Mechanics

Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected
to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The
scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes.

Mechanics is the branch of Physics dealing with the study of motion. No matter what your
interest in science or engineering, mechanics will be important for you - motion is a fundamental
idea in all of science.

Mechanics can be divided into 2 areas - kinematics, dealing with describing motions, and
dynamics, dealing with the causes of motion.

During the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the
foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical physics that
deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the
speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of and forces
on objects.

In physics, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics are the two major sub-fields
of mechanics. Classical mechanics is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion
of bodies under the action of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one,
making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and
technology. It is also widely known as Newtonian mechanics.

Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts
of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies.
Besides this, many specializations within the subject deal with solids, liquids and gases and other
specific sub-topics. Classical mechanics also provides extremely accurate results as long as the
domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach
the speed of light.

When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the
other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics, which reconciles the macroscopic laws of
physics with the atomic nature of matter and handles the wave–particle duality of atoms and
molecules.

When both quantum mechanics and classical mechanics cannot apply, such as at the quantum level
with high speeds, quantum field theory (QFT) becomes applicable.

Motion in One Dimension

Motion

Motion is defined as change in position of a body over time with respect to the surrounding.
Motion may be divided into three basic types — translational, rotational, and oscillatory.

For the concept of motion in one direction, consider a motion of a body along a straight track. The
subject of motion in physics is called a, "body".

One dimensional motion is motion along a straight line. The displacement (x), velocity (v), and
acceleration (a). All of these three are linked together.
Reference Frame

A framework that is used for the observation and mathematical description of physical phenomena
and the formulation of physical laws, usually consisting of an observer, a coordinate system, and a
clock or clocks assigning times at positions with respect to the coordinate system.

Displacement

Displacement is defined as the shortest distance (x) of a one-dimensional object from a center point,
or an origin. Displacement is plotted against time in a curved graph. A body, in motion in one
dimension, can only move left and right.
Positive and Negative Displacement

The line used for this motion is often the familiar x-axis, or x number line. The object may move
forward or backward along this line:

Forward is usually considered positive movement, and this movement is usually considered to be to
the right. So, as an object moves forward down the x-axis, it is heading toward larger and larger x
coordinates, and we say that it has a positive displacement and a positive velocity:

Backward is usually considered negative movement to the left. As an object moves backward along
the x-axis, it is heading toward smaller and smaller x coordinates, and we say that it has a negative
displacement and a negative velocity:

Speed

Speed is the rate of change of distance with time. In order to calculate the speed of an object we must
know how far it's gone and how long it took to get there.

𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
Where, v = speed, d = distance travelled and t= time taken.

Let's say you drove a car from New York to Boston. The distance by road is roughly 300 km
(200 miles). If the trip takes four hours, what was your speed? Applying the formula gives…

𝑠 300 Km
v=𝑡 = = 75 Km/h
4 hour
Average Speed

The average speed (s) of an object is the quotient between the total distance (d) travelled and the total
time (t) taken to complete the travel.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Instantaneous speed, that is, the speed determined over a very small interval of time — an instant.
Ideally this interval should be as close to zero as possible, but in reality, we are limited by the
sensitivity of our measuring devices.

Mentally, however, it is possible imagine calculating average speed over ever smaller time intervals
until we have effectively calculated instantaneous speed. This idea is written symbolically as

𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→0 =
𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Velocity

Velocity is defined as the rate of which displacement changes over time. The higher the velocity, the
faster a body is moving. It is a vector quantity i.e. it requires both magnitude and direction.Velocity
can be zero also if the total displacement is zero, and this is only when the body after travelling a
 certain distance in any direction comes to rest at the same point where it started. The instantaneous
velocity can also be zero when the sign of its magnitude changes; for example, a body experiencing
constant acceleration against its direction of travel will eventually switch directions and move in the
direction of the acceleration, and at that instant, its velocity is zero.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Velocity = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑋
V= 𝑡
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
ds

dx
In terms of mathematics, the most general definition of velocity is, v = . What this means is that
dt
velocity is the derivative of displacement (x) with respect to time.

Average Velocity

The average speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.

Velocity is a vector quantity, and average velocity can be defined as the displacement divided by the
time. For the special case of straight line motion in the x direction,

The average velocity takes the form:

The units for velocity can be implied from the definition to be meters/second or in general any
distance unit over any time unit.
You can approach an expression for the instantaneous velocity at any point on the path by taking
the limit as the time interval gets smaller and smaller. Such a limiting process is called
a derivative and the instantaneous velocity can be defined as

Instantaneous Velocity

Uniform Velocity and variable Velocity

Uniform Velocity Variable Velocity

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. A body with a positive acceleration is
gaining velocity over time. A body with a negative acceleration is losing velocity over time.

It is denoted by a.

Uniform Acceleration

If the acceleration remains always constant, then that acceleration is called uniform acceleration

The uniform acceleration of a body is 10 ms-2 means that the velocity of the body changes in each
second by 10 ms-1 in the same direction.

Variable Acceleration

When the acceleration of a body changes with time, the acceleration is called variable acceleration.
The acceleration of bus, train, car etc is examples of variable acceleration.
Average acceleration

Average acceleration is determined over a "long" time interval. The word long in this context
means finite — something with a beginning and an end. The velocity at the beginning of this interval
is called the initial velocity, represented by the symbol v0 , and the velocity at the end is called
the final velocity, represented by the symbol v .

Average acceleration is a quantity calculated from two velocity measurements.

∆v v2 − v1
a̅ = =
∆t Δt

Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is measured over a "short" time interval. The word short in this context
means infinitely small or infinitesimal — having no duration or extent whatsoever. It's a
mathematical ideal that can only be realized as a limit.

The limit of a rate as the denominator approaches zero is called a derivative.

Instantaneous acceleration is then the limit of average acceleration as the time interval approaches
zero — or alternatively, acceleration is the derivative of velocity.

𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→0 =
𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with time, but velocity is itself the derivative of
displacement with time. The derivative is a mathematical operation that can be applied multiple
times to a pair of changing quantities. Doing it once gives you a first derivative. Doing it twice (the
derivative of a derivative) gives you a second derivative. That makes acceleration the first derivative
of velocity with time and the second derivative of displacement with time.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑎= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Equations of motion

(i) v = vo + at

Consider a particles moving with uniform acceleration a. From definition

dv
a= dt

dv = adt ……………… (1)

Integrating both sides

ʃ dv = a ʃ dt

v = at + k ………….. (2)

Let vo be the initial velocity at time t = 0 from equation (2), we get

vo = k

Submitting this value in equation number (2)

v = vo + at
𝟏
(ii) s = vo t + at2
𝟐

Suppose at any instant of time, the velocity of the particle is v. The distance covered by the particle
in an interval of time is dt, then

ds = v dt ……………. (1)

But, v = vo + at

ds = (vo + at)dt

ds = vo dt + at dt

Integrating this equation

ʃ ds = vo ʃ dt + at ʃ dt
1
s = vo t + 2 at 2 + k

When, t = 0, s = 0, we get k = 0
1
s = vo t + 2 at 2

(iii) v2 = vo2 + 2as

We know that

v = vo + at

at = v - vo …………. (1)

The distance travelled

v + vo
s= t
2

2s
= v + vo …………… (2)
t

Multiplying (1) and (2)

2s
at × = (v - vo) (v + vo)
t

2as = v2 – v2o

v2 = vo2 + 2as

In case of free falling bodies

v = vo + gt

v2 = vo2 + 2gh
1
h = vo t + 2 g t 2

Newton’s Las of Motion

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that,

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical
mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its
motion in response to those forces.

First law

“Each body, in this universe continues to be in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it.”

Second law

“The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed force and takes
place in the direction of the force.”

The vector sum of the external forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied
by the acceleration vector a of the object: F = ma.
Third law

“To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”

When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.

The three laws of motion were first compiled by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used
them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems.
For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined
with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

The first law gives the definition of force, the second law gives a measure of the force and third law
specifies the property of force.

Force

Force is defined as that, external agency that changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform
motion of a body in a straight line. The first law of motion is also called the “law of inertia.”

Momentum

The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass times its velocity. It is a vector
quantity. The momentum of a system is the vector sum of the momenta of the objects which make up
the system.

Like velocity, linear momentum is a vector quantity, possessing a direction as well as a magnitude:

Where p is the three-dimensional vector stating the object's momentum in the three directions of
three-dimensional space, v is the three-dimensional velocity vector giving the object's rate of
movement in each direction, and m is the object's mass.

If the system is an isolated system, then the momentum of the system is a constant of the motion and
subject to the principle of conservation of momentum.

The basic definition of momentum applies even at relativistic velocities but then the mass is taken to
be the relativistic mass.

The most common symbol for momentum is p. The SI unit for momentum is kg m/s.
Linear momentum is also a conserved quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by
external forces, its total linear momentum cannot change.

Impulse

The product of average force and the time it is exerted is called the impulse of force. From Newton's
second law

Newton’s Second Law can be rearranged to define the impulse, J, delivered by a constant force, F.

Impulse is a vector quantity defined as the product of the force acting on a body and the time interval
during which the force is exerted. If the force changes during the time interval, F is the average net
force over that time interval. The impulse caused by a force during a specific time interval is equal to
the body’s change of momentum during that time interval: impulse, effectively, is a measure of
change in momentum.

a small force applied for a long time produces the same change in momentum—the same impulse—
as a larger force applied briefly.

The impulse is the integral of the resultant force (F) with respect to time:
Inertia

Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its state of motion (this includes
changes to its speed, direction or state of rest). It is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a
straight line at constant velocity.

The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental principles of classical physics that are used to
describe the motion of objects and how they are affected by applied forces. Inertia comes from the
Latin word, iners, meaning idle, sluggish. Inertia is one of the primary manifestations of mass, which
is a quantitative property of physical systems. Isaac Newton defined inertia as his first law in
his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.

Car is in motion Car Stopping

Derivation of F = ma

If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v, it possesses momentum

p = mv

Here, p and v are vector quantities. The direction of momentum is the same as the direction of
velocity.

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force.
dp
F ∝ dt

d(mv)
F ∝ dt

d d
F ∝ v dt (m) + m dt (v)

dm
= 0 as the mass of the body is constant.
dt

d
F ∝ m dt (v)

F = k ma

From the definition of unit force k = 1. Suppose, m = 1. a = 1 and F = 1, then

1=k×1×1

Then we have

F = ma

I Newton = 1 kg × 1 ms-2 = 1000 gm × 100 cm-2 = 105 dynes.

Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

Consider two particles in an isolated system. These two particles interact with each other and no
external forces are acting on the system. In such a case, the momentum of the system will remain
constant but the momentum of each particle may change due to the interaction.

“The vector sum of the linear momentum of all the particles in an isolated system remains constant
in the absence of any external forces.”

Proof

Let two particles A and B of mass m1 and m2 move in the same direction in straight line with
velocity u1 and u2 respectively. Here (u1 > u2).

At one time the first particle (A) will hit the second particle (B) and then two particles will continue
moving in the same direction and along the same line with velocities v1 and v2 respectively.

Let the time of action and reaction due to collision is t. Thus, the resultant of initial momentum of the
two particles

P1 = (m1u1 + m2u2)

The resultant of the final momentum of the particles

P2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1 v1 − m1 u1
Rate of change of momentum of the first particle = t

m2 v2 − m2 u2
Rate of change of momentum of the second particle = t

From Newton’s third law

Applied Force = - Reaction Force

FAB = - FBA
𝑑𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑃𝐵𝐴
=-
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑃𝐵𝐴
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑡
where, P=PAB+PBA

so, P=constant

that means initial momentum and final momentum of the particles are same

P1=P2

i.e., m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Summation or resultant of the initial momentum of the two particles = Summation or resultant of the
final momentum of the particles. Hence the conservation principle is proved.

Newton’s third law of motion

Consider two particles in an isolated system. Their masses are m1 and m2. Their velocities are v1 and
v2. Consider that the two bodies are moving along the same line and they interact.

Due to interaction, their velocities change. Consequently, there will be change in their momentum in
time ∆t. supposes, change in momentum of the first particle = ∆p1 and change in momentum of the
second particle = ∆p2.

From the law of conservation of linear momentum, in an isolated system, having external forces
zero, we get

∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0

∆p1 = - ∆p2

Dividing by ∆t
∆p1 ∆p2
=
∆t ∆t

In the limit, when ∆t → 0

dp1 dp2
=
dt dt

F2 = - F1

Force acting on m2 = - Force acting on m1

Action = - Reaction

This represents Newton’s third law of motion. According to this law, “Action and reaction are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction and act on different bodies in an isolated system”
Deduction of Newton’s first law form its second law

Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force.

If a particle has mass m and velocity v due to a applied force F on the particle then according to this
law we can write

𝑑𝑝
𝐹
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
𝑜𝑟, = 𝐾 𝐹 …………………………(1)
𝑑𝑡

If the impressed force is zero then F=0. So from equation (1) we get that

𝑑𝑝
=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑝 = 0

𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (integrating)

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡……………………………….(2)

As the mass of the particle is constant so from equation (2) we can say

v = constant

that means, if the applied force is zero then the velocity of the particle will be constant, which is the
statement of the Newton’s first law.

Motion in Two Dimensions

Projectile Motion

A body projected with a uniform velocity at an angle θ with the horizontal in the vertical plane of the
earth, is called a projectile. The path traversed by the projectile is called its trajectory.
 Projectile Motion
Projectile: A body or object which is projected with an initial velocity at an angle θ
with horizontal in the vertical plane of the earth is called projectile. The path
traversed by the projectile is called its trajectory.
Characteristics of Projectile motion:
1. Projectile motion is a fine example of curvilinear motion which is two
dimensional.
2. The position and velocity change continuously with time.
3. The acceleration is constant and always directed vertically downward. It has
no horizontal acceleration.
We show the trajectory by considering that,
 The only force that acting on projectile is gravitational force i.e. the air has
no effect on it.
 The maximum height of projectile is negligible with compared to the radius
of the earth. So the value of gravitational acceleration is constant.

Fig.1. Projectile Motion

The equation of Projectile path or trajectory:
Let us consider a projectile begins its flight with an initial velocity vo and making an
angle θ with the horizontal direction from point O as shown in Fig. 1.
The initial velocity has two components i.e.,
horizontal component, vox = vo cosθ, along OX-direction
and, vertical component, voy = vo sinθ, along OY-direction
The accelerations components are
ax = 0, along horizontal direction
ay = -g, along vertical direction
At any time t, the horizontal and vertical components of displacement of a
projectile are given by,
1
x = vox t + ax t2
2

or, x = vo cosθ t ; (since ax = 0) ----------------------------(1)

 1
and, y = voy t + ay t2
2
1
or, y = vo sinθ t - g t2; (since, ay = -g) -------------------- (2)
2

At any time t, the magnitude of the position of a projectile is given by

r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Now, at time t, the horizontal and vertical components of velocity of a projectile
are given by,
vx = vox + ax t
or, vx = vo cosθ ---------------------------------------(3)

and, vy = voy + ay t
or, vy = vosinθ - g t ----------------------------------(4)
So, at time t, the magnitude of velocity of a projectile is

|𝑣̅ | = √𝑣𝑋2 + 𝑣𝑌2

Let v makes an angle θ with the x axis, so
𝑣𝑦
tanθ =
𝑣𝑥
𝑣𝑦
or, θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑣𝑥

which represent the direction of the projectile.

*** The horizontal velocity component of a projectile remain unchanged over time
because there is no time dependent term as shown in equ. (3). On the other hand,
from equ. (4) we can see the vertical velocity component of a projectile changes
with time.
The equation of trajectory of motion of a body at any instant is the equation
relating the co-ordinates of the body at that instant.
From equ.(1) and equ.(2) we find the co-ordinate as a function of t.
From equ.(1) , x = vo cosθ t
𝑥
or, t = ------------------------(5)
𝑣𝑜 cosθ

Putting the value of t in equ.(2)

𝑥 1 𝑥
y = vo sinθ - g( )2
𝑣𝑜 cosθ 2 𝑣𝑜 cosθ

1 𝑔𝑥 2
or, y = x tanθ -
2 𝑉02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

or, y = ax – bx2 --------------------------- (6)

Here, a and b are constant. This is the equation of a parabola. So the path of a
projectile is parabolic.

Time to reach maximum height:

At maximum height, the vertical component of velocity, Vy = 0
From the equation of motion, vy = vosinθ - g t

vosinθ - g t = 0
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or, t = --------------------------------(7)
𝑔

By knowing the value of vo, θ and g we can calculate t.

Time of flight: The time required for a projectile to come-back to the ground after
it has been thrown is the time of flight.
Let the time of flight be T.
When the object come back to the ground then y = 0,
1
y = vo sinθ T - g T2 = 0
2
1
or, (v0 sinθ - gT)T = 0
2
1
Therefore, T = 0 or, v0 sinθ - g
2

Since, T = 0 indicates the time when the object has been thrown, so
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
T= ------------------------------ (8)
𝑔

This is the equation of the time of flight of a projectile.

Maximum height:
1
From the equation of motion, y = vo sinθ t - g t2
2

Let the height reached by the projectile be H where final verticle velocity vy = 0 and
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
the time to reach the maximum height, t = . So the equation becomes,
𝑔

𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑔 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

H = vo sinθ -
𝑔 2 𝑔2

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
or, H = ------------------------------(9)
2𝑔

When θ = 900 , The height will be maximum. Then equ.(8) will be,
𝑣02
H= ------------------------------- (10)
2𝑔
Horizontal Range:
The linear distance from the point of projection to the end of flight is called the
horizontal range. Alternatively, the distance travelled along the horizontal direction
in the time of flight is called the horizontal range. This is denoted by R.
R = horizontal component of the initial velocity × time of flight
R = vo cos θ × T
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
R = vo cos θ ×
𝑔
𝑣02 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
R=
𝑔

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
R= -------------------------- (11)
𝑔

Knowing the value of vo, θ and g, we can find the value of R.

Maximum Horizontal Range:

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
The equation of horizontal range, R= ----------------------------- (12)
𝑔

It is evident that R will be maximum, when sin2𝜃 = 1

sin2𝜃 = 900
2𝜃 = 900
θ = 450
𝑣02
In that case, Rmaximum = ------------------------- (13)
𝑔

If an object is thrown at an angle 450 with the horizontal direction, the horizontal
range will be maximum.
Time of ascend is equal to time of descend
Time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height is called time of ascend.
At maximum height the final vertical velocity, Vy = 0
From the equation of motion, vy = vosinθ - g t
vosinθ - g t = 0
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or, t =
𝑔

𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or, Time of ascend = ------------------------------ (1)
𝑔

By knowing the value of vo, θ and g we can calculate t.

Time of flight
Time taken by the projectile to come back to the ground after it has been thrown
is called the time of flight. When the projectile to come back to the ground then,
y = 0. So from the equation of motion,
1
y = vo sinθ t - g t2; (since, ay = -g) -------------------- (2)
2
1
or, 0 = vo sinθ T - g T2
2
1
or, g T2 = vo sinθ T
2
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
T= ---------------------------- (3)
𝑔

Time of descend
Time taken by the projectile to reach the ground from maximum height is called
time of descend.
Time of flight = Time of ascend + Time of descend
Or, Time of descend = Time of flight - Time of ascend
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or, Time of descend = -
𝑔 𝑔
 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or, Time of descend =
𝑔

Or, Time of descend = Time of ascend

So, the time is same for projectile to reach the maximum height and come back
from maximum height.

Problems:
1. A soccer player kicks a ball at an angle of 370 from the horizontal with an initial
speed of 20 m/s. Assume that the ball moves in a vertical plane
a) Find the time at which the ball reaches the highest point of its trajectory.
b) How high does the ball go?
c) What is the horizontal range of the ball and how long is it in the air?
d) What is the velocity of the ball as it strikes ground?

2. A projectile is thrown at a velocity 30 ms-1 making an angle 30 deg with the

ground. Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the football after one second.
3. Suppose a football player kick a ball with an angle 30 degree with horizontal with
a velocity 25 ms-1. The distance between the player and goalkeeper is 80m. The
keeper run with a uniform velocity of 10 ms-1 to catch the ball. Can the keeper catch
the ball? [g=9.8 ms-2]

4. A body is thrown at 20 ms-1 velocity making an angle 50 deg with horizontal

direction.
a) Calculate horizontal range
b) Maximum height
c) Time to ascend the maximum height
d) Time of flight.

5. Suppose a football player kick a ball with an angle 30 degree with horizontal
with a velocity 25 ms-1. A keeper is on the line of the ball at 72 m from the ball
striking would like to catch the ball. What is the velocity of the keeper?
Solution 5:
Here given that, 𝜃 = 300
V0 = 25 ms-1
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
We know, Time of flight, T =
𝑔

2 𝑥 25 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛300
Or, T =
9.8

Or, T = 2.55 s
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
The horizontal range of the ball, R =
𝑔

(25)2 sin(2𝑥 300 )

Or, R =
9.8

Or, R = 55.23 m
To take the catch the keeper has to cover (72 – 55.23) = 16.77 meter in 2.55
second.
16.77
The velocity of the keeper should be, V = ms-1 = 6.58 ms-1 (Ans.)
2.55

6. A Cricket player strike a ball at an initial speed 40 m/s with an initial angle 25
deg. A fielder is on the line of the ball at 72 m from the ball striking would like to
catch the ball. Find the velocity of the fielder. Ans. (15.38 m/s)
Solution 6:
155×1000
Given, v0 = 155 km/h = 𝑚𝑠 −1 = 43.01 𝑚𝑠 −1
3600

h = 225 m
θ = 00
∅=?
𝑥
From figure, tan∅ =
ℎ

We know,
X = v0cosθ t
1
Y = v0sinθ t + gt2
2
1
Or, 225 = 43.01 sin00 x t + x9.8 t2
2
1
Or, 225 = 43.01 x 0 x t + x9.8 t2
2
1
Or, 225 = x9.8 t2
2

225𝑥2
Or, √ =t
9.8

Or, t = 6.78 s
So, X = v0cosθ t
Or, X = 43.01 cos00 x 6.78
Or, X = 291.6 m
𝑥 291.6
tan∅ = = = 1.296
ℎ 225

or, ∅ = tan-1(1.296)
or, ∅ = 52.35 𝑑𝑒𝑔 (Ans)

7. In a contest to drop a package on a target, one contest’s plane is flying at a constant

horizontal velocity of 155 Km/h at an elevation of 225 m toward a point directly
above the target. At what angle of sight should the package be released to strike the
target?
Projectile problems

In this activity you will use the equations for motion in a straight line with
constant acceleration, and the projectile model to solve problems involving
the motion of projectiles.
The problems include finding the time of flight and range of a projectile, as
well as finding the velocity and position at a certain time during the motion.
You will need to think about what modelling assumptions are being made
and how these assumptions affect the answers.

Information sheet
A projectile is a particle that is given an initial velocity, but then moves under
the action of its weight alone, that is all other forces are ignored. Real
objects such as balls and bullets can be modelled as projectiles.
The motion of a projectile can be studied by splitting it into two
components: horizontal motion and vertical motion.

Assume the projectile starts from a point O. (x, y)

Using horizontal and vertical axes through O allows y

the position of the projectile at any point in its motion
to be given in terms of two coordinates (x, y). O x

The velocity of the projectile can also be split into two

components using a velocity triangle as shown. v
v sin 
When the projectile is travelling with velocity v at an

angle  to the horizontal, the horizontal component of
its velocity is v cos  and the vertical component is v sin . v cos 

Think about
How is the right-angled triangle used to find these components?
Assume that the only force on the projectile is its weight. This means that
the projectile has a constant acceleration due to gravity, g, vertically
downwards, but no horizontal acceleration. If upwards is taken as the
positive direction, the acceleration is –g or –9.8 ms–2.
The equations for motion in a straight line with constant acceleration given
below can be applied in each direction:

v = u + at s=
u  v t s = ut  12 at 2 and v 2  u 2  2as
2
(where u is initial velocity, v is final velocity, a acceleration, t time taken, and
s displacement). The third of these equations gives the following equations
for the projectile model.

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 1 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
Projectile model
When an object is projected with velocity V at an angle of  to the horizontal and is then assumed
to move freely under gravity in a vertical plane, its motion can be modelled by the following
equations:
(x, y)
V
Horizontal motion x  V cos  t y

Vertical motion y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 O x

Think about:
1
How were these equations obtained from s  ut  at 2 ?
2
You can use the equations for horizontal and vertical motion to solve a
variety of problems involving projectiles.

45 ms–1
Section A Motion of a golf ball
20

Suppose a golfer hits a ball with a velocity of 45 m s–1 at an angle of 20° to

the horizontal.
The projectile model can be used to answer some questions about what will
happen to the ball later during its flight.

Finding the position at a later time

Where will the ball be 2 seconds later?

Horizontal motion
Using x  V cos  t with V = 45, α = 20 and t = 2
gives x = 45 cos 20  2 = 84.57 …. (metres)

Vertical motion

Using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with V = 45, α = 20, g = 9.8 and t = 2

gives y  45 sin 20  2  12  9.8  2 2 = 11.18… (metres)

After 2 seconds the ball will be at the point (84.6, 11.2) to 3 sf.

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 2 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
Finding the highest point
What is the greatest height the ball will reach?

Think about
In what direction will the ball be travelling when it is at its highest point?

When the ball reaches its greatest height its vertical velocity will be zero.
The equation v = u + at can be used to find the time at which this will happen.

Vertical motion
Using v = u + at with v = 0, u = 45 sin 20 and g = – 9.8
45 sin 20
gives 0 = 45 sin 20 – 9.8t  t= = 1.5705…
9.8
Now using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with V = 45, α = 20, g = 9.8 and t = 1.571
gives y  45 sin 20  1.571  12  9.8  1.5712 = 12.08…

The greatest height reached by the ball will be 12.1 metres (to 3 sf)

Finding the time of flight and range

How long will the ball be in the air?
How far will it travel horizontally before it hits the ground?

Assuming that the ball started from ground level and that the ground is
horizontal, it will reach the ground again when y = 0.

Think about
Why is it important not to confuse y with vertical distance?

Vertical motion

Using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with y = 0, V = 45, α = 20 and g = 9.8

gives 0  45 sin 20 t  21  9.8  t 2  0  15.39 t  4.9t 2

Factorising gives t(15.39 – 4.9 t) =0
15.39
 t = 0 or t = = 3.141…
4.9
The ball will be in the air for 3.14 seconds (to 3 sf)

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 3 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
Think about
Why is t = 0 also a solution of 0  45 sin 20 t  12  9.8  t 2 ?
How would the problem change if the ground was not horizontal?

Horizontal motion
Using x  V cos  t with V = 45, α = 20 and t = 3.141
gives x = 45 cos 20°  3.141 = 132.82…

The ball will be 133 metres (to 3sf) from its starting point when it hits the
ground.

Note that sometimes the equation for y gives a quadratic equation that
cannot be factorised. In such cases you will need to use the quadratic
formula:

b  b 2  4ac
The solutions of the equation at 2  bt  c  0 are t
2a

Finding how long it takes to reach a particular height

How long does it take the golf ball to reach a height of 10 metres?

Vertical motion

Using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with y = 10, V = 45, α = 20 and g = 9.8

gives 10  45 sin 20 t  12  9.8  t 2  10  15.39 t  4.9t 2

Rearranging this gives 4.9t 2  15.39t  10  0

Using a = 4.9, b = – 15.39 and c = 10 in the quadratic formula gives

15.39  15.39 2  4  4.9  10 = 2.222… or 0.9182…

t
2  4.9

Think about
Why are there two answers for t?

The ball is 10 metres above the ground twice – once on the way up and once
on the way down. The ball will first reach a height of 10 metres after 0.918
seconds (to 3 sf).

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 4 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
Finding out whether a projectile will clear an obstacle

For example, if the golf ball is hit in the direction 45 m s-1

of a 12 metre tree which is 80 metres from the y 12 m
golfer, will the ball pass over the tree or hit it? 20
80 m

Horizontal motion
Using x  V cos  t with x = 80, V = 45 and α = 20°
80
gives 80 = 45 cos 20°t  t = = 1.8918…
45 cos 20

Vertical motion

Using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with V = 45, α = 20, t = 1.892 and g = 9.8

gives y  45 sin 20  1.892  4.9  1.8922 = 11.579…

This is less than 12 metres, so the ball will hit the tree.

Section B Motion of a tennis ball

15 ms–1
8
Sometimes a ball may not start from ground level.
Suppose a tennis player hits a ball when it is at 1.2 m
a height of 1.2 metres. giving it a velocity of 15 m s–1
at an angle of 8 to the horizontal.

Finding when and where the ball will hit the ground
Vertical motion
Take the origin at the point where the ball was hit.

Using y  V sin  t  12 gt 2 with y = – 1.2, V = 15, α = 8 and g = 9.8

gives  1.2  15 sin 8  t  4.9  t 2   1.2  2.088 t  4.9t 2

Rearranging this gives 4.9t 2  2.088t  1.2  0

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 5 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
Using a = 4.9, b = – 2.088 and c = – 1.2 in the quadratic formula
2
gives t  2.088  2.088  4  4.9  1.2 = 0.7518 or – 0.3257
2  4.9

Think about
Why is the second answer for t not valid?

The ball hits the ground after 0.752 seconds (to 3 sf).

Horizontal motion
Using x  V cos  t with V = 15, α = 8 and t = 0.7518
gives x = 15 cos 8  0.7518 = 11.167…
The ball hits the ground a horizontal distance of 11.2 metres (to 3 sf) from
the point where it was hit by the tennis player.

Try these
Use the projectile model to answer the following questions.
Take g = 9.8 m s–2
At the end of each question state the assumptions you have made.
Also say how you think the results in the real situation might differ from
the answers you have given, and whether your model gives an
underestimate or an overestimate.

1 A footballer kicks a ball on horizontal ground giving it an initial

velocity of 25 m s–1 at an angle of 35° to the horizontal.
a Where will the ball be 1.2 seconds after it is kicked?
b What will be the greatest height reached by the ball?
c Where will the ball land?

2 A golfer hits a ball from horizontal ground, giving it an initial

velocity of 40 m s–1 at an angle of 27 to the horizontal. 40 ms–1
a Where will the ball be 2.5 seconds after it is hit?
b What will be the greatest height reached by the ball? 27°

c Where will the ball land?

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 6 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
 10 ms–1
3 A boy throws a stone from the top of a cliff into the sea.
When the stone leaves his hand it is travelling horizontally
at a velocity of 10 m s–1.
a How long will it take the stone to reach the sea, 8m
a distance 8 metres below?
b How far from the bottom of the cliff will it be when
it enters the sea?
c What will its vertical velocity be when it hits the water? O

4 A tennis player hits a ball when it is at a height of 0.6 metres

above the court, giving it a velocity of 8 m s–1 at an angle of 18
above the horizontal towards the net.
a The net is 0.9 metres high and stands 2 metres from the
player. Show that the ball will just pass over the net.
b Find when and where the ball hits the ground.

5 A helicopter is travelling horizontally at 20 m s–1 at a height of

50 metres above a point P on horizontal ground when it releases 20 m s–1
a package.
a How long will it take the package to reach the ground?
b How far from P will the package land?
50 m
c Calculate the vertical velocity of the package when it reaches the ground.

6 A tennis player hits a ball when it is 0.4 metres above

the ground and 3 metres from the net, giving it a
velocity of 15 m s–1 at 60° to the horizontal.
The tennis player's opponent who has run to the net can
reach balls to a height of 2.7 metres. Will he be able to
reach this ball?

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 7 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org
7 A netball player throws a ball at 6.5 m s–1 at an angle of 50° to
the horizontal towards the net. When the ball leaves her hands it is
1.8 metres from the ground and 3.5 metres horizontally from the
nearest part of the net.
The height of the top of the net is 3 metres.
Show that the ball will go under the top of the net.

8 At a shooting range, a bullet is fired horizontally from a rifle with a

velocity of 800 m s–1.
Find how far it will fall by the time it reaches the target if it is initially
a 100 metres away b 200 metres away.

9 A diver steps off a high diving board 15 metres above a pool.

a Sketch a graph showing how the diver’s height above the pool's surface
varies with time. On your graph show how long it takes the diver to hit the
water.
b On her next dive the diver runs along the platform so that she is travelling
horizontally at 3 m s–1 per second when she leaves it.
i How will the graph of her height above the pool's surface and the time 15 m
taken to reach the water compare with that of her first dive?
ii How far horizontally, from the point on the pool's surface directly below
the edge of the diving board, will the swimmer be when she hits the water?

Extension
Investigate how the velocity of projection affects the motion of a projectile.
What happens to the time of flight and the range if you double the velocity
of projection? What happens if the body is projected horizontally?
You could either investigate this for one of the problems you have already
solved, or work in general using the projectile model.

Reflect on your work

How does separating the vertical and horizontal motion help you to solve
the problems?
What affects the time of flight of a body if it is projected at an angle?
What affects the time of flight of a body if it projected horizontally?
How have your modelling assumptions affected your solutions?

Nuffield Free Standing Mathematics Activity ‘Projectile problems’ Student sheets Copiable page 8 of 8
© Nuffield Foundation 2011 ● downloaded from www.fsmq.org