A BASIC DICTIONARY AND GRAMMAR OF THE

IBERIAN LANGUAGE

Fernando Villamor
Getafe - 2020

1
 INDEX

1. Abstract 3
2. Introduction 4
3. Structure of the Iberian language 7
4. Dictionary 13
5. Translations of Iberian texts 37
6. Conclusions 65
7. Bibliography 68

2
 ABSTRACT

This document shows the process leading to the discovery of some features in the Iberian language which
allow us to translate most of the words in this language and to confirm its close relationship with Basque,
a language that we find Iberian to share its vocabulary roots with.

We first describe the process followed in order to decipher the Iberian language, highlighting elements
which increase the number of identifiable coincidences between Iberian and Basque such as compound
words with either identical or similar meaning in both languages and inverse adjective-substantive order
in their syllables or the confirmation that the symbols used in Iberian to represent syllable sets in the case
of occlusive consonants may express not only either a “consonant + vowel” sequence or just the
consonant, as thought up to now, but also the option “vowel + consonant”.

The application of these findings already allows us to translate Iberian texts and to discover that the
vocabularies of both languages share the same roots, usually two letters long, which have their own
meaning and form words both by themselves and with and additional phoneme which adds a root-
independent shade to the root’s meaning.

This new information allows us to improve our knowledge of the Iberian language not only in terms of
vocabulary but also, by deduction, of its grammar. This opens the way to deciphering this language
completely in the short term. This document includes a dictionary with almost 500 Iberian words and the
translations into Spanish of 50 Iberian texts selected among the most complete and representative of the
Iberian texts.

3
 1. INTRODUCTION

Back in 1992, Fletcher and Silgo published an article with a selection of eighteen translations
proposed between 1926 and 1990 for the Serreta lead plaque (text G.1.1 in Untermann’s
numbering system). Even though more than half of those translations used the Basque language
as a reference to decipher the text, Fletcher and Silgo could only show their sadness over the
total lack of agreement in the proposals. It may have been this lack of consensus which may
have led to all those translations to be ignored, not taken into account that some of them might
have been key to deciphering the Iberian language (which, anyway, was actually not the case).

More than twenty-five years after the publication of the above mentioned article, we have had
little progress in the process of deciphering Iberian language, although we can highlight the
work of Eduardo Orduña in the identification of more than possible similarities between Iberian
and Basque numbers (Orduña, 2005a), a significant step forward for the Vasco-Iberian theory,
which considers both languages to have a common origin (something only supported, in general,
by amateur linguists). However, even though Orduña himself does not highlight it, it is well
known that numerals are among the least likely elements to be borrowed from other languages.

Up to recently, scholars specialized in Iberian language accepted that it is possible that there
are certain coincidences between the Basque and Iberian vocabularies, but nothing beyond
likely loans between neighboring languages. They also rejected, as unverifiable, equivalences
based on formal similarities. This is in principle a quite reasonable position given that, apart
from the fact that those similarities have been useless so far when it comes to translating Iberian
texts, the natural evolution of the Basque language since its presumptive relative disappeared
should have led, from sheer logic, to an almost absolute unlikelihood that we could recognize
current Basque words in Iberian texts written more than 2,000 years ago, no matter how slowly
the Basque language may have evolved.

This attitude has progressively changed, and it is not unusual now to find documents from
known specialists which include speculations on reasonable similarities and possible
equivalences between Iberian and Basque words. However, leaving aside several “magic”
translations, I am not aware of any serious attempt to systematically reconstruct the Iberian
language, with Basque as a reference, using the weak foundations that we have at this point in
time.

Taking this background into account, we may ask ourselves how to embrace the challenge of
translating the Iberian language and what to do for the result of that task, the alleged deciphering
of the language, to be accepted by the specialists in this field.

This document is my response to the second question. It tries to leave behind the lack of
credibility of previous attempts showing, among other things, that the translated words maintain
their meanings in all the texts where we find them (which, in my view, is a better evidence of
the plausibility of the results than the consensus on a single text that Fletcher and Silgo were
missing in their article in 1992).

4
Regarding the first question, I started working with the Vasco-Iberian theory option simply
because if was in principle the easiest one to check. My translation is based on a “trial and error”
approach making use of the existing evidence and on something as obvious as the fact that the
texts had a meaning and that their context can give us clues on the content of the messages. For
example, it is very likely that funerary inscriptions include text similar to those that we find
today in any cemetery, of the kind of “our beloved wife and mother”, “our dear daughter” or
“always in our hearts” , that is, messages abounding in laudatory and close family relationship
terms.

The existing evidence that I refer to, starting point for the translation, go beyond the few cases
normally accepted, that is, beyond the possible relationship between the Iberian words ildiŕ,
śalir and egiar / egien the Basque ones hiri (town), sari (payment) y egin (to make, build)
respectively. We have not only other possible equivalencies on form similarities like, for
example, abaŕ – abar (branch, twig) and hamar (ten), aiun – jaun (master) or lauŕ – lau (four),
but also groups of elements in Iberian texts which are quite striking as the similarities are not
limited to single words but cover those combinations as well.

For example, in the so called Castellón lead sheet (F.6.1), found in Pujol de Gasset in the
Castellón province, we find the text auŕunibeikeai astebeikeaie, with starting elements in both
segments (auŕ and aste) which remind us of Basque words related to each other because of
their opposite meanings, aurre (front) / aurren (first) and atze (back) / atzen (last). Given the
coincidence in most of both texts after these words, logic leads to consider that it is likely that
there be a correspondence between those two Iberian terms and the Basque antonyms.

However, in my view, we find the simplest and most clear evidence of the relationship between
the Iberian and Basque languages in the word abiner (E.7.2, Caminreal, Teruel), an Iberian
term for which the “servant, slave” meaning has been deducted thanks to the bilingual nature
of the inscription. This meaning is almost exactly the same that the Basque word nerabe
(servant) has and it so unlikely to have such a random coincidence in meanings when changing
the order of the two parts of these words that we can deduct not only their common origin but
also that they are compound words resulting from a probable adjective-substantive combination
with inverted order in the two languages. This discovery opens the door to searching new
possible equivalencies in Iberian and Basque, as it is the case, later confirmed of neŕse / senar
(husband) 1.

Another element in this reduced starting kit helping us in our translation efforts comes when
we take into account the limitations of the Iberian writing signs. Iberian used a syllabary for
occlusive sounds which did not had the possibility to differentiate, for example, -ti- from –it-
so that the same sign would be used in both cases it there was no other option, as it happens at
the beginning of a word.

_________________________
1
Javier de Hoz (2005, 71-77), accepted that ildiŕ and hiri might have had the same meaning but he
thought that it was not possible to go from one to the other in the Basque language phonetic evolution
because of the presence of an occlusive element after il- that we have in ildiŕ, which led him to
deduct that hiri was a loan from an Iberian word containing il- but not the second part ildiŕ. However,
I believe that this objection would go away if the Basque word derived from diŕil, changing the
order of its elements.

5
We can apply this, for example, to the Osséja B.23.8 text, bakaŕtoś. According to what we have
seen now, we could have a match between Iberian toś and Basque otso (wolf). On the other
hand, bakaŕ could be equivalent to bakar (lone), which would give us the “lone wolf”, used in
many languages. Even though toś is a hapax in Iberian texts, its translation may have an unlikely
confirmation in the name of the Titti tribe (Τίτθοι in Greek), as this could be the “tribe of the
wolves”, considering the information from Appian (Iberiké 48). He mentions that during the
siege of Nertobriga by the Romans, a representative from the town approached them to
negotiate covered with a wolf’s skin. Even though the town could belong to Arevaci, Belli or
Titti given that Appian does not specify this, we have to take into account that the names of
Belli and Titti always go together and then, when we consider that my translation for Iberian
bilos is “tribe”, related to the Basque word bildu (to gather), it is very likely that the expression
“Belli and Titti” could be the result of the transcription of the Iberian text bilostitoś (tribe of the
wolves), with an error in the transcription of the first vowel because of the similarity between
their signs in Iberian. In other words, the expression Belli and Titti could actually refer to just
one tribe.

We find something similar in another text from the same French village, Osséja (B.23.17,
Gassiot Rock), with the “word” tikaśuŕ, that we can segment as ti-kaś-uŕ. If we assume that uŕ
is equivalent to Basque’s ur (water), it is not difficult to imagine that tikaś could really be itkaś
so that we find ourselves with the Iberian equivalent to the Basque word itsaso (sea), which
would additionally show that the Iberian –tk- combination would have been transformed into –
ts- in Basque. As in other cases, this translation is just a hypothesis based on presumptive
evidence, but I believe that it can be considered as a necessary conclusion when other texts lead
us to learn that it was a negation prefix and that kaś meant “pure”.

All findings discussed hereinafter are based on reasoning processes as the ones that we have
just seen although some of the results obtained are more reliable than others. This is why the
dictionary in Chapter 4 includes, for each word, my personal assessment on the certainty of the
translation. However, I have to add that, during my research process, it became evident that,
beyond the similarities with Basque terms, the Iberian words are the result of a totally structured
construction which allow us to predict the likely meanings of each word, as we will see in the
Conclusions chapter. Nevertheless, I believe that the plausibility of the translations shown in
Chapter 5 has to be verified by the reader before he / she can accept the conclusions that we
can extract from them.

6
 2. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE IBERIAN
LANGUAGE

The analysis of the Iberian texts leads to a series of very clear conclusions on the structure of
this language.

Roots and suffixes

First, we can point out that most common basic root with a clear sense is a consonant-vowel
(CV) combination. This root, which can already be a word by itself, is usually complemented
by another consonant in order to form CVC groups, which are the usual words, although there
is also CVV option with “i” or “u” as second vowel.

As an example, we can take the root bi, which has the sense of “accumulation, repetition” and,
in fact, is the word for “two” in Basque and for “very, much” in Iberian. When we add a final
consonant to it, the resulting combination takes other related meanings, as we can see in the
following table:

Consonant Result Meaning Examples

l bil set Iberian: bilos (tribe)
Basque: bildu (to gather)
n bin union Iberian: bin (to unite)
Basque: binatu (match)
r bir repeated, accumulated Iberian: bir (repeated)
ŕ biŕ multiplication Iberian: biŕ (to multiply)
Basque: birrindu (to grind)

Table I –bi derivatives

These additional consonants behave as suffixes which maintain their meaning (the one shown
in the table below) regardless of the root that they are attached to:

Consonant Meaning
d relative to
g abundance
k proximity
l external sign
m compact
ḿ inherent
n realization, total
r feature
ŕ consistency, expansion
s concentration
ś diffusion, dispersion
t not relative to

Table II – Meaning of the closing consonants

These consonants may also combine to form CVCC words like, for example, bors (appearance,
look) o giŕś (offering).

7
There is a second type of root with a VC format, as in eś (consequence of), where, as it could
be expected, each consonant maintains the same sense that we have just seen. The following
table summarizes the meaning of the most usual combinations appearing in the texts analyzed
in this document2:

a e i o u
l al (expression) - il (public) ol (inflated) -
n an (big) en (of) in (tenacity) on (good) un (help)
Basque: handi (big) Basque: on (good) Basque: unai
(shepherd)
r ar (referente to, for) er (manner) ir (act) or (aspect) ur (attitude)
Basque: arau (norm) Basque: era (mode, Basque: orban
manner) (stain)
ŕ aŕ (stone, firm) eŕ (passion, iŕ (to do, oŕ (fertility) uŕ (water)
Basque: harri aspiration) achieve, carry Basque: orri (leaf) Basque: ur (water)
(stone) Basque: erre (to burn) out)
s as (to satiate, satisfy) es (cause) is (no) os (all) us (union)
Basque: ase (to Basque: ez (no) Basque: oso (all) Basque: usu
satiate) (dense)
ś aś (to originate) eś (consequence of) iś (expansion) - uś (procreation)
Basque: hasi (to Basque: isuri
start) (to pour)

Table III –VC roots

Even though we are already handling Iberian words with both types of roots (CVC y VC), many
words result from combining two or more of these elements. For example:

bai (exceptional) + se (man) = baise (magistrate)

bel (offspring) + eś (consequence of) = beleś (son)

iun (protect) + s (concentration) + tir (wish) = iunstir (protection wish > good wishes, greetings)

Adjectivizations and Nominalizations

The a- prefix transforms the verb iun (protect, help), that we have previously seen, in a
substantive, aiun (protector > master, lord), almost certainly related with the Basque words
jaun (master) y unai (shepherd). This process takes place frequently in Iberian, not only with
verbs but with all kinds of words as in can see in the following cases:

baś (savage, uncivilized) > abaś (danger, unsafety)

bir (productive) > abir (wedding, marriage) 3

tuŕ (delivery, donation, dedication) > atuŕ (generosity)

___________________________________________________________________________
2
Given that the table only includes one meaning per combination, it leaves out cases like the il variant in ildun (sad),
where the sense of “external sign” that l has leads to an “exit, loss” meaning, something that probably happens as
well in seltar (tomb).
3
The origin related to “productionn” that we see in abir shows which was the main objective of marriage gor the
Iberian people.

8
On the other hand, when adding a suffix –a, the word is transformed into an adjective with
features similar to those of a participle, even if the word that it is applied to is not a verb:

satiŕ (love) > satiŕa (loved)

iŕ (do, achieve) > iŕa (done, achieved)

There is very common –an variant of this suffix, with the same meaning but with the added
emphasis coming from its final n (total).

The –ar ending seems to have a similar effect, transforming a verb into a noun, but the existing
evidence is reduced to one case in the analyzed texts:

egi (build) + -ar = egiar (construction)

Verbalizations

The reader may have noticed that in the previous examples I have included iun (to protect), a
word which does not follow the CVC and VC root formats that I had mentioned. This word
actually derives from the root un (protection, help) with the prefix i-, which is used to create
verbs, in the same way as e-, something that also happens in Basque.

e- + ban (special) = eban (to dedicate)

e- + bar (internal) = ebar (to get into)

e- + ter (development) = eter (to develop)

i- + aŕ (stone) = iaŕ (to carve, engrave)

The words for verbs with no suffixes seem to correspond to infinitive and present tenses,
regardless of person and number, and it cannot be a surprise that participles be formed with the
suffixes –a y –an already mentioned.

It is far more difficult to identify other verb tenses because of the low number of events that we
can analyze.

We have a possible case of past tense in egis_iŕan (D.12.1) which, referring to the age of a dead
person, should be translated as “lived” and where the auxiliary verb iŕ (do, achieve, have) would
have the suffix –an to indicate the past tense. However, it is very likely that the literal translation
of this sentence be “live achieved”, with –an playing its usual participle role.

There are similar combinations like

ildun (sad) + iŕ (to have) + -a = ilduniŕa (saddened) – G.1.1

The same auxiliary verb could be, in its basic iŕ form, an indicator of future tense as, for
example, in eutin_iŕ and un_iŕ (B.7.34), so that theses expression would be translated as “will
complete” and “will help” respectively.

9
Suffix -i

Even though its meaning is always equivalent to that of –ive in English, -i has a function
between adjectivizer y verbalizer. So, on the one hand, it usually converts words into adjectives:

beŕ (born) + -i = beŕi (new, recent)

ekaŕ (to influence, decide) + -i = ekaŕi (decisive)

tia (advance) + -i = tiai (advanced)

On the other hand, however, the sense of “having the nature of” that this suffix has, together
with its application as verbalizer and the “inherent” meaning that ḿ has, leads the ḿi 4
combination to be used in Iberian to indicate both “(I) am” and “is”, depending on the context,
being used quite often at the end of texts which describe the function of the objects where these
texts appear.

tigirs_balauŕ.ar_ḿi (C.4.2)
pregnant_sister.for_I am

nḿ_ke_ildiŕ_ar_ḿi (C.9.1)
limit_powerful_town_for_I am

seltar_ban_ḿi (F.14.1)
tomb_special_I am

The –i suffix also appears in combination with –a leading to an –ai suffix with a meaning close
to “in the way of”:

bel (offspring) + -ai = belai (filial)

ten (culmination, maturity) + -ai = tenai (mature)

Suffix -e

While the e- prefix acts as a verbalizer, expressing an action or process, the –e suffix indicates
the “result of” the action or process that it applies to, which leads to its translation to be in the
line of “for” or “by” or” depending on the context.

kuleś_keŕ_e (B.7.35)
authority_influential_by

uŕke_geŕ_eŕ_e (F.6.1)
channel_us_aspiration_for

ilduniŕa_e_ḿi 5 (G.1.1)
saddened_by_I am

__________________________________________________________________________
4
Transcripted as nai when Greco-Iberian characters as used, it is actually similar to naiz (“I am” in Basque).
5
It appears in this text as nai, in Greco-Iberian characters.

10
This suffix also appears associated to –ai resulting in an –eai combination that we see three
times in F.9.5. Its most likely translation is “as”:

bodotaś_eai.sel_ke_(e)ai_bar_tun_eai (F.9.5)
bride_as.manhood_powerful_as_internal_determination_as

Other prefixes and suffixes

Apart from those already mentioned and from those that we have seen as VC roots (among
them es and eś, which can be considered as variants of -e), other suffixes normally used in
Iberian are as follows:

-bi: In line with the “repetition” meaning that it has a root, suffix bi is equivalent to “-ly” in
English. We have an example of this in sis_bi (absolute_-ly) in B.1.373.

-en: It could also be considered as a variant of -e, with a “for” meaning, but it requires an
explanation given that the final n (total) coveys that it may have a property sense (thus, to be
translated as “of”). This is what we see biuŕ_geŕ_en (link_us_of) that we find in C.1.9.

-te: It is also used as a prefix y it follows -e in its “for” meaning but, while for -e we arrive to
that meaning coming from “result of”, in the case of -te the sense is “with a view to”, indicating
a willingness, an objective, as we see in eŕ_kube_te (passion_indulge_for) in F.20.1.. As a
suffix, it has a -kate variant with the same meaning but with an added emphasis.

ti-: It is really a very prolific CV root with as “advance” sense but, when applied as a prefix to
another Word, it indicates that its origin or nature comes from what is represented by the other
word. Thus, for example, from baś (savage) we obtain tibaś (enemy, stranger, savage), with a
clear parallel in the Basque term basati (savage), while from geŕ (us) derives tigeŕ (ours).

Infixes

It may seem nonsense to dedicate a section of this document to infixes to point out immediately
that there are no elements identified in Iberian with that specific function. However, I have to
add that almost any word can act as an infix, even in combination with others.

We find a clear example of this process in the combination of the words belauŕ (daughter),
agaś (clean, neat) and ik (my) that we have in G.1.1 to indicate “my neat daughter” in the shape
de belagaśikauŕ, that is, inserting agaśik between the two parts of belauŕ. We see here that the
adjective is placed as an infix between the two parts of a compound noun.

We can see the same process in many other cases of this and other kinds, including some where
the infix is placed between the root and the suffix:

gaŕs (born) + baśbin (rape) = baśgaŕsbin (born from rape) – B.7.34

biuŕ (link) + balkeai (paternal) = balkebiuŕai (paternal link) – F.6.1

bein (once) + ar (norm) + beŕi (new) = beŕbeinari (methodic with the norms) – F.14.1

11
Back to the roots

In the initial section of this chapter I indicated, using bi (accumulation) as example, that the
most common basic root with a defined sense is of the consonant-vowel (CV) type. For these
roots we can build a table similar to the one shown above for the VC roots, replacing the closing
consonant with the initial one:

a e i o u
b ba (singular, own) be (dependent) bi (accumulation) bo (body) bu (interior)
d da (character, de (character, di (determination) do (condition) du (mood)
nature) nature)
g ga (presence) ge (with, times) gi (task, work) go (body presence) gu (internal
presence)
k ka (force) ke (strong) ki (task) ko (symbolic) ku (personal)
l la (spirit, interior) le (own) li (intimate) lo (substance) lu (deep)
n na (nothing) ne (void) ni (-) no (reflection) nu (-)
s sa (consistency) se (man) si (firm) so (whole) su (established)
ś śa (absorption) śe (sex) śi (-) śo (will) śu (-)
t ta (extension) te (advanced) ti (to advance) to (advance) tu (coming from)

Table IV – CV roots

One point to highlight is that there is no root with an initial vibrant, either r or ŕ, which is
another feature shared with the Basque language. The table above does not include any root
starting with ḿ either because this phoneme seems to be a semivowel.

We could build additional tables, one for each initial consonant in all possible CVC in order to
check the meaning of all the combinations used in the texts analyzed in this document. However,
given that those meanings are shown in the dictionary included in the next chapter, we are going
to take just one table, with the gVC combination, as example:

1. Initial consonant: g

ga (presence) ge (with, times) gi (task, work) go (body presence) gu (internal

presence)
l gal (to be born) - - gol (birth) -
Basque: galdu (to Basque: golko
lose) (bosom)
n gan (brimming - - - -
over)
Basque: gandor
(crest)
r - ger (protection) - - -
Basque: geruza Basque: gora (up,
(cape, layer) advantage)
ŕ gaŕ (birth) geŕ (us) giŕ (to form) goŕ (gift) -
s gas (pregnancy) - gis (person) - -
Basque: giza
(human)
ś - geŕś (abandonment) giś (diffusion) goś (growth) guŕś (offer)

Table V – gVC roots

It can be seen that, even though not all elements are represented in the table, all words included
are related to the concept of physical presence, a common theme which will be the subject of
discussion in the chapter of final conclusions after the dictionary and the translations which
follow now.

12
 3. DICTIONARY
Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
aban aban special bana (different) C.1.6.B.1 **
C.4.1.4
abaŕ (1) abaŕ outstanding abar (branch) ****
F.6.1.1
abaŕ (2) abaŕ branch abar (branch) C.8.2.1 *****
abaŕ (3) abaŕ ten hamar (ten) C.2.3.A.2 *****
basa (savage,
abaś abaś danger C.2.3.B.1 ***
uncivilized)
abe abe slave nerabe (servant) B.23.4.1 ****
B.7.34.15-6
abel abel generation belaun (generation) ***
B.7.34.17
behe (low, inferior, B.7.35.4
abetiga abetiga winner ****
humble) B.7.35.8
abiner abiner servant nerabe (servant) E.7.2.1 *****
abir abir wedding - F.20.1.AI.1 **
adi / ati adi promising - B.1.373.4 *

B.7.34.4
B.7.34.9
B.7.34.20
B.7.34.20-21
adin / atin adin excellent, beautiful - B.23.3.2 *****
C.4.1.4
C.18.5.1
E.7.2.1
F.17.2.A.1

C.1.6.A.1
agaś / akaś agaś pure, clean; purity - ***
G.1.1.A1.5
ager / aker ager protection geruza (cape, cover) C.2.3.B.1 (twice) ***
agi / aki agi control - C.21.8.B.2 *
agir / akir agir control - C.4.1.5 **
F.6.1.3
aikas aikas teachers ikasi (learn) ***
F.6.1.4
aibe aibe boss, master jabe (owner, master) G.16.1.D.1 ***
aiun aiun lord, master jaun (lord, owner) E.7.2.1 *****
aiŕ aiŕ future - F.7.1.A.1 **
C.2.3.B.1
aka aka powerful - ***
G.16.1.A.(B).1
ake ake formidable - F.20.1.AI.6 **
al al expression - F.7.1.B.1 ***
alaś B.7.34.13
alaś (aśal) procedure, means - ***
(aśal) B.7.34.23
alaśgaŕ / alaśkaŕ alaśgaŕ barge (vehicle), means, help alatzar (barge) C.1.6.A.1 ****
ali ali external - F.20.1.AI.10 ***
aloŕ aloŕ load, weight lor (load) C.4.2.B.1 ****
am am very, huge - B.23.3.2 ***
aḿ aḿ inherent - B.11.1.3 ***

13
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
B.23.3.2
C.0.1.3
C.18.5.1
an an big, great handi (big, great) C.27.1.4 *****
F.7.1.B.1
F.9.5.3
F.20.1.AI.3

B.7.34.16
B.7.34.18
F.11.10.1
F.17.2.A.2
-an -an -ed (total) - *****
F.17.2.A.3
F.20.1.BI.2
G1.1.B.3
G1.1.B.5

aneŕ aneŕ fecundation senar (husband) F.9.5.6 **

aneŕai aneŕai begotten senar (husband) F.9.5.4 **

B.7.34.16
B.7.34.17-18
ar ar norm, rule arau (norm, rule) B.11.1.3 ***
C.2.3.A.1
F.14.1.4

B.44.16.1
C.4.2.1
C.4.2.2
C.8.2.1
C.8.10.2
C.9.1.1
F.9.5.5
-ar -ar for, to, intended to / for - F.14.1.7 ****
F.20.1.AI.9
F.20.1.BI.7
G.1.1.AI.5
G.1.1.AII.2
G.16.1.C.1 (twice)
G.16.1.D.1 (twice)
G.16.5.1 (twice)

C.2.3.A.1
C.4.1.3
C.21.8.A.1
aŕ aŕ stone, firm harri (stone, rock) C.21.8.A.3 *****
C.21.8.B.1
C.21.8.B.2
C.27.1.4

C.18.5.1
1. stony, firm
aŕe aŕe harri (stone, rock) F.9.5.3 **
2. inert, passive
F.20.1.BI.4
aŕesa aŕesa inalterable harri (stone, rock) F.20.1.BI.4 **

C.0.1.3
C.21.8.A.2
C.21.8.A.3
aŕi aŕi solid, firm harri (stone, rock) C.21.8.B.1 *****
C.21.8.B.2
F.9.5.1
F.9.5.3

14
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
aŕgi / aŕki aŕgi light argi (light) F.6.1.4 ***** Root for aŕgiai
aŕgiai / aŕkiai aŕgiai luminous, luminosity argi (light) F.6.1.4 *****
B.23.18.1
as as to satiate, satisfy ase (to satiate) C.0.1.1 ****
G.1.1.AI.6
asa asa satiated ase (to satiate) F.20.1.AI.9 ***
aste aste last atzen (last) F.6.1.2 ****
B.7.34.21
aś aś to spread, expand; expansion - *
G.16.1.A.(B).1
aśal aśal procedure - B.7.34.13 **
ata ata reach - C.2.3.B.1 **
B.7.34.20
atan(i) atan(i) reached, achieved - **
B.7.34.23
ate ate method - B.11.1 **
aten aten culmination - F.9.5.5 **
F.9.5.3
ati ati involved - **
F.17.2.A.2
atil atil behavior - F.9.5.2 **
atui atui decision - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ***
With infix -ba-
atul atul objective - C.1.6.B.1 *** in its only
appearance
F.17.2.A.4
atun atun determination - ***
F.20.1.BI.6
atuni atuni resolved - F.6.1.2 ***
atuŕ atuŕ generosity - F.17.2.B.(A).1 ***
C.27.1.5
aun aun woman - ***
D.11.3.1
auŕ (1) auŕ first aurren (first) F.6.1.1 ****
Also in balauŕ
auŕ (2) auŕ feminine, woman - C.4.1.2 ***
and belauŕ
B.23.18.1
C.1.6.B.1 (twice)
C.2.3.B.1
ba ba only, one, singular bat (one) ***
C.4.1.6
F.17.2.A.4
F.20.1.BI.4

bade / bate bade extraordinary - C.21.2.1 ***

bagara / bakara bagara grouper garba (bundle, sheaf) F.17.2.A.3 ***
B.23.8.1
bagaŕ bagaŕ lone, lonely bakar (lone) **
G.1.1.AI.2
Also in
bage / bake bage without gabe (without) G.1.1.B.5 ****
bateigeik
B.7.35.14
C.4.1.5
C.21.8.A.2 Also in baides,
bai bai exceptional, truly, real bai (yes, consent) F.7.1,A.1 **** baikar and
F.9.5.2 (twice) baise
G.1.1.AI.2
G.1.1.AI.3

15
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.7.34.3
B.7.34.18
B.7.35.4-5
B.7.35.8-9
baides baides judge, guarantor - C.2.3.A.3 ***
C.2.3.A.4
F.6.1.2
F.6.1.3
F.6.1.4

B.44.16.1
baikar baikar purification garbai (remorse) ***
C.21.2.1 (twice)
F.14.1.2
baise baise magistrate - F.20.1.AI.4 ***
F.21.1.B.1
B.7.34.2
bakaś bakaś immaculate - ****
B.7.34.11
Also in balauŕ
bal bal offspring - F.20.1.AI.10 ***
and balke
balauŕ balauŕ sister - C.4.2.(A).1 ***
C.1.6.A.1
F.7.1.A.1
balke balke father - ***
F.7.1.C.1
F.14.1.7
balkeai balkeai paternal - F.6.1.4 *** Probably balkai

B.7.35.9
B.44.16.1
C.2.3.A.5
C.4.2.A.1
C.8.2.1
C.8.11.1
ban ban special, typical of bana (different) D.11.3.1 **** Also in aban
F.9.5.1
F.9.5.2
F.9.5.5
F.14.1.3
F.14.1.6
F.17.2.A.1

C.2.3.A.4
F.9.5.4
bar bar internal barru (internal part) **
F.20.1.AI.4
G.1.1.AI.4

B.1.373.1 (twice)
B.22.2.1 (twice)
Also in abaŕ
baŕ baŕ outstanding, protruding abar (branch) F.9.5.1 ****
and ebaŕi
F.14.1.7
F.17.2.A.1

G.1.1.B.1 Also in abaŕ

baŕi baŕi outstandingly abar (branch) ****
G.16.1.A.(B).1 and ebaŕi

B.7.34.6
B.7.34.22
bazkun (society, B.11.1.3
bas bas society **
association) C.2.3.A.1
F.7.1.A.1
G.1.1.AI.4

F.14.1.7
bazkun (society,
basi basi kind, sociable G.1.1.AI.3 **
association)
G.1.1.AI.4

16
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
bazkun (society,
basiŕ basiŕ to socialize G.1.1.B.1 **
association)
basa (salvaje, Also in baśbin
baś baś savage, forest, foreigner C.4.1.1 *****
incivilizado) and tibaś(i)
basa (salvaje, B.7.34.8
baśbin baśbin rape **
incivilizado) B.7.34.9-10
baśk baśk indomitable basarte (desierto) G.1.1.AI.1 **
baśuika baśuika self demanding - F.17.2.A.3 **
bateigeki bateigeik altruist - B.7.35.2-3 **

C.2.3.A.6
C.4.1.2
batibi batibi ardent desire tirria (desire) C.4.1.3 **
C.4.1.4
C.4.1.5

C.4.1.1 (twice)
C.4.1.2 (twice)
C.4.1.3 (twice)
batir batir wish (special) tirria (desire) **
C.4.1.4 (twice)
C.4.1.5 (twice)
C.4.1.7

B.23.4.1
behe (low, inferior, C.4.1.5
bedi / beti bedi to reduce, subdue, undergo ****
humble) G.16.1.C.1
G.16.1.D.1
behe (low, inferior,
bedin bedin obliged F.6.1.1 ****
humble)
behe (low, inferior,
be be dependency, slavery B.23.3.1 ****
humble)
behe (low, inferior,
bei bei small B.1.373.5 ****
humble)
behe (low, inferior,
beik beik humility C.2.3.A.4 ****
humble)
F.6.1.1
behe (low, inferior,
beikeai beikeai respectful F.6.1.2 ****
humble)
F.9.5.4 (twice)
bein bein once behin (once) F.14.1.4 ****
worthy, dignified, not behe (low, inferior, B.7.35.11
beis beis **** Also in labeis
humiliating humble) F.21.1.A.1
behe (low, inferior,
bekoi bekoi respectful F.21.1.A.1 **
humble)
behe (low, inferior,
bekon bekon respectful F.20.1.BI.4 **
humble)
behe (low, inferior, B.7.34.15
bekoŕ bekoŕ modest humble) ****
G.1.1.B.5
B.23.3.1
bel(i) /
bel / bels offspring belaun (generation) B.23.4.1 ****
bels(i)
F.20.1.AI.8
beli beli children belaun (generation) C.2.3.A.3 **
belai belai filial belaun (generation) F.20.1.AI.4 ****

C.18.5.1
D.4.1.1
F.20.1.AI.9
belauŕ belauŕ daughter belaun (generation) *****
F.20.1.AI.11
F.20.1.BI.1
G.1.1.AI.5

17
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.7.34.9
C.1.10.1
C.4.1.3
beleś beleś son, children belaun (generation) C.4.1.5 *****
E.8.1.1
F.7.1.A.1
F.7.1.A.2
behe (low, inferior,
bems bems slavery (total) B.23.3.2 ***
humble)
beḿs beḿs proliferation - B.23.3.2 **
F.20.1.AI.4
ber ber own, internal - F.20.1.BI.2 ***
F.20.1.BI.7
Included in
beŕ beŕ birth - C.21.8.B.1 *****
beŕa
beŕa beŕa born - C.21.8.B.1 *****
C.2.3.B.1
C.4.2.(B).1
beŕi beŕi new, recent berri (new, recent) *****
F.11.10.1
F.14.1,4
beŕoni beŕoni kind, softhearted onbera (kind) F.6.1.3 ***
beś beś delivery (birth) - C.21.8.B.1 ***
betan betan immediate - E.9.1.1 ***
behe (low, inferior,
bete bete out of humility F.17.2.A.4 **
humble)
betugin / behe (low, inferior,
betugin obliging, helpful F.17.2.B.(A).1 ***
betukin humble)

B.23.3.1
C.2.3.A.5
F.5.1.1
F.9.5.1
very, much, many, again,
bi bi bi (two) F.17.2.A.3 ****
mutual
F.17.2.A.4
F.20.1.BI.2
G.1.1.AI.4
G.1.1.B.4

B.1.373.1
B.1.373.2
B.1.373.4
-bi -bi -ly bi (two) ****
B.7.35.9
C.2.3.A.3
G.1.1.AI.7

bide / bite bide just - F.7.1.A.1 **

bider / biter bider innate, natural - F.7.1.A.2 *
bideŕok /
bideŕok interchange bider (times) F.9.5.3 ****
biteŕok
bidi / biti bidi to increase bi (two) G.16.5.1 ****
bieik bieik to reproduce bi (two) F.20.1.BI.5 **

B.7.34.6
B.7.35.10
bildu (to gather), oso B.7.35.11-12
bilos bilos people, tribe ****
(whole) B.7.35.12-13
C.4.1.1 (twice)
C.4.1.3

18
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.7.34.21
C.4.1.2
bim / bin (1) bim / bin to join, unite; partner binatu (to pair off) C.4.1.3 ****
F.9.5.3
F.17.2.A.1

B.7.34.7
G.1.1.AI.5
bin (2) bin to mate binatu (to pair off) **** Also in baśbin
G.1.1.AI.6
G.1.1.AI.7
bir bir repeated, accumulated - B.22.3.1 ***
birinaŕ birinaŕ stud - G.1.1B.2 **
F.9.5.6
biŕ biŕ to multiply - *** Also in golbiŕ
F.17.2.A.4

bitan bitan to increase the reach - F.7.1.B.1 **

C.1.9.(C).1
C.2.3.A.6
C.8.10.1-2
biuŕ biuŕ link, bond, fellow - ****
C.8.11.3
F.6.1.2
F.6.1.4
bodo / boto bodo prepared, arranged - F.9.5.5 **

bodotaś / F.9.5.1
bodotaś bride - **
bototaś F.9.5.4

bodu / botu bodu nature, disposition - B.7.34.8 **

bodui / botui bodui ready - F.6.1.2 **

boiś boiś carnal - G.1.1.B.2 **

C.2.3.B.1
Also in bors
bor bor body, member - C.4.2.(B).1 ***
and borste
F.20.1.AI.9

bors bors appearance, look - F.20.1.BI.6 ***

C.2.3.A.2 (twice)
borste borste five bortz, bost (five) *****
F.20.1.AI.8-9
boś boś nuptial - F.20.1.AI.3 **
buiś buiś attitude - G.1.1.AI.2 ***

B.7.34.10
buloi buloi backing - *
B.7.34.14

bur bur feeling - F.7.1.B.1 *

B.7.34.23
buŕ buŕ supreme buru (head, tip) ** Also in buŕikei
B.7.35.1

buŕikei buŕikei leadership buru (head, tip) B.7.34.4 **

-d -d relative to - G.1.1.AI.5 ***

G.1.1.AI.1
da / ta da personality, character, nature - **
G.1.1.AI.3

C.2.3.B.1
daŕ / taŕ daŕ natural, spontaneous - **
G.1.1.B.2

19
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

daś / taś daś affable, extrovert - C.2.3.A.4 **

F.17.2.A Also in bade

de / te de personality, character, nature - **
F.17.2.B.(A).1 and dedin
G.1.1.B.3
dedin / tetin dedin dominance - **
G.1.1.B.4

der / ter der temperament, personality - B.1.373.2 ** Also in bider

deŕ / teŕ deŕ reference - C.1.8.1 ** Also in bideŕok

B.1.373.1
B.1.373.3 Also in bedi,
di / ti di outlook, prospect - **
B.1.373.4 bidi and uldi
B.7.34.17

did / tid did dependence - G.1.1.B.2 **

dis / tis dis set, ready - G.1.1.AI.6 **

G.1.1.AI.4
diŕ / tiŕ diŕ interest - **
G.1.1.B.3

diŕan / tiŕan diŕan interested - G.1.1.B.5 **

diŕs / tiŕs diŕs frank, sincere - C.2.3.A.3 **

diu / tiu diu meditation - B.22.3.1 **

do / to do condition - C.21.1.1 **

doila / toila doila circumstances - B.7.34.22 **

dor / tor dor kind, sort - B.1.373.5 **

doŕ / toŕ doŕ type - B.44.16.1 **

C.2.3.A.3
du / tu du mood, disposition - C.2.3.A.5 **
G.1.1.B.4

dula / tula dula pleasant, nice - G.1.1.AI.1 **

duŕ / tuŕ duŕ open (character) - G.1.1.B.3 **

20
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
B.1.373.1
B.1.373.2 (twice)
B.7.34.5
B.7.34.9
B.7.34.16
B.7.34.18
B.7.34.19
B.7.34.20
- B.7.35.6
B.11.1.3 (twice)
B.22.2.1
C.1.6.1
C.2.3.A.2
C.2.3.A.4
C.21.2.1
C.21.8.B.2
-e -e result of, as, for, by C.21.8.B.3 **
F.6.1.1 (twice)
F.6.1.2 (twice)
F.6.1.3
F.7.1.2
F.9.5.1 (three
times)
F.9.5.2
F.9.5.3 (four times)
F.9.5.5
F.14.1.51
F.17.2.A.2
-
F.17.2.A.4
F.17.2.B.(A).13
F.20.1.AI.5 (four
times)
F.20.1.AI.9
F.20.1.AI.10 (twice)
F.20.1.BI.4
F.20.1.BI.5
F.21.1.B.1
G.1.1.AI.3
G.1.1.B.5
F.9.5.4 (three
-eai -eai as - ***
times)
eba eba to characterize - F.17.2.A.4 *
The optional
C.8.11.3-4
en closing has
C.27.1.2-3
an emphasis
eban(en) eban(en) dedicated - E.8.1.1 **
sense with a
F.14.1.2-3
“totally for”
G.16.1.B.1
meaning
ebar ebar to get into barru (internal part) F.9.5.3 **
to do something
ebaŕi ebaŕi abar (branch) C.2.3.A.2 ***
outstandingly
ebatan ebatan to concentrate - C.1.6.B.1 ***
behe (low, inferior, C.2.3.A.1
ebe ebe to obey, fulfil ***
humble) F.9.5.6
ebei ebei to respect - F.9.5.2 ***
eber eber to beget - C.2.3.A.5 **
ebeŕ ebeŕ to give birth berri (new) F.20.1.AI.5 ***
ebi ebi to grow - B.23.17.1 ***
B.1.373.2 The verb
ebośir ebośir birth - B.1.373.3 ** would be eboś
B.1.373.4 (to give birth)

21
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
eger / eker eger to protect geruza (cape, layer) F.20.1.AI.2 ***
egi / eki egi to build, form egin (to make, build) G.1.1.AI.3 ***
egiar / ekiar egiar construction, formation egin (to make, build)) F.7.1.A.2 ***
egis / ekis egis to live giza (human) D.12.1.(A).1 ***
C.21.8.A.3
ei ei to rear, raise - ***
C.21.8.B.2
ekaŕi ekaŕi decisive - F.6.1.2 **
ekus ekus to join, unite - F.6.1.2 **

B.23.3.1
B.44.16.1
C.0.1.1
C.1.9.(C).3
C.2.3.A.5
-en -en of - C.8.2.1 ***
C.8.11.1
E.7.2.1
F.5.1.1
F.20.1.AI.1-2
X.0.1.1

eni eni erased, deceased - F.11.10.1 **

B.1.373.2
B.23.3.1
C.21.8.A.3
er er manner, way era (manner, way) C.21.8.B.2 ***
F.7.1.B.1
F.20.1.AI.5
G.1.1.AI.2

erdi / erti erdi half erdi (half) F.20.1.AI.10 ****

erir erir death herio (death) C.27.1.3 **
erna erna implicit - C.2.3.B.1 *

B.7.35.5
C.2.3.A.5
F.6.1.1
F.9.5.3
eŕ eŕ passion, aspiration - *
F.20.1.AI.2
F.20.1.AI.6
G.1.1.AI.3
G.1.1.AI.4

F.6.1.4
es es cause of - *
F.20.1.AI.9
esan esan originated - F.20.1.BI.4 *
Deriving from
esatiŕan esatiŕan in love - F.20.1.BI2
satiŕ (love)
B.1.373.3
Also in beleś,
B.23.3.1
eś eś consequence of - *** kuleś, taneś
C.2.3.A.5
and uŕeś
F.9.5.6
etai etai to amount to - B.1.373.5 (twice) ***
etan etan to reach - B.1.373.6 ***
etaŕ etaŕ to progress - F.20.1.AI.9 **
ete ete to evolve - F.7.1.A.2 (twice) **
eter eter to develop - F.11.10.1 **

22
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
C.21.8.A.2
etes etes to form - **
C.21.8.B.2
etisi etisi successful - F.9.5.5 **
etui etui resolute, brave - F.20.1.AI.11 **
eugeŕ / eukeŕ eugeŕ to receive - C.4.2.B.1 ****
F.14.1.4-5
eukiar eukiar application, execution - **
F.14.1.6
eutin eutin to complete - B.7.34.14-15 ***
-g -g with - G.1.1.B.1 **
ga / ka ga presence - G.1.1B.3 ***
gai / kai gai able gai (able) G.1.1.AI.7 (twice) ***
galir / kalir galir delivery (birth) - B.1.373.1 **
gan / kan gan tangible, palpable gandor (crest) G.1.1.AI.6 **
gaŕ / kaŕ (1) gaŕ birth, parturition - B.1.373.3 **
G.16.1.A.(A).1
gaŕ / kaŕ (2) gaŕ container - **
G.16.1.A.(B).1
gaŕe / kaŕe gaŕe message - G.16.1.A.(B).1 **
gaŕok(an) / G.1.1.AI.1
gaŕok(an) self-made - **
kaŕko(an) G.1.1.AI.6
gaŕs / kaŕs gaŕs born - B.7.34.9-10 **
gas / kas gas pregnancy - B.1.373.4 **

B.1.373.1
It is very likely
B.1.373.3
that g was
B.1.373.6
Iberian for
B.7.34.3
“with” (usually
B.7.34.10
written as ge
ge / ke ge with, times - B.7.34.18 **
because of the
B.7.35.6
Iberian signs
C.2.3.A.2
limitations)
D.12.1.(A).1
while ge
F.20.1.AI.10
meant “times”
G.1.1.B.4

E.8.1.1
F.9.5.5
gei / kei gei plus, beyond gehi (more) **
F.20.1.BI.5
F.20.1.BI.6
ger / ker ger protection - C.2.3.B.1 **

B.7.34.20
C.1.9.(C).1
C.2.3.A.3
C.4.1.6
geŕ / keŕ geŕ us - **
C.21.8.B.30
F.6.1.1
F.6.1.3
G.1.1.B.3

geŕś / keŕś geŕś abandonment - G.1.1.B.3 **

B.7.34.3
B.7.34.18
gi / ki gi task, work, construction - C.2.3.A.5 **
C.2.3.A.6 (twice)
G.16.1.A.(B).1

23
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
giŕ / kiŕ giŕ to form - B.7.34.17 **
C.21.1.1
giŕś / kiŕś giŕś offering, present - **
F.9.5.1

B.7.34.11
C.4.1.3
C.21.8.A.1
C.21.8.A.3
gis / kis gis person, people - C.21.8.B.1 **
F.5.1.1
F.6.1.1
F.9.5.3
G.1.1.AI.6

B.7.35.14
giś / kiś giś diffusion, expansion - **
G.1.1.B.2
golbiŕ / kolbiŕ golbiŕ natality - C.1.4.6 **
goroi / koroi goroi goods, property - F.20.1.AI.2 **
goŕo / koŕo goŕo gift - C.1.9.(A).1 **
goś / koś goś growth - F.7.1.A.1 (twice) **
guŕś / kuŕś guŕś offer - G.1.1.B.2 **

B.7.35.11
B.23.3.1 (twice)
C.1.6.B.1
-i -i -ive, -in relation to - C.1.8.1 **
C.2.3.A.1
C.21.8.A.2
F.6.1.4

iaŕ iaŕ to engrave - G.16.1.A.(B).1 **

C.4.1.1
ibei ibei to subdue - **
C.4.1.7
idaŕ / itaŕ idaŕ to be natural - B.23.3.1 **
iei iei done - F.6.1.1 **
ieike ieike getting ready - B.1.373.3 **
C.0.1.2
iga / ika iga arrival - **
C.0.1.3
B.1.373.1
ige / ike ige ready - **
B.1.373.2 (twice)
B.1.373.2
B.1.373.6
B.7.34.16
B.7.34.18
B.22.2.1
B.23.4.1
F.6.1.2
F.6.1.4
F.9.5.1
ik, ki ik self, own, my - F.17.2.A.2 **
F.17.2.A.4
F.20.1.AI.1
F.20.1.AI.3
F.20.1.AI.5
F.20.1.AI.9 (twice)
F.20.1.BI.5
G.1.1.AI.3
G.1.1.AI.5
G.16.1.B.1
ikaŕ ikaŕ steady - C.21.8.A.3 **

24
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
E.8.1.1
ikoŕ ikoŕ first - **
F.21.1.A.1
ikoŕi ikoŕi beginner, first-timer - C.27.1.1 **
B.23.17.1
ikte, kite kite oneself - **
F.6.1.1
ilako ilako instruction - C.1.6.B.1 **

B.7.34.19
B.7.35.10
B.7.35.13
B.7.35.14
B.7.35.15
ildiŕ / iltiŕ ildiŕ town, village - C.2.3.A.5 **
C.9.1.1
F.5.1.1
F.21.1.A.2
G.16.1.B.1
G.16.5.1

ildiŕai / iltiŕai ildiŕai citizens, population - G.16.1.A.(B).1 **

E.8.1.1
ildu(n) / iltu(n) ildu(n) sad - **
F.14.1.2
ilduniŕa /
ilduniŕa saddened - G.1.1.B.4-5 **
iltuniŕa
C.21.8.A.2
F.20.1.AI.1
iltum / F.20.1.AI.3
iltum /iltun pact, treaty, alliance - **
iltun F.20.1.AI.4
F.21.1.A.1 (twice)
F.21.1.A.2 (twice)

B.11.1.1
ilun ilun cooperation - **
F.9.5.4
F.11.10.1
in(i) in problem - **
G.16.1.C.1
C.27.1.5
F.9.5.3
in in tenacity, perseverance - **
F.17.2.A.4 (twice)
F.20.1.AI.5

B.23.3.1
B.23.4.1
C.2.3.A.4
Also in galir
ir ir action - F.7.1.A.2 **
and ebośir
F.7.1.B.1
F.9.5.5
G.16.1.A.(B).1

B.7.34.3
B.7.34.12
B.7.34.15
B.7.34.16
C.0.1.1
C.21.2.1
to do, achieve, have
C.21.8.B.2
-iŕ -iŕ (also future tense indicator, - **
F.9.5.1
i.e. “will”, as suffix)
F.9.5.2 (twice)
F.9.5.3
F.20.1.AI.1
F.20.1.AI.2
F.20.1.AI.6
F.20.1.AI.8

25
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

C.2.3.A.2
D.12.1.(A).1
iŕa(n) iŕa(n) done, achieved - **
F.20.1.AI. 8
F.20.1.BI.5

B.7.35.6-7
iŕike iŕike boss - G.1.1.AI.1 **
G.1.1.AI.4
iŕs iŕs to reach, achieve - C.2.3.A.5 (twice) **

B.1.373.3 Also in isbinai

is is no ez (no) *****
B.1.373.4 end iskeŕ
B.7.34.15
isbinai isbinai virgin ez (no), binatu (to pair) G.1.1.AI.5-6 *****
F.9.5.2
F.21.1.A.1
iskeŕ iskeŕ wished (not reached) ez (no) ***
F.21.1.A.2 (twice)
G.1.1.AII.1

B.7.34.8
Iś (1) iś broken, forced isuri (to pour, flow out) ***
B.7.34.21

F.20.1.AI.5
Iś (2) iś expansion isuri (to pour, flow out) ***
F.20.1.AI.10

-it -it un- - G.1.1.AI.7 ***

iun iun to protect, help - G.1.1.AI.3 ***

B.11.1.2
F.7.1.A.1
protection wish -> good F.7.1.A.2 (twice)
iunstir iunstir - ***
wishes, greetings F.9.5.4
F.9.5.4-5
G.1.1.B.1

ius ius to join - F.9.5.2 **

F.17.2.A.1
iuśtir iuśtir tribute, homage - ***
F.17.2.B.(A).1

B.1.373.1
B.1.373.2
B.7.34.16
B.22.2.1
C.2.3.A.5
C.4.1.5 (twice)
ka ka power, command, authority - ***
C.21.8.B.1
F.7.1.A.1
F.20.1.AI.1
F.20.1.AI.3
F.20.1.AI.8
F.20.1.BI.4

C.0.1.3
kais kais discreet, mild - ***
F.9.5.2
B.1.373.3-4
B.23,3.1 (twice)
C.2.3.A.5
C.21.8.A.2
kal kal progeny - ***
C.21.8.A.3
C.21.8.B.2
F.20.1.AI.5
F.20.1.AI.10

26
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
kala kala prolific - G.1.1.B.4 ***

kaḿ kaḿ diffusion - C.2.3.A.2 **

B.7.34.10
kan(i) kan(i) powerful - B.7.34.14 ***
B.7.35.1-2
kaoi kaoi dominant - B.1.373.4 **
B.22.2.1
kar kar authority, carer - C.18.5.1 **
F.7.1.A.1

F.6.1.4
F.7.1.A.1
kaŕ kaŕ influence - ***
F.9.5.1
F.9.5.3

kaŕi kaŕi strict - F.14.1.5-6 **

B.22.3.1
B.23.3.1
kas kas knowledge, experience ikasi (to learn) ***
F.20.1.AI.5
F.20.1.BI.3

B.1.373.5
D.11.3.1
kaś kaś pure - **
F.14.1.5
H.7.1.(A).1

C.4.1.1
C.4.1.2
C.4.1.3
with the purpose of,
kate kate - C.4.1.4 ***
addressed to, dedicated to
C.4.1.5
F.9.5.2
F.20.1.BI.5

B.1.373.1
katu kaut mentality - **
F.14.1.5
katuŕ katuŕ dedication - C.1.6.B.1 **
kau kau internal - H.7.1.(A).1 **

B.7.34.14
B.7.34.24
B.7.35.5
C.1.8.1
C.9.1.1
C.21.8.B.1
F.9.5.4
F.9.5.6
ke ke powerful, strong - ****
F.17.2.A.1
F.17.2.A.3
F.20.1.AI.2
F.20.1.AI.4 (twice)
F.20.1.AI.8
F.20.1.BI.1
F.21.1.A.2
H.7.1.(A).1

B.1.373.1
keike keike powerful - ***
F.9.5.5
keis keis weak - B.7.35.9 ****
B.7.35.3
keloŕ keloŕ vigorous - **
B.7.35.7
kelti kelti continuator, heir - B.23.18.1 **
ken ken powerful - F.9.5.1 ***

27
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.7.34.5
keŕ keŕ influential - B.7.34.11 ***
B.7.34.19
kes kes erudite, wise - C.2.3.A.2 ***
keś keś pure - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ***
B.7.34.2
ketei ketei behavior, action - **
B.7.34.11
C.21.2.1
F.20.1.AI.2
kin kin achievement - **
F.20.1.AI.6 (twice))
F.20.1.BI.4

B.7.34.13
B.11.1.3
kidei / kitei kidei adequate kide (mate, associate) ***
F.20.1.AI.8
G.1.1.AI.7
kiŕ kiŕ influence - C.2.3.A.4 **
kis kis life - C.4.1.4 ***
G.16.1.A.(A).1
ko ko symbolic - *
G.16.1.B.1
kodi / koti kodi spirit - C.2.3.A.5 *
kokor kokor unquestionable - F.9.5.3 **
koloi koloi important - F.14.1.5 **
B.7.34.22
C.4.1.6
kon(i) kon(i) magnificent, major - **
C.27.1.5
G.16.5.1
kortia kortia superior - F.20.1.BI.3 **
koŕ koŕ gift - C.0.1.1 **
kośoi kośoi clean, honest - F.6.1.3 **
B.23.3.1
ku ku personal gu (we) **
B.23.3.2
kube kube to indulge in, devote to - F.20.1.AI.6 **
kul kul energy, verve, zest - C.2.3.A.4 **

B.7.34.5
B.7.34.18-19
B.7.35.1
B.7.35.5
kuleś kuleś power, authority esku (power, authority) ***
B.7.35.6
B.11.1.2-3
F.20.1.AI.8-9
F.20.1.BI.1

kun kun personality - F.20.1.AI.5 **

kuŕs / kus kuŕs / kus offering, present - D.11.3.1 **
kutur kutur symbol, image - F.9.5.3 **
F.7.1.A.1
la la spirit, essence, interior - F.20.1.BI.6 (twice) **
F.20.1.BI.8 (twice)
F.20.1.AI.1
labeis labeis worthy - ***
F.20.1.AI.8
ladi / lati ladi intention - F.9.5.6 **

28
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

C.21.8.A.2
C.4.1.3
lagu / laku lagu love lagun (companion) F.7.1.C.1 ***
F.9.5.4
F.9.5.5

lagun / lakun lagun friend, companion lagun (companion) C.1.6.A.1 ****

lake lake love laketu (to have fun) B.1.373.2 **
lakeŕ lakeŕ dear laketu (to have fun) D.4.1.1 **
laŕagol / laŕakol laŕagol given birth to - B.1.373.4 **
laur laur four lau (four) D.12.1.(A).11 ****
F.9.5.2
lauŕ lauŕ offspring - F.20.1.BI.2 **
F.20.1.BI.6-7
leguś leguś assets, propriety - G.1.1.AI.3 **
B.7.34.6
leis leis sacrifice - **
B.7.35.12
B.7.35.3
lekaŕ lekaŕ prestigious, influential - **
B.7.35.7
ler ler interior - B.7.34.14 **
leŕ leŕ dedication - C.2.3.A.6 **
lituŕ lituŕ submission - B.7.34.21 **
lokaŕ lokaŕ effort - B.1.373.6 **
loŕ loŕ load, weight lor (load, haul) G.16.1.D.1 ****
loŕsa loŕsa loaded lor (load, haul) C.2.3.A.6 ***
lu lu deep - G.16.1.A.(B).1 **
lur lur image - F.21.1.A.1 **
luŕa luŕa land, ground lur (earth, ground) G.1.1.AI.3 ***
B.23.3.1
ḿ ḿ essence - **
B.23.3.2
F.6.1.1
ḿbaŕ ḿbaŕ outstanding nabari (evident) ***
F.14.1.7
B.7.34.23
B.7.35.14
B.44.16.1
C.1.8.11
C.1.9.(A).1
C.4.1.5
C.4.2.(A).1 (twice)
C.4.2.(B).1
C.8.10.2
C.8.11.2
C.9.1.1
Shown as nai
E.8.1.1
ḿi / nai ḿi / nai characteristic of -> I am, is naiz (I am) **** in C.1.9.(A).1
E.9.1.1
and G.11.AII.6
F.5.1.1
F.9.5.5
F.11.10.1
F.14.1.3 (twice)
F.14.1.5
F.14.1.7 (twice)
F.17.2.A.3
F.21.1.A.2
G.1.1.AII.2
G.1.1.B.5
X.0.1.1

29
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
ḿl /nal ḿl /nal to show; manifest - G.1.1.B.4 **
C.8.10.1
ḿlbe ḿlbe chief, boss, master - ***
C.8.11.2-3
F.9.5.1 (twice)
ḿli ḿli merit, value - F.9.5.2 (twice) **
F.9.5.3
ḿr ḿr characteristic - F.7.1.A.2 **
ḿŕ ḿŕ continuity - F.20.1.AI.6 **
ḿuki ḿuik character - F.17.2.A.4 **

B.1.373.1
B.1.373.3
B.1.373.4
-n -n total - ****
B.7.34.17
B.23.17.1
F.17.2.A.3

nabaŕ nabaŕ deep barna (deep) C.1.6.A.1 ***

C.2.3.A.3
nei nei to think, create - **
F.9.5.2
sincere (completely B.11.1.2
neitin neitin - **
considered) D.12.1.(A).1
neŕse neŕse husband senar (husband) C.0.1.2 *****
B.7.35.141
nḿ nḿ limit, border - C.9.1.1 **
E.8.1.1
no no reflection - B.7.34.23 *

C.2.3.A.4 (twice)
C.4.1.2
C.4.1.4
C.21.8.B.2
ok, ko ok own - ****
F.9.5.6
G.1.1.AI.2
G.1.1.AI.3
G.1.1.AI.5

ol ol swollen, inflated - F.11.10.1 **

on on good on (good) C.1.6.A.1 ****
B.7.34.4
or or aspect, appearance - C.27.1.4 **
F.11.10.1
oro oro evidence - B.7.34.4 **
orti orti active - G.1.1.AI.1 **
Also in oŕdin
B.1.373.3
and oŕgei. It is
B.7.34.8
likely that it
oŕ oŕ fertility orri (leaf) B.23.4.1 ****
could also be
B.23.18.1
translated as
C.2.3.A.3
“toe”
oŕoi oŕoi harvest - B.1.373.5 *
B.23.3.1 (twice)
oŕdin / oŕtin oŕdin fertile, productive orri (leaf) C.0.1.2 ****
F.20.1.AI.10
oŕgei / oŕkei oŕgei twenty hogei (twenty) D.12.1.(A).1 *****
os os whole oso (whole) F.17.2.A.3 ***
progress, advance,
oto oto - F.21.1.A.2 (twice) **
development

30
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.1.373.3
B.1.373.4
F.20.1.AI.2
-s -s focused, balanced, adequate - ***
F.20.1.AI.3
F.20.1.AI.4
F.20.1.BI.2

sa sa consistency - G.1.1.B.1 *
C.2.3.A.4
sal sal consistent, expression - *
C.2.3.A.6
C.27.1.2
E.9.1.1
sakaŕ sakaŕ fruit sagar (apple) ***
F.17.2.A.1
G.1.1.AII.1
sani sani total, complete - C.21.1.1 **
Derived from
satiŕa satiŕa loved - F.20.1.BI.1 *
satiŕ (love)
B.7.35.4
F.6.1.2
F.6.1.4
F.9.5.1
F.9.5.5
se se man, masculine - ****
F.9.5.6
F.17.2.A.2
F.17.2.A.3
G.1.1.B.5
G.16.1.A.(B).1
sel sel manhood - F.9.5.4 ***
B.7.34.13
feat, accomplishment, manly
selgi / selki selgi - F.20.1.BI.3 **
deed
F.21.1.A.2 (twice)
F.5.1.1
F.14.1.3
seltar seltar? tomb - *****
F.14.1.6
X.0.1.1
F.6.1.2
sen sen good sense sen (good sense) ***
F.7.1.A.2
seŕ seŕ virility - X.0.1.1 **
seŕai seŕai virile - G.1.1.B.4 **
ses ses masculinity - G.1.1B.3 **
seś seś lust - G.1.1B.3 **
siken siken determined - C.1.6.A.1 **
siko siko firm - C.1.6.B.1 **
sil sil confirmation - F.7.1.A.2 **
C.21.8.B.3
sin sin oath zuzen (right, fair) ***
F.6.1.1
siŕa siŕa confirmed - F.20.1.BI.6 **
sis sis absolute, unlimited - B.1.373.1 **
sor sor enforcement, application - C.4.1.2 **
sori sori enforceable, applicable - F.21.1.A.1 **
sorse sorse eight - C.1.8.1 **
soŕ soŕ right, fair - B.7.35.2 **
C.1.6.A.1
sosin sosin integrity; honest zuzen (right, fair) F.6.1.2 ****
F.20.1.BI.3

31
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
su su established - B.23.3.1 **
B.7.35.4
suŕ suŕ firm - B.7.35.7 **
F.20.1.BI.6
suś suś support - D.11.1.1 **
-ś -ś proverb - H.7.1.(B).1 *
śai śai introduced - B.23.17.1 **
C.21.8.A.1
śalai śalai committed - C.21.8.A.3 (twice) **
C.21.8.B.1

F.20.1.AI.8
F.20.1.BI.3
śalir śalir money, value, payment sari (fee, prize) ****
G.1.1.AI.7
G.1.1.BI.1

śan śan upright, honest - F.7.1.B.1 **

B.7.34.19
śar śar entrance, door sarrera (entrance) ***
B.7.35.13
śei śei sex - F.20.1.BI.5 **
śir śir objective - F.20.1.BI.4 **
śo śo will - C.21.2.1 **
B.7.34.8-9
śor śor resolution - **
B.7.35.9
śoŕ śoŕ evidence, proof - X.0.1.1 **
ta ta extension, complement - G.1.1.AI.6 **

tabeŕ tabeŕ adoption - C.2.3.A.4 ***

C.1.8.1
tai tai equivalent, standard - **
F.7.1.A.1
tail tail example - F.9.5.3 *
B.7.34.8
takal takal adopted - ***
C.1.6.A.1
take atke to rest, lie atseden (rest, break) C.18.5.1 ***
takon takon assistant - F17.2.A.1 **

B.23.17.1
C.1.6.1.A.1
tal tal progress, evolution, growth - C.4.1.2 **
F.9.5.5
F.17.2.A.2

tals tals offspring - C.4.1.2 *** Also in talskar

talskar talskar mother - C.18.5.1 ***
tan tan reach, relevance - C.4.1.4 **
tana tana reached - C.27.1.3 **
B.7.34.11-12
C.2.3.A.6
taneś taneś well-being, summit - **
C.4.1.1
C.4.1.4

B.23.3.1
F.7.1.A.2
tar tar development, evolution - F.17.2.A.2 **
F.20.1.BI.2
F.20.1.BI.5

32
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

B.7.34.4
B.7.34.13
C.2.3.A.3
taŕ taŕ progress - **
C.4.1.3
D.11.1.1
F.17.2.A.2

taŕi taŕi always - F.6.1.3 **

C.2.3.B.1
tas tas importance - **
F.20.1.AI.4-5
tasin tasin promise - C.21.8.A.2 **
taś (1) taś win - F.17.2.A.4 **
C.2.3.A.5
taś (2) atś wife - **
F.14.1.2 (twice)

tati tati validation - F.21.1.B.1 **

tautia tautia understanding - F.9.5.3 **
tautin tautin victory - C.21.1.1 **
C.2.3.A.3
C.2.3.A.5
C.4.1.6
C.21.8.A.3
C.21.8.B.1
D.11.3.1
F.6.1.3
F.9.5.3 (twice)
F.14.1.5-6
te te towards, for - **
F.17.2.B.(A).1
F.20.1.AI.3
F.20.1.AI.4
F.20.1.AI.6
F.20.1.BI.1
F.20.1.BI.2
F.20.1.BI.3
F.20.1.BI.4
G.1.1.AI.5
teba teba exclusive - F.9.5.1 **
B.7.34.16
tedei / tetei tedei initiative - **
B.7.34.17
Part of
teiki teiik selfish - B.7.35.2-3 **
bateigeik
G.16.1.A.(B).1
tekeŕ tekeŕ votive - **
(twice)
teku teku personal - F.20.1.BI.3 **
ten ten destiny, culmination, maturity - F.9.5.6 **
tenai tenai mature - C.21.8.A.1 **
ter ter development - F.17.2.A.3 **
B.1.373.3
teŕ (1) teŕ delayed - **
B.1.373.4
C.2.3.A.2
teŕ (2) teŕ ample - **
F.20.1.AI.2
tesi tesi winner - F.17.2.A.2 **
F.17.2.A.4
ti- it- in-, un-, no - **
G.1.1.AI.7
tia tia advance - F.9.5.3 ** Part of tautia
B.23.18.1
tiai tiai advanced - F.6.1.1 **
F.20.1.BI.3

33
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

tiar tiar usual - B.23.3.1 **

B.7.34.7
B.7.35.11
tibaś tibaś foreigner, enemy, savage basa (wild, deserted) *****
C.4.1.5
C.21.1.1
tieba tieba initiation - F.7.1.A.1 **

B.7.34.6
C.4.1.1
tige / tike tige expansion - C.4.1.2 **
C.4.1.7
D.11.1.1

tiger / tiker tiger protector - F.6.1.4 **

B.7.35.10
B.7.35.12
tigeŕ / tikeŕ tigeŕ our - **
C.1.6.A.1
G.16.1.B.1
tigeś / tikeś tigeś recognition - C.21.1.1 **
C.19.(A).1
tigi / tiki tigi product - **
F.9.5.5

B.7.34.7
B.23.3.2
C.4.2.(A).1
tigirs / tikirs tigirs pregnant - **
C.21.8.B.2
C.27.1.1
F.11.10.1 (twice)

tigis tigis people's - B.7.35.13 **

The "itkaś uŕ"
tikaś itkaś impure - B.23.17.1 ** combination
means "sea"
tike tike powerful - F.21.1.A.1 **
tiḿoŕ tiḿoŕ unifier - C.2.3.A.3 **

B.7.34.3
B.7.35.5
C.1.6.B.1
F.9.5.1
F.9.5.3
tin tin complete; to complete, fulfill - **
F.20.1.AI.2
G.1.1.AI.2
G.1.1.AI.4
G.1.1.B.2
G.1.1.B.4

tir tir wish - F.17.2.A.4 **

B.7.34.22-23
tiŕ tiŕ motivation, stimulus - F.9.5.6 **
G.1.1.B.1
tis tis benefit - B.7.35.9 **
tisi tisi beneficial - B.23.18.1 **
tiśo tiśo distribution - B.7.34.21-22 **
tiu tiu education, preparation - H.7.1.1 **
to to advance - B.7.34.15 **
F.7.1.A.2
ton ton completion - F.20.1.BI.2 **
F.20.1.BI.7

34
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading
B.1.373.5 (three
tor tor development, progress - times) **
F.20.1.AI.10
torsin torsin solemn oath - C.21.8.B.3 **
toś otś wolf - B.23.8.1 **
which comes from inside, F.9.5.1
tu tu - **
sincere F.11.10.1
tuei tuei voluntarily - F.21.1.A.2 **
C.2.3.A.2
tui tui decision - C.8.11.1 **
F.7.1.A.1

B.1.373.1
B.1.373.3
tun tun determination - B.23.3.2 **
F.9.5.4
X.0.1.1
F.9.5.1
tuŕa(n) tuŕa(n) dedication, faithfulness - **
F.9.5.2 (twice)
tuŕl tuŕl product, harvest - G.1.1.AI.2 **
tuŕś tuŕś generous - B.7.35.15 **
B.7.34.21
C.1.6.B.1
C.2.3.A.5
C.21.8.A.2
F.6.1.2 (three
u u that, which, who - times) **
F.6.1.3 (twice)1
F.9.5.2 (twice)
F.20.1.AI.3 (twice)
F.20.1.AI.4
F.20.1.AI.9 (twice)
C.1.9.(B).1
ukal ukal expression - **
F.20.1.AI.4
C.1.10.1
uldi / ulti uldi desired - **
F.17.2.A.2
B.7.34.12
un un help, protection - C.2.3.B.1 (twice) **
F.7.1.A.2
F.6.1.1
uni uni protector - F.9.5.4 (twice) **
F.20.1.AI.3
unin unin tutor, mentor, guardian - C.1.6.B.1 **
B.1.373.2
B.7.35.11
ur ur attitude - **
B.22.3.1
C.21.8.B.2 (twice)
ursa ursa committed - B.1.373.2 **
B.23.17.1
uŕ uŕ water, rain - ***
C.0.1.3
uŕalaśkaŕ /
uŕalaśgaŕ vehicle (boat) alatzar (barge) C.1.6.A.1 ***
uŕalaśgaŕ
uŕer uŕer natural - F.20.1.AI.6-7 **
uŕes uŕes origin - F.20.1.AI.5-6 **
B.7.34.2
uŕeś uŕeś logical, normal - **
B.7.34.12
uŕi uŕi used to - F.20.1.AI.6 **

35
 Correct
Iberian Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments
reading

uŕkaŕai uŕkaŕai means - F.21.1.A.1 **

C.21.1.1
uŕke uŕke flow, course, channel - F.6.1.1 **
G.1.1.AI.4
F.9.5.5
us us union - **
F.20.1.BI.5
It could be
translated as
ustai ustai loom - C.8.2.1 **
“shared
growth”
F.9.5.5
uś uś procreation - **
F.9.5.6
utar utar Internal development - B.1.373.2 **

36
 4. TRANSLATIONS PROPOSED
This chapter includes the translations proposed for fifty texts selected from the most complete
and representative documents of the Iberian language. For each case we first have the
transcription of the Iberian text, then the segmentation proposed for it, the literal translation of
each segment and, finally, my interpretation of the text in plain language.

B.1.373 Ensérune Lead

katubaŕeka.sisbi.baŕkeike.galirige.tundige.n
kabielakeutarige.ursa.eXśirigeerderike
gaŕeśoŕ.ieike.isteŕ.tundige.neXśirs.ka
ladiorneXśirs.kadioibiisteŕgas.laŕagol
beidoretaitor.oŕoikaśtoretaitor
lokaŕkigeetan

kaut_baŕ_e_ka.sis_bi.baŕ_keike.
galir_ige.tun_di_ge.n
ka_bi_e_lake_utar_ige.ursa.
ebośir_ige_er_der_ik_e_gaŕ_eś_oŕ.
ieike.is_ teŕ.tun_di_ge.
n_ebośir_s.kal_adi_or_n_ebośir_s.
ka_di_oi_bi_is_teŕ_gas.
laŕagol_bei_dor_etai_tor.
oŕoi_kaś_tor_etai_tor
lokaŕ_ik_ge_etan

mentality_outstanding_result of_power.absolute_-ly.outstanding_powerful.
delivery_ready.determination_outlook_with.total
power_-ly_result of_love_internal development_self_result of.committed.
birth_ready_manner_temperament_ready_parturition_consequence of_fertility.
getting ready.no_delayed.determination_outlook_with.
total_birth_focused.progeny_promising_appearance_ total_birth_focused
dominant_outlook_+_-ly_no_delayed _pregnancy.
given birth to_small_kind_amount to_ progress.
harvest_pure_ development_ amount to _ progress
effort_self_with_reach

With an outstanding mental power, absolute, clearly outstanding.

Ready to give birth, with total open determination,
with a love stemming strength, the result of her own internal development. Committed.
Ready to give birth, mentally prepared for a delivery consequence of (her) fertility,
getting ready, without delay, with open determination.
Totally focused on the birth, with mother-to-be looks, totally focused on the birth.
Controlling not to prolong the pregnancy.
Giving birth to a baby leads to progress.
The development of the pure harvest leads to progress
within reach through (her) own effort

Notes:
1. The reading of the symbol with a wheat ear shape that is usually shown as X or Y in this text probably is bo, as
proposed by Noemí Moncunill in her doctoral thesis (Moncunill 2007, 174). This means that all three cases in

37
 this text would be part eboś, a segment with “to give birth to” as most likely translation and part of ebośir (giving
birth action > birth).
2. The sign + is used to indicate that the Iberian word has an infix and that the translation of this part of the word
is included with the first part, before the infix.

B.7.34 Pech Maho I Lead

eisbuŕebal[
bakaśketei.uŕeś
tiniŕ.baidesgige.*
norotaŕ.adinbuŕ
ikei.kuleśkeŕe.
bastige.leisir.bilos
tibaś.tigirsbin.
boduoŕiś.baśbin.takalś
or.adine.beleśbaś*
aŕsbin.kanbuloige
bakaśketei.giskeŕtan.
eśuŕeśuniŕ.
selgitaŕaśalkidei
ke.kanbuloilereuti
niŕ.bekoŕtoisabe
liŕ.tedeiarika[ne]
abelgiŕdika.ntedeia
rikane.baidesgige.kul
eśkeŕe.ildiŕśar
] adingeŕeatan.a[ti]
nbin.lituŕiśuaśti
śo.doilakoni.basti
ŕalaśbuŕ.ḿino.ata
nike

e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ bakaś_ketei.uŕeś_tin_iŕ.baides_gi_ge. [...]

n_oro_taŕ.adin_buŕikei.kuleś_keŕ_e.
bas_tige.leis_ir.
bilos_tibaś.tigirs_bin.bodu_oŕ_iś.baśbin.
takal_śor.adin_e.beleś_baś_gaŕs_bin.
kan_buloi_ge_bakaś_ketei.
gis_keŕ_taneś_uŕeś_un_iŕ.
selgi_taŕ_aśal_kidei_ke.
kan_buloi_ler_eutin_iŕ.
bekoŕ_ to_is_abel_iŕ.
tedei_ar_ik_a[n_e] abel_giŕ_di_ka.
n_tedei_ar_ik_an_e.
baides_gi_ge.kuleś_keŕ_e.
ildiŕ_śar] adin_geŕ_e_atan.a[di]n_bin.
lituŕ_iś_u_aś_tiśo.doila_koni.
bas_tiŕ_alaś_buŕ.
ḿi_no.atani_ke

38
e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ immaculate_behavior.logical_complete_do.judge_task_with. [...]
n_evidence_progress.excellent_leadership.authority_influential_result of.
society_expansion.sacrifice_action.
tribe_enemy.pregnant_mate.nature_fertility_forced.rape.
adopted_resolution.excellent_result of.children_ rape _born_+.
powerful_backing_with_ immaculate_behavior.
people_influential_well-being_logical_help_will.
feat_progress_procedure_adequate_powerful.
powerful_backing_interior_complete_will.
modest_advance_no_generation_will.
initiative_norm_self _-ed_ result of_generation_form_prospect_power.
total_initiative_norm_self _-ed_result of.
judge_task_with.authority_influential_result of.
town_entrance] excellent_us_result of_reached.excellent_unite.
submission_forced_that_spread_distribution.circumstances_magnificent.
society_motivation_procedure_supreme.
I am_reflection.reached_powerful

e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ An immaculate behavior, a logical action, the work of judges [...]

n_an evidence of progress, of an excellent leadership, the result of an influential authority,
a sacrifice for the expansion of (our) society.
To those pregnant by the enemy, whose natural fertility was forced, raped,
as a result of an excellent resolution, we will adopt the children born from rape.
With the powerful backing of an immaculate behavior
(and) the logical well-being resulting from the help from the people.
A feat of progress with a powerful adequate procedure,
(which) will be completed with a powerful internal support.
It will not be a modest advance for a generation.
(our) own initiative planned to form a strong generation.
(our) own complete initiative.
The work of judges, as a result of the influence of their authority.
At the entrance of the town ] reached because of our excellence. Excellent union.
That a forced submission leads to expansion. A great opportunity,
A supreme procedure to motivate (our) society.
This is a true reflection of the agreement.

B.7.35 Pech Maho II Lead

kuleśbuŕka
nisoŕbateige*
kilekaŕkeloŕ
suŕsebetigabaide
seŕtinke.kuleśke
ŕegekuleśiŕi
kelekaŕkeloŕ
suŕabetigabaide
sbitiskeis.banśor
ildiŕtigeŕ.bilos
tibaśibeisur.bil
osleistigeŕ.bil
]stigis.ildiŕśar.
]ḿinḿbaildiŕgiś
]tuŕśilTiŕ

39
kuleś_buŕ_kani_soŕ_bateigeik_lekaŕ__(ar)
keloŕ_suŕ_se_(a)betiga_baides_eŕ_tin_ke.
kuleś_keŕ_e_ge_kuleś_iŕike_lekaŕ__(ar)
keloŕ_suŕ_abetiga_baides_bi_tis_keis.
ban_śor_ildiŕ_tigeŕ_(ar).
bilos_tibaś_i_beis_ur_(ar).
bilos_leis_tigeŕ.bilos_tigis.
ildiŕ_śar.]ḿi_nḿ_bai_(i)ldiŕ _giś]tuŕś_ildiŕ

authority_supreme_powerful_fair_altruist_prestigious_(to)
vigorous_firm_man_winner_judge_passion_complete_strong.
authority_influential_as_with_authority_boss_prestigious_(to)
vigorous_firm_winner_judge_ –ly_benefit_weak.
special_resolution_town_our_(to).
tribe_enemy_in relation to_dignified_attitude_(to).
tribe_sacrifice_our.tribe_people’s.
town_entrance.]I am_limit_exceptional_town_difussion] generous_town

(To) the supreme authority, a man powerful, fair, altruist, prestigious,

vigorous, firm, winner, completely passionate judge.
As influential authority, authority of prestigious leader
vigorous, firm, winner, judge who favors the weak.
(To) the special resolution of our town.
(to) the dignified attitude in front of the enemy.
the sacrifice of our people, the tribe’s people.
At the town entrance.] Proclaimed at the limits of an exceptional town] generous town

Notes:
1. It is most likely that the lines ending in either Vr or Vŕ contain an implicit -ar (for, to) ending, indicating that
the attributes are dedicated to the people / objects that each text line refers to. We can see in other texts as well,
like B.44.16 below.
2. Even through it is traditionally considered that the second line is not complete, I don’t believe that to be the
case.

B.11.1 Stone block. Cruzy

ilunate
neitiniunstir.kule
śare.aḿkideibase

ilun_ate.neitin_iunstir.kuleś_ar_e.
aḿ_kidei_bas_e

cooperation_method.sincere_protection wishes.authority_norm_result of.

inherent_adequate_society_result of

Cooperation measure, a gesture of good will, authority norm, very adequate for society.

Note: The transcription of the Iberian text is taken from Ferrer, Moncunill y Gorrochategui (2016 Ferrer, Moncunill
and Gorrochategui). Considering its format and content, the stone may have been a very visible block in a city wall.
It is obvious that the inscription referred to another text.

40
B.22.2 Err III. Rock graffiti. Err (French Cerdagne)

baŕkarbaŕkaike IIIIII

baŕ_kar_baŕ_ka_ik_e IIIIII

outstanding_authority_outstanding_command_self_result of IIIIII

Outstanding authority, the result of outstanding self-control IIIIII

Comment: The rock graffiti in French Cerdagne seem to have been used to show philosophical maxims, as we can
see in this case and in others below.

B.22.3 Err III. Rock graffiti. Err (French Cerdagne)

diukasurbir

diu_kas_ur_bir

meditation_knowledge_attitude_repeated

A repeated attitude comes from reflection

B.23.2 & 3 Rock graffiti. Rendu Rock. Osséja (French Cerdagne)

egibaler
oŕdinkali.bisukasir.belenku.idaŕer.oŕdinkali.ḿeśambe.tartiar
anbeḿsibems.kutun.tigirsadinḿ

egi_bal_er
oŕdin_kal_i.bi_su_kas_ir.
bel_en_ku.idaŕ_er.
oŕdin_kal_i.ḿ_eś_am_be.
tar_tiar
an_beḿs_i_bems.ku_tun.
tigirs_adin_ḿ

construct_offspring_manner
fertile_progeny_in relation to_very_established_knowledge_action.
offspring_of_personal.be natural_manner.
fertile_progeny _in relation to_essence_consequence of_huge_dependency.
development_usual
great_proliferation_in relation to_total slavery.personal_determination.
pregnant_excellent_essence

The creation of lineage

The generation of progeny (has) a well established procedure,
it is the natural base for a personal lineage.
The generation of progeny (has) an important consequence, a huge dependence,
(it is) a usual development.

41
A large proliferation leads to total slavery. (It is) a personal decision.
(This is) key for an excellent pregnant woman.

Note:
• The three lines are analyzed as a whole, even though the first line seems to be a text written by a different
person and it is considered to be an independent text (B.23.2). However, the three lines refer to the same
subject.
• This transcription is based on Ferrer’s analysis (Ferrer 2018), choosing ḿ as the transcription for I, in line
with one of the options suggested by Ferrer.

B.23.4 Clement Rock. Osséja

oŕabebetikibelsir

oŕ_abe_bedi_ik_bels_ir

fertility_slave_undergo_self_offspring_actions

Those who want children will suffer the actions of their offspring

B.23.8 Clement Rock. Osséja

bakaŕtoś

bagaŕ_otś

lone_wolf

Lone wolf

B.23.17 Gassiot Rock. Osséja

tikaśuŕ.n.śaitalekite ebiutabi**

itkaś_uŕ.n.śai_tal_e_ikte ebi_utabi**

impure_water.total.introduced_progress_for_oneself to grow_utabi**

Seawater. Plunge in totally to grow_utabi**

Note: Even though the translation is both incomplete and somehow doubtful, I think that it is worth including it in
this selection because the first word possibly shows the origin of the Basque term itsaso (sea).

42
B.23.18 Gassiot Rock. Osséja

askeltioŕbatisitiai

as_kelti_oŕ_ba_tisi_tiai

satiate_continuator_fertility_only_beneficial_advanced

The continuity of the linage is the only clear benefif from fertility

B.44.16 Ceramic. Necropolis of Turó dels Dos Pins (Cabrera de Mar, Barcelona).

bandoŕenḿibaikar

ban_doŕ_en_ḿi_baikar_(ar)

special_type_of_is_purification_for

For special purifications

C.0.1 Lead. Unknown location

koŕasiŕen.e #I
neŕseoŕtinika.e II
kaisuŕanaŕika.II

koŕ_as_iŕ_en.e #I
neŕse_oŕdin_iga.e II
kais_uŕ_an_aŕi_(i)ga.II

favor_satiate_do_of.e #I
husband_fertile_arrival.eII
mild_rain_great_solid_arrival.II

For satiating us with favors. e #I

For the arrival of a fertile husband. eII
For the arrival of steady mild rains. II

Note: This text seems to be a list of established stipends in a temple for the prayers for each of the most common
intentions from the visitors.

C.1.6 Lead. Ampurias (Gerona)

A: nabaŕsosin lakun uŕalaśkaŕ akaśtikeŕ siken*** aŕtakale balkeaŕ***talon

B: sikounin ilakotinebatan abatulkatuŕabanui

A: nabaŕ_sosin lagun_ uŕalaśgaŕ agaś_tigeŕ

siken***aŕ_takal_e balke_aŕ***tal_on

43
B: siko_unin ilako_tin_ebatan abatul_katuŕ_aban_u_i

A: deep_integrity friend vehicle purity_our_

determined***aŕ_adopted_result of father_aŕ*** progress_good

B: firm_tutor instruction_complete_concentrate (only) objective_dedication_special_that_in

relation to

A: A deep integrity leads us to purity.

determined***aŕ_adopted_result of father_aŕ*** progress_good

B: A firm tutor concentrates the instruction completely on the dedication to the special
objectives.

Note: The proposed translation does not include the second part of Text A given that a significant part of the
information is missing.

C.1.8 Marble disk. Ampurias (Gerona)

sorseiteŕketaiḿi

sorse_i_deŕ_ke_tai_ḿi

eight_ive_reference_strong_equivalent_I am

Eight-unit weight

C.1.9 Ceramic. Ampurias (Gerona)

(A) goŕotiginai
(B) ukal
(C) biuŕgeŕen

(A) goŕo_tigi_nai
(B) ukal
(C) biuŕ_geŕ_en

(A) gift_product_I am
(B) expression
(C) link_us_of

(A) This is a present

(B) expression
(C) of our link

Note: Greco-Iberian alphabet in A

44
C.1.10 Ceramic. Ampurias (Gerona)

ultibeleś

uldi_beleś

desired_son

Desired son

Note: Possible anthroponym (Desired-son)

C.2.3 Ullastret Lead. Ullastret (Gerona)

A
ar.basiaŕebe
ebaŕikaḿe.tuikesiŕa.borste.abaŕgeborste.teŕ
diŕs.baidesbi.neitegeŕu.taŕbelioŕku.tiḿor
kiŕ.bardaśko.anbeiku.baidesir.salduko.kuletabeŕku*
bigildiŕste.eŕeśu.kodibanen.eberka.taśkaliŕs
loŕsa.batibi.biuŕtaneś.saldugileŕku.gi

B
daŕun.atabager.abaśager.tasbeŕiun.erna.borakau

A
ar.bas_i_aŕ_ebe
ebaŕi_kaḿ_e. tui_kes_iŕa.
borste.abaŕ_ge_borste.teŕ_diŕs.
baides_bi.nei_te_geŕ_u.taŕ_beli_oŕ_ku_(u).
tiḿor_kiŕ.bar_daś_ok.an_beik.
baides_ir.sal_du_ok.kul_e_tabeŕ_ku*
bi_g(i)_ildiŕ_(iŕ)s_te.eŕ_eś_u.
kodi_ban_en.eber_ka.atś_kal_iŕs
loŕsa.batibi.biuŕ_taneś.
sal_du_gi_leŕ_ku.gi

B
daŕ_un.ata_ba_(a)ger.abaś_ager.
tas_beŕi_un.erna.bor_aka_u

A
norm.society_in relation to_firm_fulfil
do outstandingly_difussion_result of.decision_wise people_achieved.
five.ten_times_five.ample_frank.
judge_-ly.think_for_us_that.progress_children_fertility_personal_(that).
unifier_influence.internal_affable_own.great_humility.
judge_action.consistent_disposition_own.verve_result of_adoption_ku*
again_construction_town_reach_towards.passion_consequence of_that.
spirit_special_of.beget_power.wife_progeny_reach
loaded.ardent desire.link_well-being.
consistent_disposition _task_dedication_personal.construction

45
B
natural_help.reach_singular_protection.danger_protection.
importance_new_help.implicit.member_powerful_that

A
Firm general norm for everybody:
To be spread broadly, a decision taken by wise people. Fifty-five, very honest,
judges wise, who plan for us. Who make the children of fertility progress.
A unifier influence, affable, very humble.
Action of judges, consistent with their own disposition, adoption as their zest_ku*
In order to achieve the reconstruction of the town, a consequence of their enthusiasm,
of a special spirit, of a begetting power. Let wives have children.
Filled with an ardent desire to be a well-being instrument.
With a steady disposition to dedicate themselves to the construction.

B
A natural support, a protection of unique reach, a protection from danger
The importance of a new help, implicit, of a powerful member.

C.4.1 Plomo del Castell. El Castell (Palamós, Gerona)

]biŕ.bilostaneśbatir.ibeitigebatir.bilosbaśkateX
]n.auŕbimbatir.sortigebatir.Xŕbatibi.talskokate
]bilosbimbatir.lakuaŕgisbatir.Xŕbatibi.beleśtaŕkate
]Xŕbatibi.abaŕkisbatir.adintaneśbatirs.tankokate
]śkabaibatibi.agirtibaśbatir.bel(e)śbedibatir.kaḿikate
]irika.golbiŕ [ ].be[ ].bakontegeŕ
]Xŕbati[ ]beidigebatir.ti*[

]biŕ.bilos_taneś_batir.ibei_tige_batir.bilos_baś_kateX
]n.auŕ_bim_batir.sor_tige_batir.Xŕ_batibi.tals_ok_kate
]bilos_bim_batir.laku_aŕ_gis_batir.Xŕ_batibi.beleś_taŕ_kate
]Xŕ_batibi.abaŕ_kis_batir.adin_taneś_batirs.tan_ok_kate
]ś_ka_bai_batibi.agir_tibaś_batir.bel(e)ś_bedi_batir.ka_ḿi_kate
]irika.golbiŕ [ ].be[ ].ba_kon_te_geŕ
]Xŕbati[ [i]bei_tige_batir.ti*[

]biŕ.people_well-being_wish.subdue_expansion_wish.people_foreigner_with the purpose ofX

]n.woman_join_wish.enforcement_expansion_wish.Xŕ_ardent desire.offspring_own_with the
purpose of
]people_join_wish.love_firm_person_wish.Xŕ_ ardent desire.son_progress_with the purpose
of
]Xŕ_ ardent desire.outstanding_life_wish.excellent_well-being _wish.reach_own_with the
purpose of
]ś_power_exceptional_ ardent desire.control_enemy_wish.son_subdue_wish.power_I
am_with the purpose of
]irika.natality[ ].be[ ].singular_magnificent_for_us
]Xŕbati[ ]subdue_expansion_wish.ti*[

]biŕ. To fulfil the wish of people’s well-being, the wish to reduce the expansion of the
enemyX
]n. To fulfil the wish to marry a woman, the wish to procreate. Xŕ the ardent desire of own
offspring

46
] To fulfil the wish to unite the tribe, a wish of firm love among people. Xŕ With the ardent
wish of the progress of children.
]Xŕ Ardent wish. To fulfill the wish of an outstanding life, the wish of excellent well-being, of
personal relevance
]ś_ardent desire for an exceptional power. To fulfill the wish to control the enemy, to subdue
(their) children. To have the power.
]irika.natality[ ].be[ ].singular_magnificent_for_us
]Xŕbati[ ]subdue_expansion_wish.ti*[
Notes:
1. Even though the transcription is not complete, the sense of the text is clear. Its structure similar to that of the
Prayers of the Faithful in any religious celebration.
2. The translation of batibi is based on the assumption that the text really is batirbi

C.4.2 Spindle whorl. El Castell (Palamós, Gerona)

(A) tikirsbalauŕ.arḿi.banḿi
(B) aloŕbeŕiborareukeŕḿi

(A) tigirs_balauŕ.ar_ḿi.ban_ḿi
(B) aloŕ_beŕi_bor_ar_eugeŕ_ḿi

(A) pregnant_sister.for_I am.especial_I am

(B) weight_new_body_intended for_receive_I am

A) I am for a pregnant sister. I am special

(B) I am a (loom) weight to receive a newborn (child)

Comment: Clothes for newborn babies are a common present to mothers today but it seems that at the time of the
Iberians it was far more common to give as presents customized pieces for the loom that the mother would use to
make the clothes.

C.8.2 Spindle whorl. Puig Castellar (Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Barcelona)

ustainabaŕarban

ustai_(e)n_abaŕ_ar_ban

loom_of_branch_for_special

Special for a loom

Note: From what we can see, “rainbow” was the actual meaning of the Iberian word for “loom” because of the
various colors it used.

47
C.8.10 Stone stele. Badalona (Barcelona)

ḿlbebiu
ŕar.ḿi

ḿlbe_biuŕ_ar.ḿi

Ḿlbebiuŕ_for.I am

I am for Ḿlbebiuŕ (Link-of-chiefs)

C.8.11 Stone stele. Badalona (Barcelona)

bantuin
ḿi.ḿl
bebiuŕ e
banen

ban_tui_(e)n_ḿi.ḿlbe_biuŕ ebanen

Bantui_of_I am. Ḿlbebiuŕ dedicated

I belong to Bantui (Decision-special). Dedicated (by) Ḿlbebiuŕ (Link-of-chiefs)

Note: This stele and the previous one seem to refer to the same person (Ḿlbebiuŕ), who dedicated the stele in one
case and was the subject of the dedication in the other one.

C.9.1 Barcelona stele. Stone stele. Barcelona

nḿkeildiŕarḿi

nḿ_ke_ildiŕ_ar_ḿi

limit_powerful_town_for_I am

This is the border of a powerful town

C.18.5 Stone stele. Tarragona

aŕetake atinbelauŕ.antalskar FULVIA.LINTEARIA

aŕe_atke adin_belauŕ.an_talskar FULVIA.LINTEARIA

stony_lies excellent_daughter.great_mother FULVIA.LINTEARIA

Inert lies forever an excellent daughter and a great mother FULVIA.LINTEARIA

48
C.21.1 Silver patera. El Castellet de Banyoles. Tivissa (Tarragona)

.tautintibaś.sani.giŕśdo.uŕketigeś

.tautin_tibaś.sani.giŕś_do.uŕke_tigeś

.victory_enemy.complete.offering_condition.channel_recognition

Offering in recognition of the total victory over the enemy

C.21.2 Silver patera. El Castellet de Banyoles. Tivissa (Tarragona)

badeiŕebaikarśokinbaikar

bade_iŕ_e_baikar_śo_kin_baikar

extraordinary_do_for_purification_will_achievement_purification

The key for an extraordinary purification is in the will to achieve it

Note: Even though it is quite tempting to identify śo with the Basque word su (fire), as suggested by Velaza, so that
we could translate the second part of this text as “purification by fire", I believe that the root “ki” (to do) is linked to
non-physical processes while “gi” is associated to physical ones, as it would be in the case of fire.

C.21.8 Lead of unknown origin (¿Tivissa?)

A
śalaiaŕkistenai
aŕikaletesui.lakuiltum.tasinbai[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+
śalaiaŕkiste.ikaŕ.aŕikalereian[---]+te. śalai+[.]tin

B
śalaiaŕkiste.beŕkebeśa.aŕika
kalereianiŕ.aŕikale.etesur.tigirsur.akiaŕko.
torsingeŕe

A
śalai_aŕ_gis_tenai
aŕi_kal_etes_u_i.lagu_iltum.
tasin_bai[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+
śalai_aŕ_gis_te.ikaŕ.
aŕi_kal_er_eian[---]+te. śalai+[.]tin

B
śalai_aŕ_gis_te.beŕ_ke_beś_a.
aŕi_ka_kal_er_eian_iŕ.aŕi_kal_e.
etes_ur.tigirs_ur.agi_aŕ_ok.
torsin_geŕ_e

A
committed_firm_ person_mature.

49
solid_progeny_form_that_-ive.love.alliance.
promise_real[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+
committed_ firm_ person_for.steady,
solid_progeny_manner_raised[---]+te.committed+[.]tin

B
committed_firm_ person_for.born_strong_birth_+.
solid_power_progeny_manner_raised_do.solid_progeny_for.
form_attitude.pregnant_attitude.control_firm._own.
solemn oath_us_result of

A
A firm mature committed person
Who wants to form a solid family. A love alliance.
A true promise [---]tibani+[.]r[.]+
For a firm committed person, steady.
A solid way to raise a family [---]+te. Committed +[.]tin

B
For a firm committed person. Born with the strength to give birth.
A solid way to raise a family. For a solid progeny.
Attitude to form it, pregnant attitude, firm self-control.
The result of our solemn oath.

Note: Each one of the two parts in this text was written by a different person. It seems to be a marriage agreement
reflecting the aptitude of both groom and bride.

C.27.1 Civit tombstone. Stone. Civit (Tarragona)

tigirsikoŕ
sakaŕie
ban.erirtan
aŕora.an
konau[n]in

tigirs_ikoŕ_sakaŕ_i_eban.
erir_tan_aŕ_or_a.an_kon_au[n]_in

pregnant_first-time_fruit_+_dedicated.
death_reached_stone_appearance_+.great_magníficent_woman_tenacity

Dedicated to a first-time pregnant woman that death struck down. A great and tenacious woman.

D.4.1 Ceramic. Serrat de Sant Miquel (Sorba, Barcelona)

lakeŕbelauŕ

lakeŕ_belauŕ

dear_daughter

Dear daughter

50
D.11.1 Silver ring. Soses (Lérida)

suśtaŕtike

suś_taŕ_tige

support_progress_expansion

Benefactor

Note: This text seems to refer to the recognition to the ring user from those who presented it to him / her.

D.11.3 Spindle whorl. Soses (Lérida)

kaśtaunbankuŕs

kaś_t(e)_aun_ban_kuŕs

pure_for_woman_special_offering

Special offering for a pure woman

D.12.1 Binéfar stele. Sandstone stele. La Vispesa (Binéfar, Huesca)

(A) ]tan.oŕkeikelaur.ekisiŕan.neitin [
(B) ]śkeŕ.

(A) ]tan.oŕgei_ge_laur.egis_iŕan.neitin [

(A) ... twenty_times_four.live_achieved.sincere...

(A) ... eighty lived, sincere...

E.7.2 Caminreal stamp. Ceramic. La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel)

FL.ATILIL.S bilakeaiunadinen.abiner

bilake_aiun_adin_en.abiner

Flacus_master_excellent_of.servant

Flacus, servant to an excellent master

51
E.8.1 Stone. La Iglesuela del Cid (Teruel)

ikonḿkeiḿi iltubeleśeban

iko(ŕ)_nḿ_gei_ḿi ildu_beleś_eban

Ikonḿgei_I am_sad_son_dedicated

For Ikonḿgei (First-beyond-borders). Dedicated by his sad son

E.9.1 Sandstone stele. Benassal (Castellón)

sakaŕbetan.ḿi.

sakaŕ_betan.ḿi.

Sakaŕbetan. I am.

Belonging to Sakaŕbetan (Immediate-fruit)

Note: As in many other languages, Iberian would make use of the same words for the concepts of space and time.

F.5.1 Cabanes stele. Limestone stele. Cabanes (Castellón)

ildiŕbigis.en.seltar.ḿi

ildiŕ_bi_gis.en.seltar.ḿi

town_many_people.of_tomb.is

This is the burying place of many people from the town

F.6.1 Castellón lead plaque. Lead. Pujol de Gasset (Castellón)

ḿbaŕtiaikis.abaŕieikite.sinebetin.uŕkekeŕeŕe.auŕunibeikeai
astebeikeaie.ekaŕiu.atuniu.botuei.baiteski.ekusu.sosinbiuŕu
taŕbeŕoniu.kośoiu.baiteski.beŕikaŕsense.ultitekeŕaikase.
aŕkitiker.aikas.balkebiuŕaies.baitesbaniekaŕse

ḿbaŕ_tiai_gis.abaŕ_iei_ikte.
sin_e_bedin.uŕke_geŕ_eŕ_e.
auŕ_uni_beikeai_aste_beikeai_e.
ekaŕi_u.atuni_u.bodu_e_i.baides_ik.
ekus_u.sosin_biuŕ_u
taŕ_beŕoni_u.kośoi_u.baides_ik.
beŕ_ikaŕ_sen_se.uldi_te_geŕ_aikas_e.
aŕgi_tiger.ai_kas.balke_biuŕ_ai_es.
baides_ban_i_e_kaŕ_se

52
outstanding_advanced_people.outstanding_done_oneself.
oath_by_obliged.channel_us_aspiration_for.
first_protector_respectful_last_respectful_for.
decisive_who.resolved_who.ready_result of_+. judge_self.
unite_who. integrity_link_who
always_kind_who.honest_who. judge_self.
birth_steady_good sense_man.desired_for_us_teachers.result of.
luminosity_protector.teachers.paternal_link_+_cause of.
judge_especial_in relation to_result of_influence_man

Exceptional outstanding people. Outstanding by their own actions.

Obliged by oath. Channel for our aspirations.
To protect (us all) respectfully, from first to last.
Decisive, resolved, ready, their own judges.
Unifiers, integrity bound.
Always kind, honest, their own judges.
Good sense men naturally steady. The response to our longing for teachers.
Protecting light. Teachers. Establishing a paternal link.
Special judges as a result of being influential men.

Note: This text seems to be a reminder of what was to be expected from the people appointed as judges in the
community. It may have been placed in a visible place in the court room.

F.7.1 Lead. El Solaig (Betxí, Castellón)

A
iunstir.beleśaiŕ.kaŕkośkar.bastaibaitieba.balkelakośka.bitetui.bar*
iunstir.ekiartone.beleśtar.senḿrun.etesilir.iunstir.etetur[

B
śaner.buranalir.bitan.a* tauti*[
biten[
C
balkelaku

A
iunstir.beleś_aiŕ.kaŕ_goś_kar.
bas_tai_bai_tieba.
balke_la_goś_ka.bide_tui.bar*
iunstir.egiar_ton_e.
beleś_tar.sen_ḿr_un.
ete_sil_ir.iunstir.ete_tur[

B
śan_er.bur_an_al_ir.bitan.a* tauti*[
biden[
C
balke_lagu

A
protection wishes.son_future.influence_growth_carer.
society_equivalent_exceptional_initiation.
father_essence_growth_power.just_decision.bar*

53
protection wishes.construction_completion_result of.
son_development.good sense_characteristic_help.
evolve_confirmation_action. protection wishes.evolve_tur[

B
honest_manner.feeling_great_expression_action.increase the reach.a*
tauti*[
biden[
C
father_love

A
Protection wishes over the son’s future, directing (his) growth,
with exceptional initiation in the social standards.
The father as an essential growth power. A fair decision.bar*
Protection wishes over the final result of the formation,
of the son’s development, helping with characteristic good sense
The confirmation of the evolution, the evolution of the protection wishes_tur[ [

B
An honest way, a great expression of feelings, improving the result
tauti*[
biden[
C
A loving father

F.9.5 Orleyl V. Lead in a cinerary urn. La Punta de Orleyl (Castellón)

iŕe.bototaś.bitebakiŕśbane.baŕenḿliki.antinḿlitutuŕane.aŕikaŕ.seken
iusu.atilebeiu.lauŕiskeŕkate.banḿliŕbaituŕane.kaisanḿliŕbaituŕa.nei
tailiniŕe.kutur.biteŕoketetine.eŕatiaŕe.kokor.tauebartiate.aŕikaŕbinḿlikise.
iunstirlaku.bodotaśeai.selkeaibartuneai.unibeikeai.aneŕai.unibeikeai.iu
nstirlaku.uskeike.bodotiki.keietisiatense.uśtalarilune.banḿireśu[-
lu.bitiŕokebetense.uśkeaneŕlati.

iŕ_e.bodotaś.bi_teba_giŕś_ban_e.
baŕ_e_n_ḿli_ik.
an_tin_ḿli_tu_tuŕan_e.
aŕi_kaŕ.se_ken_ius_u.atil_ebei_u.
lauŕiskeŕ_kate.
ban_ḿl(i)_iŕ_bai_tuŕan_e.
kais_an_ḿl(i)_iŕ_bai_tuŕa.
nei_tail_in_iŕ_e.kutur.
bideŕok_e_te_tin_e.
eŕ_ati_aŕe.kokor.
tau_ebar_tia_te.aŕi_kaŕ_bin_ḿli_gis_e.
iunstir_lagu.bodotaś_eai.
sel_ke_(e)ai_bar_tun_eai.
uni_beikeai.aneŕai.
uni_beikeai.iunstir_laku.
us_keike.bodo_tigi.gei_etisi_aten_se.
uś_tal_ar_ilun_e.ban_ḿi_(i)r_eś_u[ lu.

54
bi(ŕ)_tiŕ_ok_ebe_ten_se.
uś_ke_aneŕ_ladi.

do_result of.bride.very_exclusive_offering_special_result of.

outstanding_result of_total_merit_own.
great_complete_merit_sincere_faithfulness_result of.
solid_influence.man_powerful_unite_that.behavior_respect_who.
lauŕiskeŕ_with the purpose of.
special_value_ will_exceptional_faithfulness_result of.
discreet_great_merit_ will_exceptional_ faithfulness.
create_example_tenacity_will_result of.symbol.
interchange_result of_for_complete_result of.
passion_involved_stony.unquestionable.
bond_get into_+_for.solid_influence_join_merit_people_for.
good wishes_love.bride_as.
manhood_powerful_as_internal_determination_as.
protector_respectful.begotten.
protector_respectful.good wishes_love.
union_powerful.prepared_product.plus_successful_culmination_man.
procreation_evolution_for_cooperation_result of.special_is_action_consequence of_u[-lu.
multiply_motivation_own_fulfil_destiny_man.
procreation_strong_fecundation_intention.

To become a bride, the result of a very special and exclusive offer.

A result totally from her own merit,
A great complete valuable result of sincere faithfulness,
A solid aspect that will unite her to a powerful man who respects her behavior.
so that Lauŕiskeŕ (Offspring-wished),
will specially value (her) exceptional faithfulness.
The great discreet merit of exceptional faithfulness
will create an example of tenacity, a symbol.
For a complete interchange,
involving firm passion. Unquestionable.
To create a bond, a solid influence for valuable people to join.
As bride with a desire for love.
As internal determination of powerful manhood.
respectful protector of the begotten,
respectful protector of the desire for love.
A powerful union, task ready, adding to the successful culmination of man.
For the evolution of procreation as a result of cooperation, consequence of a special act u[-lu.
The motivation to reproduce oneself fulfilling the destiny of man,
The strong aim of begetting fertility.

Note: The other two text found in the same urn (F.9.6 and F.9.7) deal in the same style with the same kind of subject.
In my view, they all could be a wedding present, probably very special and of a high standard as writing would not
be widely extended for private use at the time. This present would then be buried with the owner because of its
personal memory nature.

55
F.11.10 Limestone stele. Sagunto (Valencia)

olortikirsbeŕian.ḿitikirseni.eterintu

ol_or_tigirs_beŕi_an.
ḿi_tigirs_eni.eter_in_tu

swollen_appearance_pregnant_new_-ed.
I am_pregnant_deceased.develop_problem_which comes from inside

I am a first-time pregnant (woman) of swollen appearance. I am a pregnant (woman) who died

from disease.

F.14.1 Sinarcas stele. Limestone stele. Sinarcas (Valencia)

nskebabassba (line not translated)

baisetaśiltutaśeba[--
nḿiseltarbanḿi
beŕbeinarieukia
-]ḿikatuekaśkoloite
kaŕieukiarseltarban
ḿibasibalkarḿbaŕḿi

baise_taś_ildu_taś_eb(ane)n_ḿi
seltar_ban_ḿi
beŕ_bein_ar_i_eukia(r)_ḿi
kaut_e_kaś_koloi_te_gaŕi_eukiar
seltar_ban_ḿi
basi_balk(e)_ar_ḿbaŕ_ḿi

magistrate_wife_sad_wife_dedicated_por_I am
tomb_special_I am
new_once_norm_+_aplicación_I am
mentality_result of_pure_important_for_strict_application
tomb_special_I am
kind_father_para_outstanding_I am

Dedicated by the wife of a magistrate, a sad wife

This is a special tomb
It is for a methodic enforcer of the law
Of a pure mind, strict enforcer of what is relevant
This is a special tomb
This is for an outstanding kind father

F.17.2 Villares VI. Plomo. Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, Valencia)

A
sakaŕatinte.iuśtir.baŕbinke.bantakon.atu*[
taŕati.ultidar.setalikean.teśibiteruka*
baśuikan.bakaraḿi.sekebiterosan.śuśu[
s.atun.bitirebataśin.ineḿuki.kitibabiŕbete

56
B
(A)
betuginete.iuśtir.atuŕte
(B)
bou

A
sakaŕadin_de.iuśtir.
baŕ_bin_ke.ban_takon.atu*[
taŕ_ati.uldi_tar.
se_tal_ik_e_an.teśi_bider_uka*
baśuika_n.bagara_ḿi.
se_ke_bi_ter_os_an.śuśu[
s.atun.bi_tir_eba_taś_in.
in_e_ḿuik.ik_it_ba_biŕ_bete

B
(A)
betugin_e_te.iuśtir.atuŕ_de
(B)
bou

A
sakaŕadin_personality.tribute.
outstanding_partner_strong.special_assistant.adu*[
progress_involved.desired_development.
man_progress_self_result of_-ed (total).winner_innate_uka*
self demanding_total.grouper_is.
man_strong_much_development_whole_-ed.śuśu[
s.determination.much_wish_characterize_win_tenacity.
tenacity_result of_character.self_no_singular_multiply_out of humility

B
(A)
helpful_result of_for.tribute.generosity_personality
(B)
bou

A
Tribute to Sakaŕadin (Fruit-excellent),
outstanding strong partner, special assistant. adu*[.
Involved in (our) progress, in the desired development,
A self-made man, a born winner _uka*
Totally self-demanding, team builder,
Strong man with great experience. śuśu[
s. Very determined, characterized by tenacity in his wish to win.
A tenacious character, who renounced to creating a family out of modesty

B
(A)
A tribute to a supportive, generous personality
(B)
bou

57
F.20.1 Pico de los Ajos II. Lead. Pico de los Ajos (Yátova, Valencia)

AI
labeisiltuniŕ.abirkakie
niŕ.koroiekers.teŕkekineŕtin
iku.kauniste.anbośiltunu
baiseltunu.te.ukalkebars.belaikeberta
se.kaliśkase.ebeŕeike.erkunin*
ŕeskinake.uŕi.eŕkubete.ḿŕiŕkinu
ŕer san?
----------------------------------------------------------
śalir.labeisiŕ.kebelkaiŕa.kiteibors.kul
eśbelauŕte.borariku.esasikua.etaŕe
ertiketorkaliśali.bale.V-.oŕtine
etuibelauŕ

BI
kekuleśbelauŕte.satiŕa
lauŕbertontebitarste.esatiŕan
kortiaśalir.tiaiteku.selkisosinkas
teesan.VI.bekonkine.aŕesa.baśir.aŕeka
iŕan.lakeiśei.bieikate.ustarike.la
suŕ.atulakeibors.lasiŕa.lau
ŕbertonar

AI
labeis_iltun_iŕ.
abir_ka_ik_en_iŕ.goroi_eger_s.
teŕ_ke_kin_eŕ_tin_ik_u.
ka_uni_s_te.
an_boś_iltun_u_baise_(i)ltun_u.te.
ukal_ke_bar_s.
belai_ke_ber_tas_e.
kal_iś_kas_e.ebeŕ_e_ik_e.
er_kun_in_uŕes_kin_ake.
uŕi.eŕ_kube_te.
ḿŕ_iŕ_kin_uŕer san
----------------------------------------------------------
śalir.labeis_iŕ.ke_bel_ka_iŕa.
kidei_bors.kuleśbelauŕ_te.
bor_ar_ik_u.es_as_ik_u_a.etaŕ_e
erdi_ge_tor_kal_iś_ali.bal_e.V-.
oŕdin_e_etui_belauŕ

BI
ke_kuleśbelauŕ_te.
satiŕa_lauŕberton_te_bi_tar_s_te.
esatiŕan
kortia_śalir.tiai_teku.
selgi_sosin_kas_te_esan.VI.
bekon_kin_e.aŕesa.ba_śir.aŕe_ka_iŕan.
la_gei_ śei.bieik_(k)ate.us_tar_ik_e.
la_suŕ.atu(n)_la_gei_bors.
la_siŕa.lauŕberton_ar

58
AI
worthy_pact_will.
wedding_power_own_of_will.property_protect_focused.
ample_powerful_achievement_aspiration_complete_self_that.
power_protector_focused_for.
great_nuptial_pact_that_magistrate_pact_that.for.
expression_powerful_internal_focused.
filial_powerful_own_achievement_result of.
progeny_expansion_knowledge_result of.give birth_result of_self_result of.
manner_personality_perseverence_origin_achievement_formidable.
used to.passion_indulge in_for.
continuity_will_ achievement_natural san
----------------------------------------------------------
payment.worthy_will.powerful_offspring_power_achieved.
adequate_five.kuleśbelauŕ_+.
body_for_self_that.cause of_satiated_self_that_+.progress_result of
half_times_development_progeny_expansion_external.offspring_result of.V-.
fertile_result of_resolute_daughter

BI
powerful_kuleśbelauŕ_for.
loved_lauŕberton_for_mutual_development_focused_for.
in love
superior_payment.advanced_personal.
accomplishment_honest_experience_for_originated.VI.
kind_achievement_result of.inalterable.only_objective.firm_power_achieved.
spirit_plus_sex.reproduce_with the purpose of.union_development_self_result of.
spirit_firm.determination_spirit_plus_appearance.
spirit_confirmed.lauŕberton_for

AI
It will be a worthy pact,
it will have the power of weddings, focused on protecting interests.
A broad powerful achievement to complete the personal aspirations,
For a protection focused power.
To have a great nuptial pact, a magistrates’ pact,
Focused on a strong internal assertion,
result of their own powerful achievements on progeny,
because of their knowledge in progeny growth, resulting from their own experience.
A perseverant personality at the origin of an extraordinary achievement,
To give way to passion, as accustomed.
To achieve continuity in the natural way san
----------------------------------------------------------
It will have a fair payment, a strong descendancy, a powerful achievement.
Five (is) adequate for Kuleśbelauŕ (Authority-daughter),
to procure her body, to satisfy oneself, to progress.
Half for each increase in offspring born. As descendancy. V-.
The result of a fertile resolute daughter.

BI
For the strong Kuleśbelaur,
for the loved Lauŕberton (Offspring-own-completion)), focused on the development of both,
in love
A superb award for personal progress.
Originated for the accomplishment of an honest experience. VI.

59
Result of a kind achievement, inalterable, achieved with a firm power.
Spirit and sex for reproduction, the result of the development of the union.
A firm spirit. Body and spirit determination.
A spirit confirmed for Lauŕberton.

Note: The segmentation of lasuŕ and lasiŕ in F.20.1.BI.5-6 could be las_uŕ and la_siŕ respectively, with a possible
“satisfaction” meaning for las while uŕ would be “flow” and iŕ would correspond to “achieve”.

F.21.1 Enguera Lead. Lead. Enguera (Valencia)

A
bekoiiltun.soribeis.uŕkaŕailur.tueitikeiltun.ikoŕiskeŕ.
otoildiŕ.selkiskeŕ.otokeildiŕ.iskeiltun.selgiḿiltun.

B
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# baisetatie

A
bekoi_iltun.sori_beis.uŕkaŕai_lur.
tuei_tike_iltun.ikoŕ_iskeŕ.
oto_ildiŕ.selg(i)_iskeŕ.oto_ke_ildiŕ.
iske(ŕ)_iltun.selgi_ḿ(i)_iltun.

B
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# baise_tati_e

A
respectful_treaty.applicable_worthy.means_image.
voluntarily_powerful_treaty.first_wished.
progress_town.feat_wished.progress_powerful_town.
wished_treaty.feat_I am_treaty.

B
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# magistrates_validation_result of

A
A respectful treaty, useful, representative.
A free-will powerful treaty. A priority.
A desired success for the progress of the town, a powerful progress of the town.
A desired treat. This is a successful treaty.

B
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# magistrates in favor

60
G.1.1 Plomo de Alcoy. Plomo. La Serreta (Alcoy, Alicante). Alfabeto grecoibérico
AI
iŕike.orti.gaŕokan.dadula.baśk
buiśtiner.bagaŕok.#####.tuŕlbai
luŕa.leguśegik.baseŕokeiunbaida.
uŕke.basbidiŕbartin.iŕike.baseŕ
okar.tebind.belagaśikauŕ.isbin
ai.asgandis.tagisgaŕok.binike
bin.śalir.kidei.gaibigait.

AII
sakaŕiskeŕ
arnai.

B
iunstir.śalirg.basiŕtiŕ.sabaŕi
dai.birinaŕ.guŕś.boiśtingiśdid.
seśgeŕśduŕan.sesdiŕgadedin.
seŕaikala.naltinge.bidudedin.ildu
niŕaenai.bekoŕ.sebagediŕan.

Cara A. Texto A1
iŕike.orti.gaŕokan.da_dula.
baśk_buiś_tin_er.bagaŕ_ok.
SSSX.tuŕl_bai_luŕa.leguś_eg(i)_ik.
bas(i)_eŕ_ok_e_iun_bai_da.uŕke.
bas_bi_diŕ_bar_tin.iŕike.bas(i)_eŕ_ok_ar.
te_bin_d.bel_agaś_ik_auŕ.
isbinai.as_gan_dis.ta_gis_gaŕok.
bini_ke_bin.śalir.kidei.gai_bi_gai_(i)t.

Cara A. Texto A2
sakaŕ_iskeŕ
ar_ḿi.

Cara B
iunstir_śalir_g.basiŕ_tiŕ.
sa_baŕi_daŕ.
birinaŕ.guŕś.boiś_tin_giś_did.
seś_geŕś_duŕ_an.ses_diŕ_ga_dedin.
seŕai_kala.ḿl_tin_ge.bi_du_dedin.
ilduniŕa_e_ḿi.bekoŕ.se_bage_diŕan.

boss.active.self-made.personality_pleasant.
indomitable_attitude_complete_manner.lone_own.
#####.product_truly_land.property_build_my.
sociable_aspiration_own_result of_help_truly_personality.channel.
society_much_interest_internal_fulfill.boss.sociable_aspiration_own_for.
to_mate_relative to.daughter_clean_self.
virgin.satisfy_tangible_set.complement_person_self-made.
mate_-ive_strong_mate.payment.adequate.able_-ly_able_un-.

sakaŕiskeŕ_for_I am.

61
greetings.payment_with.socialize_motivation.
consistency_outstandingly_natural.
stud.offer.carnal_complete_expansion_dependence.
lust_abandonment_open_-ed (total).masculinity_interest_presence_dominance.
virile_prolific.manifest_complete_times.much_mood_dominance.
saddened_result of_I am.modest.man_without_interested.

Active leader, self-made, a pleasant personality,

(with) a completely indomitable attitude, a bachelor.
Give me, ##### of truly productive land
To help you in your aspiration to be sociable. To channel it.
To fulfill your internal interest in society. Boss, for your own social aspirations,
mating with my virtuous daughter.
She is a virgin, ready to satisfy physically, a complement to a self-made person
Continuous copulation. It is a fair payment, able to enable to unable.

This is for Sakaŕiskeŕ (Fruit-desired).

Greetings. Upon payment, a motivation to socialize,

a natural outstanding stability.
A stud role offer. A total dependency on the body,
openly abandoned to lust, a dominant presence of a male-focused approach.
I have shown my virility many times, controlling my temper.
I am sorry. A modest man not interested.

Note: One side of the lead plaque corresponds to a rather amoral proposal while the other side contains the
response to that proposal.

G.16.1 Silver plate. Abengibre (Albacete). South-Iberian alphabet

A
(A) kokar
(B) karekar.sekiteker.lukeśiŕ.akailtirtekerai.iarbariatuiaś

B iltirtikerki.ebanin.kokar

C betiaŕinaŕ

D aibeloraŕ.betiaŕ

A
(A) ko_gaŕ
(B) gaŕe_gaŕ.se_gi_tekeŕ.lu_keś_ir.
aka_ildiŕ_tekeŕ_ai.iaŕ_baŕi_atui_aś

B ildiŕ_tigeŕ_ik.ebanen.ko_gaŕ

C bedi_ar_in_ar

D aibe_loŕ_ar.bedi_ar

62
A
(A) symbolic_container

(B) message_container.man_work_votive.deep_pure_action.
powerful_population_votive_+.engrave_outstandingly_decision_spread

B town_our_self.dedicated.symbolic_container

C reduce_to.problem_to

D master_load_to.reduce_to

A
(A) Symbolic container

(B) A container with a message. O votive work. A deep votive action from the powerful
town. Engraved in order to spread it outstandingly.

B Our own town dedicated this symbolic container

C To reduce the needs

D To reduce the lord’s load

Notes:
1. This text is included in this selection because it is the most representative of the Iberian culture in the area,
even though its transcription and, consequently, its translation are very doubtful.
2. The symbols used for the vibrant sounds are swapped in the Abengibre texts in comparison with texts from
other Iberian areas.

G.16.5 Silver plate Abengibre (Albacete). South-Iberian alphabet

koniltiŕaŕbitiaŕ

kon_ildiŕ_ar_bidi_ar

magníficent_town_to_increase_to

(In order) to increase the magnificence of the town.

H.7.1 Silver bowl. Fuensanta de Martos (Jaén). South-Iberian alphabet

(A) kaśkauketiu
(B) ś

(A) kaś_kau_ke_tiu
(B) ś

(A) pure_internal_powerful_education
(B) proverb

(A) Internal purity for a powerful education

(B) Proverb

63
X.0.1 Limestone stele. Cagliari (Sardinia)

seŕtunśoŕenseltarḿ[i]

seŕtunśoŕ_en_seltar_ḿ[i]

seŕtunśoŕ_of_tomb_I am

This is the tomb of Seŕtunśoŕ (Evidently-virile)

64
 5. CONCLUSIONS

This chapter on conclusions is divided in two different parts with an increasing level of
heterodoxy in relation to what is generally accepted regarding the origin of the Iberian language.

First conclusion

Firstly, the most obvious conclusion, from what we have seen before, is the confirmation of the
relationship between the Basque and Iberian languages, that is, the confirmation of the Vasco-
Iberian theory. It is not only that a significant number of Iberian words can be related to current
Basque terms but also that the reconstruction of the Iberian language shown here is based on
the analysis of the Basque vocabulary, given that we can find in Basque the same VC and CVC
roots that we see in Iberian along with similar prefixes and suffixes.

Second conclusion

In order to reach the second conclusion, we have to remember that in Chapter 2 we saw that the
closing consonant had always the same sense in both types of basic roots, VC and CVC, as
follows:

Consonant Meaning
d relative to
g abundance
k proximity
l external sign
m compact
ḿ inherent
n realization, total
r feature
ŕ consistency, expansion
s concentration
ś diffusion, dispersion
t not relative to

Table VI – Meaning of the closing consonants

In addition to this, we can see that each vowel also maintain its sense in the tables of both the
VC and CVC roots, as we have below:

65
 Vowel Sense
a attribute
e subject (active)
i action
o object
u subject (passive)

Table VII – Meaning of the vowels

And, finally, we have to add that the initial consonants also have their own sense:

Initial consonant Sense

b corporeal
d condition, state
g presence
k attribute, quality
l interior
m abundance
ḿ essence
n null, void
s solid, consistent
ś immaterial, inconsistent
t advance

Table VIII – Sense of the initial consonants

All this implies that Iberian words actually were descriptions of the concepts that they referred
to, following both powerful and simple rules. In their basic form they took an initial consonant
which indicated a concept, then a vowel which referred to the context that the concept applied
to and, finally, a closing consonant which gave the final sense to the word.

Therefore, we see that the structure of the Iberian language and, consequently, of the Vasco-
Iberian family, is so well organized that it is necessarily the result of a creation, of an invention,
not the result of the natural evolution of a language, with all the implications that his has in
terms of the social organization complexity levels reached by the people that it came from
thousands of years ago.

I refer the reader to my articles in www.academia.edu on the Indo-European languages as we

find the same kind of structure in that family, with approximately the same meaning for each
phoneme (we could say that in Vasco-Iberian we see a simplified version6, possibly improved
on purpose, of the Indo-European structure), which implies that both Vasco-Iberian and Indo-
European have a common origin. This common origin would not be limited to the languages
but to other cultural aspects as well, which, in my opinion, could explain the arrival of the
Urnfield Culture, associated to Indo-Europeans, to the areas of the Iberian Peninsula where
Iberian was the local language in historic times. In other words, the people who introduced the
Urnfield Culture could be the one later known as Iberian.

______________________________________________________________________
6
For example, the Indo-European b and p phonemes would have been transformed into a single
b phoneme in Vasco-Iberian.

66
Closing comments

Although I take for granted that this document is plagued with errors, some of them probably
quite basic, I believe that it fulfills its purpose confirming the validity of the Vasco-Iberian
theory and clearing the way for a more correct and complete translation of the Iberian language
in the short term.

Finally, even if obvious, I want to highlight that this document owes its existence to the gigantic
work previously carried out by other authors. Beyond those included in the bibliography, which
only reflects a minor part of their work, I have to draw the attention, because of the importance
of his discovery, to Manuel Gómez Moreno, who deciphered the Iberian sign system almost a
century ago. To a greater or lesser extent, there are other milestones in the study of the Iberian
language like the discovery of the dual system, initiated by Joan Maluquer de Motes and
culminated by Javier de Hoz and José Antonio Correa (Ferrer, 2005, 957-959), the compilation
of Iberian texts by Jürgen Untermann in his Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum (MLH),
necessary reference in Iberian texts quotations, and the corrections in sign transcriptions,
particularly the one carried out in 2005 by Joan Ferrer i Jané changing to ta a significant amount
of signs traditionally transcribed as bo (Ferrer, 2005). In terms of general open web based
information on Iberian texts, it has been very important to me the help to complete my analysis
from “Buscador de expresiones regulares en textos ibéricos” by Eduardo Orduña
(http://iespontdesuert.xtec.cat/iberico.html) and the pages on information on Iberian texts by
José Luís González (http://lenguas-iberas.host.sk/indice-ibero.html). Regarding the Iberian and
ancient Basque comparison, my main sources of information have been the articles by Joseba
Lakarra, the unfinished Etymological Dictionary of Basque by Larry Trask (posthumously
edited by Max Wheeler) and, indirectly, the work from Joaquín Gorrochategui and Luis
Mitxelena.

67
 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Artigues, P., Codina, D., Moncunill, N. y Velaza J. (2007), “Un colgante ibérico hallado
en Can Gambús (Sabadell)”, Palaeohispánica 7, 239-250.
Ballester, X. (2005), “Lengua ibérica: Hacia un debate tipológico”, Actas
Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 361-392.
- (2014), “Cataluña, ibérica cuna”, Palaeohispánica 14, 59-87.
- (2018), “Lenguas Anindoeuropeas de Hispania ¿antiguas o recientes?”,
Palaeohispánica 18, 13-24.
Beltrán, F. (2005), “Cultura escrita, epigrafía y ciudad en el ámbito paleohispánico”,
Actas Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 21-56.
Camañes, M.P., Moncunill, N., Padrós, C., Principal, J. y Velaza, J. (2010), “Un nuevo
plomo ibérico escrito de Monteró 1”, Serta Palaeohispanica J. de Hoz,
Palaeohispánica 10, 233-247.
Campmajo, P. y Ferrer, J. (2010), “Le nouveau corpus d’inscriptions ibériques rupestres
de la Cerdagne (1): premiers résultats”, Serta Palaeohispanica J. de Hoz,
Palaeohispánica 10, 249-274.
Corzo, S., Pastor, M., Stylow, A. y Untermann J. (2007), “Betatun, la primera divinidad
ibérica identificada”, Palaeohispánica 7, 251-262.
Costa, G. y Sabaté V. (2018), “Nuevas inscripciones ibéricas de la comarca de la
Noguera (Lleida)”, Palaeohispánica 18, 153-169.
Estarán, M.J. (2012), “Las estampillas ibérico-latinas K.5.4”, Palaeohispánica 12, 73-
90.
- (2013), “Epigrafía monetal paleohispánica. Las leyendas secundarias”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 65-83.
Faria, A. M. de (2000a), “Onomástica paleo-hispânica: revisão de algumas leituras e
interpretações”, Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia, 3/1, 121-151.
- (2000b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (1)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 3/2, 61-151.
- (2001), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (2)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 4/1, 95-107.
- (2002a), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (3)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 5/1, 121-146.
- (2002b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (4)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 5/2, 233-244.
- (2003a), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (5)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 6/1, 211-234.
- (2003b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (6)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 6/2, 313-334.
- (2004a), “Crónica de onomástica paleo-hispânica (7): trezentas e cinquenta
observações a Jesús Rodríguez Ramos”, Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia, 7/1,
273-315.
- (2004b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (8)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 7/2, 175-192.
- (2005a), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (9)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 8/1, 163-175.
- (2005b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (10)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 8/2, 273-292.

68
- (2006), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (11)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 9/1, 115-129.
- (2007a), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (12)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 10/1, 209-238.
- (2007b), “Crónica de Onomástica paleo-hispânica (13)”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 10/2, 161-187.
Ferrer, J. (2005), “Novetats sobre el sistema dual de diferenciació gràfica de les
oclusives sordes y sonores”, Actas Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 957-
982.
- (2006), “Nova lectura de la inscripció ibèrica de la Joncosa (Jorba, Barcelona)”,
Veleia 23, 129-170.
- (2009), “El sistema de numerales ibérico: avances en su conocimiento”,
Palaeohispánica 9, 451-479.
- (2013a), “Els sistemes duals de les escriptures ibèriques”, Acta Palaeohispanica XI,
Palaeohispanica 13, 445-459.
- (2013b), “Quatre noves inscripcions ibèriques pintades procedents de Llíria”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 461-482.
- (2013c), “Los problemas de la hipótesis de la lengua ibérica como lengua vehicular”,
E.L.E.A. 13, 115-158.
- (2015), “Le nouveau corpus d'inscriptions ibériques rupestres de la Cerdagne (2):
Deuxième parution”, Les cahiers de l’Âne Rouge 3, 7-22.
- (2017a): “L'enigma B'oïde al descobert: kaśtaum i baikar en sengles inscripcions
ibèriques sobre una tortera i un vaset de Camps de L'Hospital (Vilademuls)”, Revista
d’Arqueologia de Ponent 27, 221-236.
- (2017b), “El origen dual de las escrituras paleohispánicas: un nuevo modelo
genealógico”, Acta Palaeohispanica XII, Palaeohispanica 17, 55-94.
- (2017c), “Le nouveau corpus d'inscriptions ibériques rupestres de la Cerdagne (3):
cinq inscriptions inédites”, Les cahiers de l’Âne Rouge 5, 7-21.
- (2018), “A la recerca dels teònims ibèrics: a propòsit d’una nova lectura d’una
inscripció ibèrica rupestre d’Oceja (Cerdanya)”, Studia Philologica et Diachronica
in Honorem Joaquín Gorrochategui - Indoeuropaea et Palaeohispanica, Anejos de
Veleia, Series minor 35, 101-126.
Ferrer, J. y Escrivá, V. (2014), “Un plomo ibérico de Casinos (Valencia) con numerales
léxicos y expresiones metrológicas”, Palaeohispánica 14, 205-227.
- (2015), “Tres nuevas inscripciones ibéricas del Museo Arqueológico de Llíria”,
Palaeohispanica 15, 143-159.
- (2018), “Estudio epigráfico de la inscripción ibérica de la tinajilla de la Fundación
Ballesta, ya conocida por un dibujo y dos falsificaciones”, Palaeohispanica 18, 171-
187.
Ferrer, J., García, D., Moreno, I. y Velaza, J. (2008), “Una inscripción ibérica sobre
plomo procedente del poblado de la Moleta del Remei (Alcanar, Montsià,
Tarragona)”, Palaeohispánica 8, 203-216.
Ferrer, J. y Giral F. (2007), “A propósito de un semis de Idiŕda con leyenda erder.
Marcas de valor léxicas sobre monedas ibéricas”, Palaeohispánica 7, 83-99.
Ferrer, J., Lorrio, A. y Velaza, J. (2015), “Las inscripciones ibéricas en escritura
suroriental del Castellar de Meca (Ayora)”, Palaeohispánica 15, 161-176.
Fletcher, D. y Silgo, L. (1992), "El Plomo Ibérico escrito Serreta I. Comentarios y
traducciones.", Recerques del Museu d'Alcoi 1, 9-36.
Garcés, I. (2013), “Nuevos epígrafes ibéricos de la comarca del Segrià (Lleida)”,
Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 483-500.

69
Hoz, J. de (2005), “Epigrafías y lenguas en contacto en la Hispania antigua”, Actas
Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 57-88.
Lakarra, J. (2005), “Prolegómenos a la reconstrucción de segundo grado y al análisis
del cambio tipológico en (proto)vasco”, Actas Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica
5, 407-470.
- (2006), “Protovasco, munda y otros: Reconstrucción, interna y tipología holística
diacrónica”, Oihernat, 21, 229-322.
López, A. (2010), “El reencuentro de dos grafitos: G.9.5 y ‘El Olvidado’”, Serta
Palaeohispanica J. de Hoz, Palaeohispánica 10, 275-287.
- (2016), “Epigrafía ibérica de Coimbra del Barranco Ancho (Jumilla, Murcia)”,
Palaeohispanica 16, 155-181.
Luján, E. (2005), “Los topónimos en las inscripciones ibéricas”, Actas Palaeohispánica
IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 471-490.
- (2010), “Las inscripciones musivas ibéricas del valle medio del Ebro: una hipótesis
lingüística”, Serta Palaeohispanica J. de Hoz, Palaeohispánica 10, 289-301.
- (2013), “La situación lingüística de la Meseta Sur en la antigüedad”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 103-136.
Lujan, E., Chapa, T., Pereira, J., Charro, C. y Cabrera, A. (2012), “Nueva inscripción
ibérica sobre granito del Cerro de la Mesa (Alcolea de Tajo, Toledo)”,
Palaeohispanica 12, 195-209.
Lujan, E. y López, A. (2016), “La cueva de La Camareta: revisión de epigrafía
paleohispánica”, Palaeohispanica 16, 247-259.
Moncunill, N. (2007), Lèxic d’inscripcions ibèriques (1991 – 2006), Doctoral thesis,
Universidad de Barcelona.
- (2013), “Falsae, svspectae vel deperditae: particularidades del corpvs epigráfico
ibérico de Tárraco”, Acta Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 501-515.
- (2016), “Novecientos antropónimos ibéricos”, Palaeohispanica 16, 81-94.
- (2017), “Nombres comunes en ibérico y su inserción dentro de la frase”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XII, Palaeohispanica 17, 141-156.
Moncunill, N., Ferrer, J. y Gorrochategui J. (2016), “Nueva lectura de la inscripción
ibérica sobre piedra conservada en el Museo de Cruzy (Hérault)”, Veleia 33, 259-
274.
Núñez, L. (2003), El euskera arcaico. Extensión y parentescos, Tafalla.
Orduña, E. (2005a), “Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos”, Actas
Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 491-506.
- (2005b), Segmentación de textos ibéricos y distribución de los segmentos. Doctoral
thesis. UNED.
- (2008), “Ergatividad en ibérico”, Emérita LXXVI 2. Madrid, 275-302.
- (2010), “En torno al lexema ibérico eki- y sus variantes”, Serta Palaeohispanica J.
de Hoz, Palaeohispánica 10, 319-334.
- (2013), “Los numerales ibéricos y el vascoiberismo”, Acta Palaeohispanica XI,
Palaeohispanica 13, 517-529.
- (2017), “Ibérico (n)Yltun y el signo Y: ¿un nuevo caso de rinoglotofilia?”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XII, Palaeohispanica 17, 157-175.
Pérez Almoguera, A. (2001), “iltiŕ/iltur = oppidum. Los nombres de lugar y la ciudad
en el mundo ibérico”, Faventia, 23/1, 21-40.
Pérez Orozco, S. (2009), “Construcciones posesivas en ibérico”, E.L.E.A. 9, 561-578.
Quintanilla, A. (2005), “Palabras de contenido verbal en ibérico”, Actas
Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 507-520.

70
Rébé, I., de Hoz, J. y Orduña, E. (2012): “Dos plomos ibéricos de Ruscino (Perpignan,
P.-O.)”, Palaeohispanica 12, 211-251.
Rodríguez Ramos, J. (2000), “Vocales y consonantes nasales en la lengua íbera”,
Faventia, 22/2, 25-37.
- (2001), “Aspectos de la morfología de los formantes segundos de los compuestos de
tipo onomástico en la lengua íbera”, Faventia, 23/1, 7-19.
- (2002a), “Acerca de los afijos adnominales de la lengua íbera”, Faventia, 24/1, 115-
134.
- (2002b), “La hipótesis del vascoiberismo desde el punto de vista de la epigrafía
ibérica”, Fontes Linguae Vasconum, 197-217.
- (2005), “La problemática del sufijo «primario» o «temático» -k- en la lengua íbera
y del vocabulario de las inscripciones religiosas iberas”, Faventia, 27/1, 23-38.
- (2014), “Nuevo Índice Crítico de formantes de compuestos de tipo onomástico
íberos”, ArqueoWeb 15, 81-238.
- (2016), “Sobre las marcas de agente en íbero”, Philologia Hispalensis 30/1, 233-261.
Sabaté, V. (2016): “Novetats sobre epigrafia ibèrica (2007 - 2014)”, Revista
d’Arqueologia de Ponent 26, 35-71.
- (2017), “Para un análisis de los compuestos onomásticos en plomos ibéricos:
algunos ejemplos de su problemática”, Actas de las II Jornadas Doctorales en
Ciencias de la Antigüedad, Temas y tendencias actuales de investigación, 159-176.
Sanz, M. (2014): “El signo T en las escrituras ibérica y celtibérica”, Palaeohispanica
14, 129-152.
Silgo, L. (2005), “Una interpretación de la lápida ibérica de Civil (Tarragona)”, Actas
Palaeohispánica IX, Palaeohispánica 5, 1067-1074.
- (2007), “Las palabras “dinero” y “plata” en ibérico”, Palaeohispánica 7, 219-222.
- (2008a), “Sobre morteros ibero-latinos del Valle del Ebro”, Palaeohispánica 8, 121-
125.
- (2008b), “Miscelánea ibérica (1)”, Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia, 11/2, 139-
144.
- (2009a), “El vocabulario de la inscripción ibérica Pico de los Ajos IIA (Yátova,
Valencia) (MLH. F.20.1)”, ARSE 43, 17-32.
- (2009b), “La antroponimia ibérica de la Turma Salluitana”, Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueologia, 12/2, 139-155.
- (2010), “Los elementos antroponímicos ibéricos -kibaś y -tibaś”, Serta
Palaeohispanica J. de Hoz, Palaeohispánica 10, 355-360.
- (2011), “Miscelánea ibérica (2)”, Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia, 14, 187-193.
- (2013), “Miscelánea ibérica (2)”, Acta Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13,
531-537.
- (2016), “Léxico Ibérico, 2ª ed. ampliada y corregida”, Valencia.
Simkin, O. (2017), “The Iberian sibilants revisited”, Actas Palaeohispánica XII,
Palaeohispánica 17, 207-233.
Simón, I. (2015), “Τreinta años de investigaciones sobre la inscripción musiva de
Caminreal (Hispania Citerior; MLH E.7.1 = K.5.3)”, Palaeohispanica, 15, 87-127.
Sinner, A.G. y Ferrer, J. (2018), “Novedades epigráficas de Ilduro (Cabrera de Mar,
Barcelona)”, Palaeohispanica 18, 203-216.
Torija, A. (2017), La lengua del sudeste peninsular en su contexto histórico
arqueológico (siglos V a. C. - I a. C.), Doctoral thesis, Madrid 2017
Trask, L. (2008), Etymological Dictionary of Basque de Larry Trask (edited for web
publication by Max W. Wheeler). University of Sussex.
Untermann, J. (1998), La Onomástica Ibérica, Iberia 1, 73-85.

71
Velaza, J. (2004), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, VI (2003)”, Palaeohispanica, 4, 325-
332.
- (2006), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, VII (2004-2005)”, Palaeohispanica, 6, 303-
327.
- (2008), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, VIII (2006)”, Palaeohispanica, 8, 301-312.
- (2011), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, IX (2007-2009)”, Palaeohispanica, 11, 319-
331.
- (2012), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, X (2010-2011)”, Palaeohispanica, 12, 283-
290.
- (2013), “Tres inscripciones sobre plomo de La Carencia (Turís, Valencia)”, Acta
Palaeohispanica XI, Palaeohispanica 13, 539-550.
- (2014), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, XI (2012-2013)”, Palaeohispanica, 14, 325-
346.
- (2015), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, XII (2014)”, Palaeohispanica, 15, 249-271.
- (2016), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, XIII (2015)”, Palaeohispanica, 16, 343-358.
- (2018), “Chronica epigraphica ibérica, XIV (2016)”, Palaeohispanica, 18, 255-263.
Villar, F. (1991), Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Madrid.

72