < r.

Proposition 4.1

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then xn → x if and only if limn→∞ d(xn , x) = 0.

Proposition 4.2

Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then x ∈ X is a contact point of A if and only
if there is a sequence (xn )∞
n=1 in A such that xn → x.

Corollary

By Proposition 4.2, a set E ⊆ X is closed if and only if whenever (xn )∞


n=1 is a sequence
in E such that xn → x, then x ∈ E.

Example 4.1

y
Let

E = (x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 ≤ 1 .


Then E is closed. However, if we consider


x
1 F = E − {(1, 0)}, then the point (1, 0) is
a contact point of F but (1, 0) ∈
/ F , which
implies F is not closed.

Proposition 4.3

Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊆ X. Then A is open if and only if Ac is closed.

Proof. To prove the forward, suppose A ⊆ X is open and let x0 be a contact point of Ac .
Then there exists a sequence (xn )∞ c
n=1 in A such that xn → x0 by Proposition 4.2. If, for
sake of contradiction, x0 ∈ A, then there exists some r > 0 such that B(x0 , r) ⊆ A as A is
open. But xn → x0 , hence xn ∈ B(x0 , r) for sufficiently large n. Therefore xn ∈ A ∩ Ac , for

9
Metric Spaces

sufficiently large n, a contradiction. Thus we must have x0 ∈ Ac , and as x0 is arbitrary, Ac is


closed.
To prove the converse, suppose Ac is closed and let x ∈ A. If we prove there exists n ∈ N
1

such that B x, n ⊆ A, then the result follows. To this effect, suppose not—that is, suppose
for all n ∈ N, there is some xn ∈ B x, n1 such that xn ∈/ A. This implies xn ∈ Ac . Since (xn )
is in Ac and xn → x, we have x ∈ Ac as Ac is closed. Thus x ∈ A ∩ Ac , a contradiction, and
A is open. ■

10
MATH 487

Lecture 5

Remark
In a topological space, Proposition 4.3 is the definition of a closed set. To see why, note
that metric spaces are special cases of topological spaces. To define a closed set in a
metric space, we used contact points, and to define contact points, we needed a metric. A
topological space has no metric in general, and hence we cannot use contact points in our
definition of a closed set.

Recall that in a topological space (X, τ ), the elements in the set τ = {A ⊆ X} are called open
sets. This means E ⊆ X is closed if and only if E c ∈ τ .

Proposition 5.1

Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. Then. . .


T
1. If Eα ⊆ X are closed for all α ∈ Λ where Λ is an index set, then α∈Λ Eα is also
closed.

2. If E1 , E2 , . . . , En are closed subsets, then ni=1 Ei is also closed.


S

Proof of 1. By DeMorgan’s Laws and the definition of topological spaces, we have


!c
\ [
Eα = Eαc
α∈Λ α∈Λ

is open, as each Eαc is open. In other words,


T
α∈Λ Eα is closed. ■
Proof of 2. By DeMorgan’s Laws and the definition of topological spaces, we have
n
!c n
[ \
Ei = Eic
i=1 i=1
Sn
is open, as each Eic is open. In other words, i=1 Ei is closed. ■

Closure of a Subset Definition


Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. We define

E = {x ∈ X : x is a contact point of E}

as the closure of E.

We can also define the closure of a subset sequentially through Proposition 4.2.

Closure of a Subset (Sequential) Definition

Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. We define

E = {x ∈ X : ∃(xn )∞
n=1 s.t. (xn ) is in E and xn → x} = {all sequential limits on E}

as the closure of E.

11
Metric Spaces

Proposition 5.2

Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. Then. . .

1. E ⊆ E.

2. E is closed.

3. If E ⊆ D and D is closed, then E ⊆ D. In other words, E is the smallest closed set


containing E.
T
4. We have E = D such that E ⊆ D and D is closed. In other words, E is the
intersection of all closed sets containing E.

5. E = E if and only if E is closed.

6. E = E. In other words, the closure of the closure of E is the closure of E.

Proof of 1. If x ∈ E, let xn = x for all n ∈ N. Then xn → x and x ∈ E. ■


Proof of 2. Let x be an arbitrary contact point of E. Then Proposition 4.2 implies the
existence of some sequence (xn )∞
n=1 such that (xn ) is in E and xn → x. As (xn ) is in E, there
exists a sequence (yn ) in E such that d(xn , yn ) < n1 by the definition of contact points. Then

1
0 ≤ d(yn , x) ≤ d(yn , xn ) + d(xn , x) ≤ + d(xn , x)
n
by the triangle inequality. In the limit, d(xn , x) → 0 so d(yn , x) → 0 by the Squeeze Theorem.
Thus yn → x and (yn ) is in E. Hence x ∈ E and E is closed. ■

Proof of 3. Let x ∈ E. Then there exists some sequence (xn )∞


n=1 such that (xn ) is in E and
xn → x. But E ⊆ D, hence x is also a contact point of D. As D is closed, it follows that
x ∈ D and E ⊆ D. ■
Proof of 5. Proposition 5.2.2 trivially implies the forward direction and Propositions 5.2.1,
5.2.3 implies the converse. ■
Proof of 6. Trivially implied by Propositions 5.2.2, 5.2.5. ■

12
MATH 487

Lecture 6

Continuity of a Function Definition

Let (X, d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces and let f : X → Y be a function. Then f is
continuous at x0 ∈ X if for all ε > 0 there exists some δ(ε) > 0 such that if x ∈ B(x0 , δ(ε)),
then f (x) ∈ B(f (x0 ), ε), or equivalently, if d1 (x, x0 ) < δ(ε), then d2 (f (x), f (x0 )) < ε. If
f is continuous at every x0 ∈ X, then f is continuous on X.

Proposition 6.1

Let (X, d1 ), (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces and f : X → Y be a function. Then the following
are equivalent.

1. f is continuous on X.

2. If (xn )∞
n=1 is in X such that xn → x ∈ X, then f (xn ) → f (x) ∈ Y .

3. If U ⊆ Y is open, then f −1 (U ) is also open in X. In other words, the inverse image


of a continuous function preserves openness.

4. If E ⊆ Y is closed, then f −1 (E) is also closed in X. In other words, the inverse


image of a continuous function preserves closedness.

We can use Proposition 6.1.3 to define continuity of functions in topological spaces.

Continuity of a Function in a Topological Space Definition

Let (X, τ1 ), (Y, τ2 ) be topological spaces and let f : X → Y . Then f is continuous on X


if f −1 preserves openness. Equivalently, if U ⊆ Y is open (U ∈ τ2 ), then f −1 (U ) is also
open (f −1 (U ) ∈ τ1 ).

Proposition 6.2

Let (X, d1 ), (Y, d2 ), and (Z, d3 ) be metric spaces. Suppose f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are
continuous functions. Then g ◦ f : X → Z is also continuous on X.

Proof. Let U ⊆ Z be open. Then Proposition 6.1 implies (g ◦ f )−1 (U ) = f −1 g −1 (U ) is




open in X as f, g are continuous and U is open. Hence g ◦ f is continuous on X. ■

Proposition 6.3

Suppose (X, d1 ), (Y, d2 ) are metric spaces and let f : X → Y be a function. Further,
suppose there exists some c > 0 such that d2 (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) ≤ c d1 (x1 , x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ X.
Then f is continuous on X.

Proof. We will use Proposition 6.1. Suppose xn → x on X, where (xn ), x are in X. Then

0 ≤ d2 (f (xn ), f (x)) ≤ c d1 (xn , x)

for all n ∈ N. In the limit, d1 (xn , x) → 0 so d2 (f (xn ), f (x)) → 0 by the Squeeze Theorem.
Thus f (xn ) → f (x) and the result follows. ■

13
Metric Spaces

Homeomorphism in Topological Spaces Definition

Let (X, τ1 ), (Y, τ2 ) be topological spaces. We say that f : X → Y is a homeomorphism if

1. f is bijective,

2. f is continuous,

3. f −1 , the inverse of f , is continuous.

Further, we say that (X, τ1 ) and (Y, τ2 ) are homeomorphic if there exists a homeomorphism
between them.

14
MATH 487

Lecture 7
Proposition 7.1

If f : X → Y is a homeomorphism, then A ⊆ X is open if and only if f (A) is also open.


In other words, homeomorphisms preserve openness.

Proof. We prove the converse: let A ⊆ X and suppose f (A) is open. Then A = f −1 (f (A))
as f is bijective. Hence A is open as f is continuous and f (A) is open. To prove the forward,
−1
suppose A ⊆ X is open. Then f (A) = f −1 (A) as f is bijective. But since f −1 is
continuous and A is open, we must have that f (A) is open. ■

Remark
A homeomorphism may not preserve boundedness. For example, consider
x
f : (0, 1) → (0, ∞) where f (x) = .
1−x

Then f −1 (x) = 1+x


x
and f is a homeomorphism. However, (0, 1) is bounded while (0, ∞)
is not bounded.

There is a special homeomorphism between two metric spaces.

Isometry Definition

Let (X, d1 ), (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces. Then a function f : X → Y is an isometry if

1. f is bijective,

2. for all x1 , x2 ∈ X, we have d1 (x1 , x2 ) = d2 (f (x1 ), f (x2 )).

In other words, isometries preserve the metric.

Proposition 7.2

If f is an isometry, then f is a homeomorphism.

Proof. As
d2 (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) = d1 (x1 , x2 ) ≤ 1 · d1 (x1 , x2 ),
then f is continuous by Proposition 6.3. Now let f (x1 ) = y1 and f (x2 ) = y2 . Then

d1 f −1 (y1 ), f −1 (y2 ) = d1 (x1 , x2 ) = d2 (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) ≤ 1 · d2 (y1 , y2 )




as f is bijective and f −1 is continuous. ■

Subspace Metric Definition

For any metric space (X, dX ) and any Y ⊆ X, define

dY : Y × Y → [0, ∞) by dY (y1 , y2 ) = dX (y1 , y2 )

for all y1 , y2 ∈ Y . Then (Y, dY ) is also a metric space and dY is called the subspace metric
on Y .

15
Metric Spaces

Are open sets in a subspace still open in the parent metric space?

Example 7.1

Consider the subset [0, 1) ⊂ R and the metric space (R, | · |). Then ([0, 1), | · |) is a metric
space. Hence      
1 1 1
BY 0, = y ∈ Y : d(y, 0) < = 0,
2 2 2
is open in Y but not in X.

Likewise, there exist sets that are closed in a subspace but not in the parent metric space.

16
MATH 487

Lecture 8
Cauchy Sequence Definition

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then a sequence (xn )∞n=1 in X is Cauchy if for all ε > 0,
there exists some N (ε) ∈ N such that if m > n > N (ε), then d(xm , xn ) < ε.

Proposition 8.1

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then. . .

1. If (xn )∞
n=1 converges in (X, d) to some x ∈ X, then (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

2. If (xn )∞ ∞
n=1 is a Cauchy sequence and there exists a subsequence (xnk )k=1 of (xn )
such that xnk → x ∈ X, then xn → x.

Proof of 1. Suppose xn → x ∈ X and let ε > 0. Then thereexists some N 2ε ∈ N such that


if n > N 2ε , we have d(xn , x) < 2ε . Hence if m > n > N 2ε , the triangle inequality implies
ε ε
d(xm , xn ) ≤ d(xn , x) + d(x, xm ) < + = ε. ■
2 2
Proof of 2. Let ε > 0. The triangle inequality implies d(xn , x) ≤ d(xn , xnk ) + d(xnk , x). As
(xn ) is Cauchy and xnk → x, then
ε ε
d(xn , xnk ) + d(xnk , x) < + = ε. ■
2 2
Not all Cauchy sequences are convergent. This leads to the following definition.

Complete Metric Space Definition

A metric space (X, d) is complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges to a point in


X.

Example 8.1

The metric space (R, | · |) is complete.

Example 8.2

Consider L2 , d where


 Z ∞ 
2 2
L = f :R→R| [f (x)] dx < ∞
−∞

and 1
Z ∞ 2
2
d(f, g) = |f (x) − g(x)| dx
−∞

for all f, g ∈ L2 . Then L2 , d is a complete metric space. Now let




L2C = L2 ∩ {f : R → R | f is continuous}.

Then L2C , d is a subspace of L2 , d . We claim L2C , d is not complete. To demonstrate


  

17
Metric Spaces

this, let 


0 x < −1,

x + 1 −1 ≤ x < 0,
fn (x) =


−nx + 1 0 ≤ x ≤ n1 ,
x > n1

0

for all n ∈ N. Clearly fn ∈ L2C for all n ∈ N. If m > n, then

1 1 1
!1
Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
1
2 2
Z
n
d(fm , fn ) = |fm (x) − fn (x)|2 dx = 1 dx = 1 dx =√ .
−∞ −∞ 0 n

In the limit, √1n → 0, thus (fn )∞ 2



n=1 is a Cauchy sequence in LC , d . Now, note that
fn → g where 
0
 x < −1,
g(x) = x + 1 −1 ≤ x < 0,

0 x ≥ 0,

which is discontinuous and hence not in L2C . To demonstrate this, see that

1 1 1
!1
Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
1
2 2
Z
n
d(fn , g) = |fn (x) − g(x)|2 dx ≤ 1 dx = 1 dx =√ .
−∞ −∞ 0 n

In the limit, √1n → 0, thus fn → g on L2 , d . Finally, we show that fn ↛ f for all




f ∈ L2C by contradiction. Suppose that fn → f for some f ∈ L2C . Then the triangle
inequality implies d(f, g) ≤ d(f, fn ) + d(fn , g). In the limit, d(f, fn ) → 0 and d(fn , g) → 0,
so the Squeeze Theorem implies d(f, g) → 0. As f, g are independent of n, we must have
d(f, g) = 0 so that f = g ∈/ L2C , a contradiction. Hence, we have found a Cauchy sequence
(fn ) in L2C that does not converge to a function within L2C . In other words, L2C is not
complete.

1.5 y
f1
f2
1 f3

0.5

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1

−0.5

18
MATH 487

Lecture 9
Remark
 
If (X, d) is not complete, then there is a unique, complete metric space Y, de such that
 
X ⊆ Y and d(x e 1 , x2 ) = d(x1 , x2 ) for x1 , x2 ∈ X. We call Y, de the completion of (X, d).

Example 9.1

Consider the space (Q, | · |), which is not complete. Then (R, | · |) is the completion of
(Q, | · |).

Contraction Mapping Theorem

Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. A map T : X → X is called a contraction mapping


on X if there exists an α where 0 < α < 1 such that

d(T (x), T (y)) ≤ α d(x, y)

for all x, y ∈ X. Then there is a unique x0 ∈ X such that T (x0 ) = x0 . In other words, x0
is a unique, fixed point of T .
The contraction mapping theorem is also known as the Banach fixed-point theorem.

Proof of Uniqueness. Suppose x0 , y0 ∈ X are such that

T (x0 ) = x0 and T (y0 ) = y0 .

Then
0 ≤ d(x0 , y0 ) = d(T (x0 ), T (y0 )) ≤ α d(x0 , y0 )
This implies d(x0 , y0 ) (1 − α) ≤ 0, and as 1 − α > 0, we must have d(x0 , y0 ) = 0. Hence
x0 = y0 . ■
Proof of Existence. Note that T satisfies the Lipschitz condition with c = α and is hence
continuous. Now define a sequence (xn )∞ n=1 in X inductively as follows: let x1 ∈ X be
arbitrary and let xn+1 = T (xn ). In fact, (xn ) is Cauchy. To this effect, let n > m where
n, m ∈ N. Then
d(xn , xm ) = d(T (xn−1 ), T (xm−1 )) ≤ α d(xn−1 , xm−1 )
and in turn,
α d(xn−1 , xm−1 ) = α d(T (xn−2 ), T (xm−2 )) ≤ α2 d(xn−2 , xm−2 ).
Continuing in this manner and applying the triangle inequality, we see that
d(xn , xm ) ≤ αm−1 d(xn−m+1 , x1 )
≤ αm−1 [d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x2 , x3 ) + d(x3 , x4 ) + · · · + d(xn−m , xn−m+1 )]
≤ αm−1 d(x1 , x2 ) + α d(x1 , x2 ) + α2 d(x1 , x2 ) + · · · + αn−m−1 d(x1 , x2 )
 

= αm−1 d(x1 , x2 ) 1 + α + α2 + · · · + αn−m−1




1 − αn−m
 
m−1
=α d(x1 , x2 )
1−α
α m−1
≤ d(x1 , x2 ).
1−α

19
Metric Spaces

In the limit, the expression in the last inequality approaches 0, as α < 1. Hence, (xn ) is a
Cauchy sequence. As (X, d) is complete, there exists some x0 ∈ X such that xn → x0 . To
close the proof, we will utilize the continuity of T . As T is continuous,
 
T (x0 ) = T lim xn = lim T (xn ) = lim xn+1 = x0 . ■
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

We now shift our discussion into normed spaces.

Normed Space Definition

A vector space X over R with a map ∥ · ∥ : X → [0, ∞) such that

• ∥x∥ = 0 if and only if x = 0 for all x ∈ X,

• ∥cx∥ = |c| ∥x∥ for all x ∈ X and c ∈ R,

• ∥x + y∥ ≤ ∥x∥ + ∥y∥ for all x, y ∈ X

is called a normed space.

Remark
If (X, ∥ · ∥) is a normed space, let d(x, y) = ∥x − y∥ for all x, y ∈ X. Then (X, d) is a
metric space.

We have the following relations of inclusions:

Inner product spaces ⊂ Normed spaces ⊂ Metric spaces ⊂ Topological spaces.

20
MATH 487

Lecture 10

Example 10.1

Consider
L1C = L1 ∩ {f : R → R | f is continuous}.
Define ∥ · ∥ : L1C → [0, ∞) where
Z ∞
∥f ∥ = |f (x)| dx.
−∞

for f ∈ L1C . Then f (x) = 0 implies


Z ∞ Z ∞
∥f ∥ = |f (x)| dx = 0 dx = 0.
−∞ −∞

Now we prove ∥f ∥ = 0 implies f (x) = 0 by contradiction. To this effect, suppose not—that


is, suppose f (x) ̸= 0. Then there exists some x0 ∈ R such that |f (x0 )| > 0. By the
continuity of f , there exists some δ > 0 such that |f (x)| > 2ε for all x ∈ B(x0 , δ). Hence,
Z ∞ ε
∥f ∥ = |f (x)| dx ≥ 2δ = δε > 0,
−∞ 2

a contradiction, and f (x) = 0. This demonstrates that ∥ · ∥ satisfies the first condition.
Furthermore, Z ∞ Z ∞
∥cf ∥ = |cf (x)| dx = |c| |f (x)| dx = |c|∥f ∥
−∞ −∞

for all f ∈ L1Cand c ∈ R. Lastly, the triangle inequality for real numbers implies
Z ∞ Z ∞
∥f + g∥ = |f (x) + g(x)| dx = |f (x)| + |g(x)| dx
−∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
= |f (x)| dx + |g(x)| dx
−∞ −∞
= ∥f ∥ + ∥g∥.

Therefore L1C , ∥ · ∥ is a normed space.




In fact, we have the following proposition.

Proposition 10.1

LpC , ∥ · ∥ is a normed space for all p ∈ N, where




LpC = Lp ∩ {f : R → R | f is continuous}
( Z ∞ 1 )
p
= f :R→R| |f (x)|p dx < ∞ ∩ {f : R → R | f is continuous}.
−∞

Before we supply the proof, we require several lemmas.

21
Metric Spaces

Lemma: Young’s Inequality


1 1 ap bq
If 1 < p, q < ∞ are such that p + q = 1 and a, b ≥ 0, then ab ≤ p + q .

Lemma: Hölder’s Inequality


1 1
If 1 < p, q < ∞ are such that p + q = 1 and
Z ∞ Z ∞
p
|f (x)| dx, |g(x)|p dx < ∞,
−∞ −∞

then  1 Z 1
Z ∞ Z ∞ p ∞ p
p p
|f (x)g(x)| dx ≤ |f (x)| dx |g(x)| dx .
−∞ −∞ −∞

Using these lemmas, we are able to prove the following.

Lemma: Minkowski Inequality

∥f + g∥ ≤ ∥f ∥ + ∥g∥ for all f, g ∈ LpC .

Now we are ready to prove Proposition 10.1.


Proof. To check the first condition, suppose f ∈ LpC is such that f (x) = 0. Then trivially,
Z ∞  1 Z ∞ 1
p p
p
∥f ∥ = |f (x)| dx = 0 dx = 0.
−∞ −∞

We will again prove ∥f ∥ = 0 implies f (x) = 0 by contradiction. If f (x) ̸= 0, then there exists
some x0 ∈ R such that |f (x0 )| > 0. By the continuity of f , there exists some δ > 0 such that
|f (x)| > 2ε for all x ∈ B(x0 , δ). Hence,
Z ∞ 1 h   i1
p ε p p
p
∥f ∥ = |f (x)| dx ≥ 2δ > 0,
−∞ 2

a contradiction, and f (x) = 0. This demonstrates that ∥ · ∥ satisfies the first condition.
Furthermore,
Z ∞ 1 Z ∞ 1
p p
p p
∥cf ∥ = |cf (x)| dx = |c| |f (x)| dx = |c| ∥f ∥
−∞ −∞

for all f ∈ LpC and c ∈ R. The last condition is given by the Minkowski inequality. Therefore
LpC , ∥ · ∥ is a normed space. ■

22
MATH 487

Lecture 11

Example 11.1

recall that
 
L∞
C = f : R → R| sup |f (x)| < ∞ ∩ {f : R → R | f is continuous}.
x∈R

Let f be a function in L∞
C and let

∥f ∥ = sup |f (x)|.
x∈R

Then (L∞ ∞ ∞
C , ∥ · ∥) is a normed space. We can define a metric d : LC × LC → R by

d(f, g) = ∥f − g∥

where g ∈ L∞
C.

Example 11.2

For 1 ≤ p < ∞, recall that



( )
X
lp (N) = (an )∞
n=1 : ai ∈ R, i ∈ N and |an |p < ∞ .
n=1

Let a = (an )∞ p
n=1 be a sequence in l (N) and let


!1
X p

∥a∥ = |an |p .
n=1

Then (lp (N), ∥ · ∥) is a normed space. We can define a metric d : lp (N) × lp (N) → R by

d(a, b) = ∥a − b∥

where b = (bn )∞ p
n=1 ∈ l (N).

Example 11.3

Recall that  

l (N) = (an )∞
n=1 : ai ∈ R, i ∈ N and sup |an | < ∞ .
n∈N

Let a = (an )∞
n=1 be a sequence in l∞ (N) and let

∥a∥ = sup |an |.


n∈N

Then (l∞ (N), ∥ · ∥) is a normed space. We can define a metric d : l∞ (N) × l∞ (N) → R by

d(a, b) = ∥a − b∥

where b = (bn )∞ ∞
n=1 ∈ l (N).

23
Metric Spaces

Dense Topological Space Definition

A set A ⊆ X, where X is a topological space is dense in X if A = X.

Remark

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then A = X if and only if for all x ∈ X, there exists some
ε > 0 such that B(x, ε) ∩ A ̸= ∅.

Separable Topological Space Definition

A topological space (X, τ ) is separable if there exists a countable subset A ⊆ X such that
A = X. In other words, A is a countable, dense subset of X.

Example 11.4

(R, | · |) is a separable metric space. Indeed, Q = R. In fact, (Rn , d) is separable and


Qn = Rn .

Proof. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn and ε > 0. Choose r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ∈ Q such that


|xk − rk | < √εn where 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Let r = (r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) ∈ Qn . Then

n
!1 "n 
#1 n
!1 n
!1
2
ε 2 2
ε2 2 2

X X X X 1 1
d(x, r) = (xk − rk )2 < √ = =ε = ε(1) 2 = ε.
n n n
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

Thus, Qn = Rn and Rn is separable. ■

24
MATH 487

Lecture 12
Example 12.1

For 1 ≤ p < ∞, recall that



( )
X
p
l (N) = (an )∞
n=1 : ai ∈ R, i ∈ N and p
|an | < ∞ .
n=1

Let a = (an )∞ ∞ p
n=1 and b = (bn )n=1 be sequences in l (N) and let


!1
X p
p
d(a, b) = |an − bn | .
n=1

Then (lp (N), d) is a separable metric space.

Proof. For k ∈ N, let

Ak = {(r1 , r2 , . . . , rk , 0, 0, . . .) : ri ∈ Q, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}.

Note that each Ak is countable. Hence



[
A= Ak
k=1

is
Palso countable. We claim A = lp (N). To this effect, let x = (xn )∞ p
n=1 ∈ l (N) and ε > 0. As
∞ p
n=1 |xn | < ∞, there exists some N (ε) ∈ N such that


X εp
|xn |p < .
2
n=N (ε)+1

Choose r1 , r2 , . . . , rN (ε) ∈ Q such that


ε
|xj − rj | < 1
(2N (ε)) p

for 1 ≤ j ≤ N (ε). Let r = (r1 , r2 , . . . , rN (ε) , 0, 0, . . .). Clearly r ∈ AN (ε) ⊂ A. Then

N (ε) ∞ N (ε)
!p N (ε)
p
X
p
X
p
X ε εp X εp εp
d(x, r) = |xk − rk | + |xk | < 1 + = +
(2N (ε)) p 2 2N (ε) 2
k=1 k=N (ε)+1 k=1 k=1
 p 
ε εp
= N (ε) +
2N (ε) 2
p
=ε .

This implies d(x, r) < ε. We have shown that no matter what element x in lp (N) we choose,
there is some element r in A within the ε-neighborhood of x for arbitrary ε. Hence r → x
and lp (N) ⊆ A. As it is clear that A ⊆ lp (N), we conclude that A = lp (N) and (lp (N), d) is
separable. ■

25
Metric Spaces

Example 12.2

Recall that  

l (N) = (an )∞
n=1 : ai ∈ R, i ∈ N and sup |an | < ∞ .
n∈N

Let a = (an )∞
n=1 and b = (bn )∞
n=1 be sequences in l∞ (N) and let

d(a, b) = sup |an − bn |.


n∈N

Then (l∞ (N), d) is not a separable metric space.

Proof. Let
S = {(xn )∞
n=1 : xi = 1 or 2, i ≥ 1}.

Suppose S is countable. Then we can list its elements as y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . and so on. Now let
z = (zn )∞n=1 be defined as follows: if the ith term of yi is 1, then zi = 2, and if the ith term
of yi is 2, then zi = 1. Then z ∈ / S as z is different from all elements y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . in S, which
demonstrates that S must be uncountable.
Now, if x = (xn )∞ ∞
n=1 , y = (yn )n=1 ∈ S are such that x ̸= y, we know

d(x, y) = sup |xn − yn | = 1.


n∈N

Thus B x, 12 ∩ B y, 21 = ∅, demonstrating that the collection of disjoint open balls


 

   
1
B x, :x∈S
2

is uncountable. If A ⊆ l∞ (N) is dense, then A has at least one point in each open ball B x, 21


where x ∈ S. Hence, A must be uncountable, proving that any dense subset of l∞ (N) must
be uncountable. By taking the contrapositive, we see that (l∞ (N), d) is not separable. ■

26

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