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Table of Contents
Unit 1: Glass prism and Spherical thin lenses ..................................................................... 2
Unit 2: Optical instruments....................................................................................................... 18
Unit 3. Moments and equilibrium of bodies ......................................................................... 38
Unit4: work, energy and power ................................................................................................ 59
Unit5: Kirchhoff‘s rules and complex electrical circuit..................................................... 84
Unit 6: Sources of Energy in the world .................................................................................. 96
Unit 7: Energy degradation (dilapidation) and power generation ............................... 104
Unit 8: Projectiles and uniform circular motion ............................................................... 107
Unit 9: Universal gravitational field potential .................................................................... 126
Unit10: Effects of electric and potential fields ................................................................... 151
Unit 11: Applications of the laws of thermodynamics .................................................... 175
Unit12: General Structure of the Solar System ................................................................ 197

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TOPIC AREA: REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Unit 1: Glass prism and Spherical thin lenses

Key unit Competence: By the end of this unit the learner should be able to
explain the properties of lenses , image formation by lenses and refraction of light
by a glass prism.

I. Introduction to the refraction of light

The bending of the ray of light passing from one medium to the other medium
is called refraction.

Note: If the light passes through Less dense to more dense medium it bends
towards normal.
If the light passes through high dense to less dense medium it bends away the
normal.

Snell‟s law
The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the angle of refraction (r) is a
constant called refractive index.
sin i

sin r
sin i 
For two media, Snell's law can be written as  2
sin r 1
Total Internal reflection
.
When a ray of light goes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the
normal and as the angle of incidence in denser medium increases, the angle of
refraction in rarer medium also increases and at a certain angle, angle of
refraction becomes 900, this angle of incidence is called critical angle (C).

When Angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle than light ray comes back in
to the same medium after reflection from interface.
This phenomenon is called Total internal reflection

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The refractive index is  given by  
sin C
Examples of total internal reflection (TIR)
Optical fibre
Optical fibres consist of many long high quality composite glass/quartz fibres.
Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material
of the core 1 is higher than that of the cladding (  2 ).
When the light is incident on one end of the fibre at a small angle, the light
passes inside, undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the fibre and
finally comes out.

1. Refraction through glass prism

1.0 Terms associated with refraction of light passing through a prism

In optics, a prism is a transparent medium bounded by the three plane faces.

Out of the three faces, one is grounded and the other two are polished. The
polished faces are called refracting faces. The angle between the refracting
faces is called angle of prism, or the refracting angle. The third face is called
base of the prism.

Deviation of a ray of light by a glass prism

In a prism, a ray of light suffers two refractions and the result is deviation
Deviation of light by a glass prism

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Let i1 =angle of incidence on face AB

r1 =angle of refraction on face AB
i 2 =angle of emergence on face AC
r2 =angle of refraction on face AC

In the above figure the light is deviated by an angle d and it is clear that
d  (i1  r1 )  (i2  r2 ) (1)
d  (i1  i2 )  (r1  r2 ) (2)
In the quadrilateral AQOR, the angles at Q and R are right angles
angle(Q)  angle( R)  180 0 (2)
Also, from the ΔQOR
r1  r2  angle(QOR )  180 0 (3)
By the inside quadrilateral
angle(QOR)  angle( A)  180 0
angle(QOR)  angle( A)  180 0 (4)
Eq.(3)becomes r1  r2  angle( A)
Or simply r1  r2  A (5)
Using (5) into (2)
d  (i1  i2 )  A (6)
Minimum deviation

As the angle of incidence i gradually increases, the angle of deviation d

decreases, reaches a minimum value D and then increases. D is called the
angle of minimum deviation.

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At minimum deviation position the incident ray and emergent ray are
symmetric with respect to the base of the prism. (i.e) the refracted ray QR is
parallel to the base of the prism.

Conditions of minimum deviation requires i1  i2  i and r1  r2  r

A
From Eq.(5) we get 2r  A and r 
2
From Eq.(6) we get Dmin  (2i)  A
D A
i  min
2
Dmin  A
sin
sin i 2
The refractive index is n  
sin r A
sin
2
For small angles A and Dmin
Dmin  A Dmin  A A A
sin  sin 
2 2 2 2
Dmin  A(n  1)

Total internal reflection by prism

A right angled isosceles prism , which is used in periscopes or binoculars.
It is used to deviate light rays through 900and 1800 and also to erect the image.

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1.1 Dispersion of light by a prism

Dispersion is the splitting of white light into its constituent colours. This band
of colours of light is called its spectrum.

It was in the year 1686 that Sir Isaac Newton did his well known experiments
on refraction of white light by a glass prism. He observed that a beam of white
light incident on a prism splits into its constituent colors to form ―a visible
spectrum.
In the visible region of spectrum, the spectral lines are seen in the order from
violet to red. The colours are given by the word VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red)

Violet color suffers the maximum deviation and red the least.

1.10. Example of dispersion

Rainbow
A rainbow is a spectrum formed when sunlight is dispersed by water droplets
in the atmosphere. Sunlight that falls on a water droplet is refracted. Because
of dispersion, each color is refracted at a slightly different angle. At the back
surface of the droplet, some of the light undergoes internal reflection. On the
way out of the droplet, the light once again is refracted and dispersed.

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2. Spherical thin lenses

2.0 Definition
A thin lens is transparent medium usually made in glass or plastic bounded
by one or two spherical surfaces.
2.1. Types and characteristics of lenses

Lenses are of two basic types, convex which are thicker than the edges and
concave which the reverse is true.

1. Convex (Converging ) lens

Convex lens or converging lens is one which is thicker at the middle than
at the center.

2. Concave (Diverging) lens

The concave lens or diverging lens is one which is thicker at the edges than
at the middle

2.2. Geometric terms of spherical thin lenses

1. Principle axis of spherical thin lenses

The principle axis of a spherical axis of a spherical lens is the line joining the
centre of curvature, c, of the two surfaces. We now consider paraxial rays, i.e.
rays close to the principle axis making very small angles with it.

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2. Principle focus, F (or focal point) of a thin lens

Principle focus, F (or focal point) of a thin lens is the point on the principle
axis toward which paraxial rays converge (convex lens) or appear to diverge
from (concave lens) after refraction.

The distance F1P or PF2 is called the focal length, f, of the lens.

A convex lens is a converging lens and has real foci while a concave lens is a
diverging lens and has virtual foci.

2.3. Images formed by thin lens

Ray diagram

To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the principle axis of

the lens two of the following three rays are drawn from the top of the object.

1. A ray parallel to the principle axis after refraction passes through the
principle focus or appears to diverge from it.

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2. A ray through the centre of the lens (called the optical centre) continues
straight undeviated (It is only slightly displaced laterally the middle of the
lens acts like a thin parallel side block).

3. A ray through the principle focus is refracted parallel to the principal

axis.

Image characteristics

1. Formation of images by a converging lens

Case 1: Object located beyond 2F of converging lens

Characteristics of image: it is real, inverted, and smaller than object.

Case 2: The object is located at 2F, the image is: at 2 F, real, inverted and the
same size as object.

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Case 3: The object is located between 2F and F the image is: beyond 2F, real,
inverted and larger than the object.

Case 4: The object is located at F, the image is at infinity.

Case 5: The object between lens and focus, the image is: behind the object,
virtual, erect and larger than object.

2. Formation of images by a diverging lens

Object in front off diverging lens

For all positions of object, the image is virtual, erect and smaller than the
object, and is situated between the object and lens.

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2.4. Derivation of the lens formula

Lens formula
Now consider a ray 1 of light passing through the center of a convex lens and
another one (ray 2) parallel to the principal axis. Rays 1 and 2 intersect at the
point that is the tip of the image arrow.

h h'
tan   
u v
h h'
From this we get M   (1)
u v
Which is the magnification of the lens.
PQ h h'
tan    
f f v f

h h'
Or  (2)
f v f

uh'
From eq.(1) h
v

uh' h'
Eq. (2) can be written as  
vf v f

u 1

vf v  f

vf  (uv  uf )

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vf  uf  uv

1 uv 1 1 1
 Or  
f uv f u v

By convention the focal length of a diverging lens is negative; the distance v is

also negative since the image is virtual.

Example
1. An object is placed i) 14cm, ii) 8cm in front of a convex lens of focal
length10cm. Find the image distance and magnification in each case.

Solution

i) We have: 𝑢 = +14𝑐𝑚 (real object), 𝑓 = +10𝑐𝑚( convex lens)

1 1 1 1 1 1
Substitute in = 𝑢 + 𝑣 or = +14 + 𝑣
𝑓 +10

10 × 14 140
𝑣= = = 35
14 − 10 4
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 35𝑐𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
35
The magnification: 𝑚 = 14 = 2.5

ii) We have 𝑑 = 8𝑐𝑚 (real object),𝑓 = +10 (convex lens)

1 1 1
Substitute in, =𝑢+𝑣
𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1
= +8 + 𝑣 , = 10 − 8
+10 𝑣
8×10 80
𝑣 = 8−10 = −2 = −40 ,
𝑣 = −40𝑐𝑚 ,
The minus sign means the image is virtual.
40
Also the magnification 𝑚 = =5
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2.5. Lens maker„s equation

It is a relationship for thin lenses between focal length, radius of curvature and
the refractive index of the material.
i. All distances are measured from optical centre.
ii. The distance measured in the direction of incident ray is taken as positive.
iii. The distance measured in the opposite direction of incident ray are taken as
negative

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1 1 
  n  1  
1 1
u v  R1 R2 

1 1 
 n  1  
1
or
f  R1 R2 
A radius R is positive when its centre of curvature lies to the right of the
surface, and negative when its centre of curvature lies to the left of the surface.

2.7 Focal length of two combined thin lenses.

Combinations of lenses in contact are used in many optical instruments to

improve their performance .In figure below, A and B are two thin lenses in
contact of focal lengths f1 and f2. Paraxial ray from point object O on the
principle axis are refracted through A and would, in absence of B, give a real
image of O at I‘

For the lens A: u=+X and v=+y. From the thin lens formula equation we have:

1 1 1
  (1)
f1  x  y

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For the lens B : u=-y(since I‘ is an imaginary object with respect to lens B) and
v =+Z (image distance of I‘)

1 1 1
  (2)
f1  y  z

1 1 1 1 1 1
Adding we get:      (3)
f1 f 2 x y y z

1 1 1 1
  
f1 f 2 x z
(4)

Considering the combination, I is the real image formed by O by both lenses,

therefore u=+x and v=+z and

1 1 1
  (5)
f x z

f is the combined focal length of a single lens that would be exactly equivalent
to the two in contact.

1 1 1
Using eq. (4) into (5), we get   (6)
f f1 f 2

Therefore, two thin lenses in contact with each other are equivalent to a single
thin lens having a focal length given by Equation (6).

2.8. The power of lenses

Whenever a ray of light passes through a lens it bends except when it passes
through the optical centre. The degree of convergence or divergence of a lens
is expressed as power.
A lens of short focal length deviates the rays more while a lens of large focal
length deviates the rays less. i.e. The shorter the focal length of a lens the more
it converges(convex lens) or diverges(concave lens) the light.

Thus the power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length.
1
Power of a lens P .The unit of power is dioptre (D) 1D  1m 1
f
In case the lenses are combined
P = P1 + P2+...

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1 1 1
   ...
F f1 f 2
Optometrists and ophthalmologist use the power of lens instead of using the
focal length to specify the strength of eye glass lenses.
2.8. Defects of lenses: Lens aberrations
Lenses do not form perfect images, and there is always some degree of
distortion or aberration which can affect image quality.
In the general sense, the term aberration (from Latin ―aberrare‖ meaning ―to
wonder‖) is defined as a deviation from the norm, an error, a certain divergence
from normal performance.
A lens aberration is an optical design image error. It‘s caused by the fact that
in practice the lens medium can cause substantial deviation of light rays from
the direction they are intended to travel in the lens‘ theoretical, ideal optical
design.
1. Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration occurs when light rays that fall onto the edges of a lens
gather closer to the lens than the rays that fall onto its center. This results in
the surface point appearing as a blurry circle or disk.

2. Comatic Aberration, aka Coma

The coma is a type of spherical aberration that affects off-axis rays. It causes
rays that hit the lens at an angle to the optical axis to not gather in a single
point.
This results in a point of light at the edge of the image that looks like the tail of
a flying comet rather than a simple spot. The coma effect can also lead to
overexposure for parts of the image that lack sharpness.

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3. Chromatic Aberration

Chromatic aberration is a direct consequence of dispersed light. In essence, it

occurs when a ray of white light passes through a lens and disperses into its
color component rays. Shortwave rays (blue, violet) suffer stronger refraction
and unite closer to the lens itself as compared to longwave rays (orange, red).

In this case, just as in the case of spherical aberration, the glowing surface
spot on the resulting image appears in the form of a blurred circle/disk.

Chromatic aberration can be minimized by using an achromatic doublet (or

achromat) in which two materials with differing dispersion are bonded together
to form a single lens. This reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a
certain range of colors, though it does not produce perfect correction.

4. Distortion of the Image

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Distortion manifests in the warping and distortion of photo geometry. In other

words, the image‘s scale changes moving from the center of the field to the
edges, leading to straight lines curving either towards the center or towards the
edges.

ACTIVITIES

Evaluation

1. Two lenses of power+12 and−2 dioptre are placed in contact. The focal length
of the combination is given by
(a) 8.33 cm (b) 12.5 cm
(c) 16.6 cm (d) 10 cm
2. Two small angled prism of refractive indices 1.6 and 1.8 produced same
deviation, for an incident ray of light, the ratio of angle of prism
(a) 0.88 (b) 1.33
(c) 0.56 (d) 1.12
3. Rainbow is formed due to the phenomenon of
(a) refraction and absorption
(b) dispersion and focussing
(c) refraction and scattering
(d) dispersion and total internal reflection

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3. An object of size 3 cm is kept at a distance of 14 cm from a concave lens of

focal length 21 cm. Find the position of the image produced by the lens?
5.What is the focal length of a thin lens if the lens is in contact with 2.0 dioptre
lens to form a combination lens which has a focal length of −80 cm?

6. A ray passes through an equilateral prism such that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of emergence and the later is equal to 3/4 of the angle of
prism. Find the angle of deviation.
7. A thin prism of refractive index 1.5 deviates a ray by a minimum angle of 5o.
When it is kept immersed in oil of refractive index 1.25, what is the angle of
minimum deviation?

TOPIC AREA: LIGHT

Unit 2: Optical instruments

2.1. Definition of an optical instrument.

Instruments which are used in optics are called optical instruments.

Examples: eye, Microscope, telescopes, lens, magnifying lens, mirror, astronomical
telescope, glass etc.

2.2. The Eye

Figure below shows the basic parts of the human eye. Light entering the eye passes
through a transparent structure called the cornea, behind which are a clear liquid (the
aqueous humor), a variable aperture (the pupil, which is an opening in the (iris), and
the crystalline lens. Most of the refraction occurs at the outer surface of the eye, where
the cornea is covered with a film of tears.

Relatively little refraction occurs in the crystalline lens because the aqueous humor in
contact with the lens has an average index of refraction close to that of the lens. The
iris, which is the colored portion of the eye, is a muscular diaphragm that controls
pupil size. The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye by dilating the pupil
in low-light conditions and contracting the pupil in high-light conditions.

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The eye focuses on an object by varying the shape of the pliable crystalline lens
through an amazing process called accommodation.

Accommodation is limited in that objects very close to the eye produce blurred images.

The near point is the closest distance for which the lens can accommodate to focus
light on the retina.
For the normal person,this distance usually increases with age and has an average
value of 25 cm.

The far point of the eye represents the greatest distance for which the lens of the
relaxed eye can focus light on the retina.
For the normal person this distance is approximated equal to infinity.

Defects of the Eye

1. Nearsightedness (or myopia)

The nearsighted eye is insufficient to produce a sharp image of an object on the retina,
and rays from a distant object converge to a focus in front of the retina.

The far point of the nearsighted eye is not infinity and may be less than 1 m.

Correction of nearsightedness: use of diverging lens.

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2. Farsightedness (or hyperopia)

When a farsighted eye looks at an object located between the near point and the eye,
the image point is behind the retina, resulting in blurred vision. The eye muscle
contracts to try to bring the object into focus.
The near point of a farsighted person is much greater than 25cm.

Correction: use of converging lens

3. Astigmatism
In astigmatism defect, light from a point source produces a line image on the retina.
This condition arises when either the cornea or the lens or both are not perfectly
symmetric. Astigmatism can be corrected with lenses that have different curvatures in
two mutually perpendicular directions.
4. Presbyopia
Presbyopia (literally, ―old-age vision‖) is due to a reduction in accommodation ability.
The cornea and lens do not have sufficient focusing power to bring nearby objects into
focus on the retina. The symptoms are the same as those of farsightedness, and the
condition can be corrected with converging lenses.

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Example
A particular nearsighted person is unable to see objects clearly when they are beyond
2.5 m away (the far point of this particular eye). What should the focal length be in a
lens prescribed to correct this problem?

Solution The purpose of the lens in this instance is to ―move‖ an object from infinity
to a distance where it can be seen clearly. This is accomplished by having the lens
produce an image at the far point. From the thin lens equation, we have

2.3. Lens camera

A photographic camera consists of
- A converging lens
- A light sensitive film at the other end
- A focusing device for adjusting the distance of the lens from the film an exposure
arrangement which provides the correct exposure

The shutter opens and closes quickly, thereby exposing the film to light for a short
time to light entering the camera.
The object is placed in such a way that a real inverted image of the object is formed on
the film.

2.4.The slide projector

A slide projector is a device used to throw on a screen a magnified image of a film or a

transparent slide. It produces a magnified real image of an object.

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It consists of an illumination system and a projection lens. The illumination system

consists of a lamp, concave reflector and the condenser.

A lamp made in carbon electric arc or in quartz gives a small but very high intensity of
light in order to make the image brighter. This lamp located at the center of curvature
of a spherical mirror reflects back the light along their original path.
The condenser made by two plano-convex lenses collects light that is spread out
towards the film (silde).

The light is then scattered b the film and focused by a convex projection lens on to the
film.The projection lens is mounted in the sliding tube so that it is moved to and fro to
focus a sharp image on the screen.

The linear magnification(or linear scale factor) of the projetor is given by the square
root of area scale factor(or area magnification of image).

m  Mi

Where m is a linear scale factor or linear magnification

M i is the area scale factor or area magnification of image.

Area image
Mi 
Area of object
A
Mi  i
Ao

Example:

A slide projector has a converging lens of focal length 20cm and is used to magnify the
area of a slide, 5cm2 to an area of 0.8m2 on a screen.
Calculate the distance of the slide from the projector lens.
Solution
linear scale factor

v
m  Mi 
u

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Ai
Mi 
Ao

0 .8
Mi   1600
0.0005

v
m  1600 
u
v
Or 40  or v  40u
u

1 1 1
Using lens formula  
f u v

1 1 1
We have  
20 u 40u

And u  20.5cm

Thus the distance of the slide from the projector lens is 20.5cm.

2.5. Simple and compound microscope

It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects at short distance.

2.5.1. Simple microscope (or magnifying glass)

- It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length.
-Also called magnifying glass or reading lens

(a)Magnifying power (angular magnification) of a simple microscope in

normal adjustment (normal use).
-The final image is (i) virtual
(ii)at near point
We assume the small angles of vision.
𝜽
Magnification 𝑴 = 𝜽
𝟎
 0 = angle subtended at unaided eye by the object when it is at near point (see fig. a )
𝑕′
𝜽= = the angle subtended at eye by the image at near point (see fig. b )
𝐷

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If the object is viewed by the unaided eye (eye not close to the lens)
h
0 
D
Figure below shows a magnified image formed at near point.

If the image is viewed by the eye close to the lens at the near point
h'

D
𝜽 𝑕 ′ ÷𝐷
Therefore, since 𝑴 = 𝜽 , or 𝑀 =
𝟎 𝑕 ÷𝐷
𝑕′
𝑀= 𝑕
𝑕′
But is linear magnification, 𝑚, then
𝑕
𝑕′
𝑀=𝑚= 𝑕
But
𝑕′ 𝐷 𝐷
= →𝑀=
𝑕 𝑢 𝑢

From the lens formula

1 1 1
= + , or 𝑣 = −𝐷 (for virtual image), we obtain
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
1 1 1
=𝑢−𝐷
𝑓
Multiply 𝐷 both sides, leads to,
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 1 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
= 𝑢 − 𝐷 , or 𝑓 = 𝑢 − 1 ↔ 𝑓 = 𝑢 − 1
𝑓
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑢
= 𝑓
+ 1, or 𝑀 = 𝑢
𝑫
Therefore angular magnification 𝑴 = +𝟏
𝒇

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𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝐷 𝐷
𝑀𝐷 = 1 + 𝑓 , and 𝑀∞ = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1

At near point 𝐷 = +25𝑐𝑚

(b)Magnifying power (angular magnification) of a simple microscope not in

normal adjustment (not in normal use).

-The object has to be at the focal point of the lens.

-The eye is relaxed and the image is at infinity.

If the object, is viewed at near point by the unaided eye, (see fig. below)

𝑕 𝑕 𝜃 𝐷
𝜃0 ≈ 𝐷 , and 𝜃 ≈ 𝑓 and the minimum magnification is 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃 =
0 𝑓

2.5.2. Compound microscope

A compound microscope is an optical instrument which is used to magnify very small objects
like blood cells, bacteria which otherwise cannot be seen with the naked eye.

It consists of one lens, the objective, that has a very short focal length 𝑓𝑜 < 1𝑐𝑚
and a second lens, the eyepiece, that has a focal length 𝑓𝑒 of a few centimeter.

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Structure of a Compound Microscope

A compound microscope consists of the following parts:

- Body Tube: The body tube holds the eyepiece of microscope and provides a necessary
distance between eyepiece and objective lens.
- Objective Lenses: Objective lenses of a compound microscope are convex lenses of very
short focal length  f o  that is f o  1 cm . The object to be seen is kept very close to the
objective lens. These lenses are attached at bottom of body tube and are interchanged to get
the desired magnification.
- Eye piece: The eye piece of a compound microscope is also a convex lens of short focal
length f e . But f e  f o . It is through Eyepiece that we see the enlarged image of sample
object.
- Coarse Adjustment: It helps to improve focus of lenses with lower magnifications.
- Fine Adjustments: It helps to improve focus of lenses with higher magnifications.
- Nose Piece: It is a rotating device that holds the objective lenses.
- Stage: It is a platform provided below the objective lens to place the specimen that is to be
viewed.
- Stage Clips: These clips are provided to hold the sample in place.
- Field diaphragm: It is an adjustable opening provided on the stage to control the amount of
light.
- Illuminator: It is a light source attached at the base to provide focused light on the
specimen.
- Base: As the name suggests it is the part that support the whole microscope.

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Image formed by a compound microscope

The two lenses are separated by a distance 𝐿 that is much greater than
either 𝑓𝑜 , or 𝑓𝑒 . The object, which is placed just outside the focal point of the
objective, forms a real, inverted image at 𝐼1 , and this image is located at or close
to the focal point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece, which serves as a simple
magnifier, produces at 𝐼2 a virtual, enlarged image of 𝐼1 . The lateral
magnification 𝑀1 of the first image is 𝑣 𝑢 .

(a)Magnifying power (angular magnification) of compound microscope

when final image is at near point

The separation of the lenses is such that the intermediate image is formed
inside 𝑓𝑒 so that the eyepiece lens acts as magnifying glass.

The angular magnification, 𝑀 of the microscope is given by


M 
0
𝛽 = the angle subtended at the eye by the image
𝜃0 = the angle subtended at unaided eye by the object when it is at the near point
𝑕
𝛽 = 𝐷𝑖 (This assumes that 𝛽 is a small angle and that the eye is close to the
lens.)
If the object were at the near point, it would subtended the small angle
𝑕
𝜃0 = 𝐷0

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𝛽
Therefore 𝑀 = 𝜃
0
𝑕 𝑖 ÷𝐷
𝑀=𝑕
𝑜 ÷𝐷
𝑕𝑖
𝑀=𝑕
𝑜
𝑕 𝑕𝑖
𝑀=𝑕 × , or
𝑜 𝑕
𝑕
𝑚1 = 𝑕 : Linear magnification produced by objective lens, and
0
𝑕
𝑚2 = 𝑕𝑖 : Linear magnification produced by eyepiece lens.
Therefore 𝑀 = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2

u0 = Distance of object from objective (o),

vo = Distance of image A′ B′ formed by objective from objective,
ue = Distance of A′ B′ from eye lens,
ve = Distance of final image from eye lens,
fo = Focal length of objective, fe = Focal length of eye lens.
 From the objective lens, a real image is formed.
1 1 1 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑢 + 𝑣 → 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑢𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 ↔ 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑢𝑜 + 1
𝑓 𝑜 𝑜 0 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
Therefore
𝒗
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒐 − 𝟏
𝒐
 From the eyepiece lens a virtual image is formed.
1 1 1
The eyepiece lens formula , 𝑓 = 𝑢 − 𝐷 , or 𝐷 = 𝑣𝑒
𝑒 𝑒
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
=𝑢 −𝐷 ↔ = 𝑢 − 1,
𝑓𝑒 𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑒
𝑫 𝑫
therefore 𝒎𝟐 = 𝒖 = 𝒇 + 𝟏
𝒆 𝒆

Total magnification: 𝑀 = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2
𝑣 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜 − 1 1 + 𝑓 at near point.
𝑜 𝑒

(b)Angular magnification of microscope when the final image is at infinity

The intermediate image is formed at the focal point of the eyepiece.

h
The final image is at infinity, me  1 since the eyepiece acts as a simple
fe
microscope which is not in normal use. The eye is at rest.

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If the object were at the near point, it would subtended the small angle

ho
0 
D
 h1 D h1 D D
M       mo 
 0 f e ho ho f e fe
v 
mo   o  1 is the magnification of the objective.
 uo 
v D
Then M    o  1
 uo  fe

2.5.3. Telescope

Two fundamentally different types of telescopes exist; Refracting telescope

and Reflecting telescope, both are used to view distant objects, such as the
planets in our Solar System.
The refracting telescope uses a combination of lenses to form an image.
The reflecting telescope uses one concave mirror called objective and eyepiece
is a convex lens.

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1. Refracting astronomical telescope

 Used to see heavenly bodies.

 𝑓𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 > 𝑓𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
 intermediate image is real, inverted and small.
 Final image is virtual, inverted and small.

(a)Magnifying power of refracting telescope when final image is at infinity

(normal adjustment)

The object is at infinity, and therefore, the intermediate image is in the focal
plane of the objective lens. The separation of the lenses is such that their focal
planes coincide, and therefore, the eyepiece lens acting as magnifying glass,
produces a final image which is at infinity. The eye is relaxed.

For good approximation

tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 , and tan 𝜃 ′ ≈ 𝜃 ′

𝜃 ′ = the angle subtended at the eye by the image.
𝜃 = the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object.

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Since both the object and the final image are at infinity, the angles they
subtend at the unaided eye are the same as those they subtend at the objective
and at the eyepiece respectively. It follows that 𝜃 ′ and 𝜃 are shown in figure
above, from which
𝑕 𝑕
𝜃 = 𝑓 , and 𝜃 ′ = 𝑓
𝑜 𝑒
𝜃′ 𝑕 ÷𝑓
Therefore, since 𝑀 = then 𝑀 = 𝑕÷𝑓𝑒
𝜃 𝑜
𝑓𝑜
Or 𝑀 = 𝑓
𝑒
Length between the two lenses 𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒

(b)Magnifying power of refracting telescope when final image is at near

point

The arrangement is shown in figure below. The separation of the lenses is less
than when the final image is formed at infinity. The intermediate image, though
still in the focal plane of the objective, is now inside the focal point (Fe) of the
eyepiece lens and in such a position that the final image is at the near point.

The angular magnification is defined as the ratio of the subtended at eye by the
final image to the angle subtended at unaided eye by the object.
𝜃′
𝑀= 𝜃

𝑕 𝑕
𝜃= , and 𝜃 ′ =
𝑓𝑜 𝑢𝑒

tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 , and tan 𝜃 ′ ≈ 𝜃 ′

𝜃′ 𝑕÷𝑢 𝑒
Therefore, since 𝑀 = =
𝜃 𝑕÷𝑓𝑜
𝑓𝑜
𝑀=𝑢
𝑒
1 1 1
From the lens formula, = 𝑢 − 𝑣 , ( for the virtual image)
𝑓𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
And also 𝑣𝑒 = 𝐷, then
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1 1 1 1 1 1
= − → = +
𝑓𝑒 𝑢𝑒 𝐷 𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝐷

𝑓 ×𝐷 f0 f  f  D
𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑒 +𝐷 , M   0 e
𝑒 fe  D fe  D
fe  D
1 1 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓
𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓 , multiply and divide by 𝑓𝑒 we get 𝑀 = + 𝑓𝑒
𝐷 𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝐷 𝑒
𝑓 𝑓
Therefore 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜 1 + 𝐷𝑒
𝑒
𝑓 ×𝐷
Length of the tube 𝐿𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 +𝐷 (2)
𝑒
2. Other telescopes

(a)Terrestrial telescope

(i) Used to see far off object on the earth.

(ii) It consists of three converging lens: objective, eye lens and
erecting lens.
(iii) It‘s final image is virtual erect and smaller
𝑓 𝑓
(iv) Angular magnification 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜 1 + 𝐷𝑒 at near point
𝑒
Angular magnification of image at infinity
𝒇
𝑴 = 𝒇𝒐
𝒆

(v) Length of the tube when the image is at near point:

𝑓 ×𝐷
𝐿𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜 + 4𝑓 + 𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜 + 4𝑓 + 𝑓𝑒 +𝐷
𝑒
And at infinity 𝐿∞ = 𝑓𝑜 + 4𝑓 + 𝑓𝑒

(b) Galilean telescope

(i) It is also a terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field of
view.
(ii) Objective is a converging lens while eyepiece lens is diverging
lens.
(iii) Magnification of image at near point:

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𝑓 𝑓 𝑓𝑜
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜 1 − 𝐷𝑒 , and image at infinity: 𝑀∞ =
𝑒 𝑓𝑒
(iv) Length of the tube when image formed at near point:
𝐿𝐷 = 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑢𝑒 , when image is at infinity the length of the tube is:
𝐿∞ = 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒

3. Eye- ring

In figure below, the circular area of a diameter 𝑃𝑄 is the smallest areas through
which all rays from a distant object, which are refracted by both the objective.

i) Both rays from A pass through P therefore, image of A is at P

ii) PQ is the smallest region through which all the light passes lens and
the eyepiece lens, are made to pass. An observer should ideally
a) Place the eye pupil at PQ, and
b) Have a pupil diameter equal to PQ

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A circular stop of diameter not greater than that of the average pupil is usually
at PQ. It is called the eye ring and represents the optimum position for the
observer‘s eye.
If the telescope is in normal adjustment, the distance 𝑢 of objective lens from
the eyepiece lens, is 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 , and 𝑣 the eye-ring distance from eye piece E

From the equation

1 1 1 1 1 1
=𝑢 +𝑣 → 𝑣 =𝑓 −𝑢
𝑓
𝑒 𝑒

𝑢𝑓
𝑣 = 𝑢−𝑓𝑒 , or 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒
𝑒
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓𝑒
𝑣= ↔
𝑓𝑒 +𝑓𝑜 −𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜
From which now the ratio objective diameter and eye-ring diameter give
𝐴𝐵 𝑢 𝑃𝑄 𝑣
= 𝑣 , or linear magnification produced by eye piece is 𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢
𝑃𝑄

1 𝐴𝐵 𝑢 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓𝑒 𝑓
= 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑒 𝑓 +𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜
𝑚𝑒 𝑜 𝑒 𝑒
𝑓𝑜
𝑓
But the angular magnification of the telescope 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑜 , therefore the angular
𝑒
diameter of obje ctive lens
magnification also given 𝑀 = diameter of eye ring

4. Prism Binocular
If two telescopes are mounted parallel to each other so that an object can be
seen by both the eyes simultaneously, the arrangement is called 'binocular'.

In a binocular, the length of each tube is reduced by using a set of totally

reflecting prisms which provided intense, erect image free from lateral
inversion. Through a binocular we get two images of the same object from
different angles at same time.

5. Main function of a telescope

The main purpose of astronomical telescope is to make objects from out space
appear as bright, contrast and large as possible. That defines its three main
functions:
 Light gathering: the ability of telescope to collect a lot more light than
the human eye, its light gathering power is probably its most important
feature.

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 Resolving power: object that are so close together in the sky that they
blur together into a single blob are easily seen as separate object with a
good telescope. Resolving power is measured in absolute smallest angle
that can be resolved.
 Magnifying power: the ability of a telescope to enlarge image.
Tough it is so well-known; the magnifying power is the least important power of
telescope because it enlarges any distortions due to the telescope and
atmosphere.

Exercise

1. The focal lengths of the objective and the eye-piece of a compound

microscope are 2.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. The distance between
the objective and the eye-piece is 15.0 cm. The final image formed by the
eye-piece is at infinity. The two lenses are thin. The distances in cm of
the object and the image produced by the objective measured from the
objective lens are respectively (a) 2.4 and 12.0 (b) 2.4 and 15.0 (c) 2.3
and 12.0 (d) 2.3 and 3.0

Solution: (a) Given that fo = 2 cm, fe = 3 cm, 𝐿∞ = 15𝑐𝑚

2. The focal lengths of the objective and eye-lens of a microscope are 1 cm

and 5 cm respectively. If the magnifying power for the relaxed eye is 45,
then the length of the tube is
(a) 30 cm (b) 25 cm (c) 15 cm (d) 12 cm
Solution: (c) given that fo = 1 cm, fe = 5 cm, m= 45

3. If the focal lengths of objective and eye lens of a microscope are 1.2 cm
and 3 cm respectively and the object is put 1.25 cm away from the
objective lens and the final image is formed at infinity, then magnifying
power of the microscope is
(a) 150 (b) 200 (c) 250 (d) 400
Solution: (b) given that fo = 1.2 cm, fe = 3 cm, uo = 1.25 cm

4. The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is 8 and the distance

between the two lenses is 54cm. The focal length of eye lens and
objective lens will be respectively
(a) 6 cm and 48 cm (b) 48 cm and 6 cm (c) 8 cm and 64 cm (d) 64 cm and
8 cm

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Solution: (a) Given that m = 8 and L = 54

5. If an object subtend angle of 2° at eye when seen through telescope

having objective and eyepiece of focal length fo = 60 cm and fe = 5 cm
respectively than angle subtend by image at eye piece will be
(a) 16° (b) 50° (c) 24° (d) 10°

6. The focal lengths of the lenses of an astronomical telescope are 50 cm

and 5 cm. he length of the telescope when the image is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision is
275 325
(a) 45 cm (b) 55 cm (c) cm (d) cm
6 6

7. The diameter of moon is 3.5 × 103 𝑘𝑚and its distance from the earth
is 3.8 × 105 𝑘𝑚 If it is seen through a telescope whose focal length for
objective and eye lens are 4 m and 10 cm respectively, then the angle
subtended by the moon on the eye will be approximately
(a) 15° (b) 20° (c) 30° (d) 35°
Solution: (b) The angle subtended by the moon on the objective of
telescope

8. A telescope has an objective lens of 10 cm diameter and is situated at a

distance one kilometre from two objects. The minimum distance
between these two objects, which can be resolved by the telescope, when
the mean wavelength of light is 5000 Å, is of the order of
(a) 0.5 m (b) 5 m (c) 5 mm (d) 5cm
Solution: (b) Suppose minimum distance between objects is x and
their distance from telescope is r. So resolving limit,

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9. A compound microscope has a magnifying power 30. The focal length of

its eye-piece is 5 cm. assuming the final image to be at the least
distance of distinct vision. The magnification produced by the objective
will be
(a) +5 (b) – 5 (c) +6 (d) – 6

Solution (b) Magnification produced by compound microscope 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 ×

𝑚𝑒

10. A man is looking at a small object placed at his least distance of

distinct vision. Without changing his position and that of the object he
puts a simple microscope of magnifying power 10 X and just sees the
clear image again. The angular magnification obtained is
(a) 2.5 (b) 10.0 (c) 5.0 (d) 1.0

11. The focal lengths of the objective and the eye-piece of a compound
microscope are 2.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. The distance between
the objective and the eye-piece is 15.0 cm. The final image formed by the
eye-piece is at infinity. The two lenses are thin. The distances in cm of
the object and the image produced by the objective measured from the
objective lens are respectively (a) 2.4 and 12.0 (b) 2.4 and 15.0 (c) 2.3
and 12.0 (d) 2.3 and 3.0

Solution: (a) Given that fo = 2 cm, fe = 3 cm, 𝐿∞ = 15𝑐𝑚

12. If an object subtend angle of 2° at eye when seen through telescope

having objective and eyepiece of focal length fo = 60 cm and fe = 5 cm
respectively than angle subtend by image at eye piece will be
(b) 16° (b) 50° (c) 24° (d) 10°

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13. A compound microscope has an eye piece of focal length 2.5cm

and an objective of focal length 1.6cm. If the distance between the
objective and eyepiece is 22.1cm, calculate the magnifying power
produced when the final image is at infinity.

Solution
If the final image is at infinity, the objective forms an image at the focal point of
the eyepiece.
Position of an image formed by objective=separation-focal length of eyepiece
v  22.1  2.5  19.5cm
Magnifying power
v  D 
M   o  1 
 fo  f e 
 19.5  25 
M   1   111.8
 1.6  2.5 

TOPIC AREA: MECHANICS

Unit 3. Moments and equilibrium of bodies

Unit Competence: To be able to explain the principle of moments and apply it in
the equilibrium of a body.

3.1. Scalar and vector quantities

When defining the parameters used in describing motion, it was noted that
some of them are vector quantities and others are scalar quantities.

1. A scalar quantity.

A scalar quantity is a quantity that can be completely specified by its

magnitude (i.e size) together with the appropriate units.

e.g: The temperature of boiling water is completely specified by giving its

magnitude and units; 1000c or 373 K.

Here are some examples of scalar quantities: temperature, density, energy,

length, area, volume time, angle, speed, electric charge power, energy,
resistance, pressure, potential difference, frequency and wavelength.

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2. Vector quantity

A vector quantity is a quantity that is completely specified by its magnitude

and direction together with the appropriate units.

As example, when an object moves, we are interested to know how fast and
where it is moving; we want to know the speed and direction of the motion.
The quantity that tells us this is the velocity and it is the vector.

Some common important examples of vector quantities we deal with are:

displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, linear momentum, and
angular momentum.

The magnitude of displacement vector is the distance and for the velocity is
the speed.

A vector quantity is usually represented using an arrow above its head.


Example: -Force, F

-momentum, p

-velocity, v

Etc.

3. 2. Force as vector

Force is a pull or push on an object. It can affect the object by changing its
shapes and its motion
Among the types of force, there are Friction, weight, contact, magnetic,
electrostatic and elastic force.

Force is a vector quantity. This means it has both magnitude (size) and
direction.
Its SI unit is Newton.

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3.3. Components of a vector force and unit vectors

1. Components of a vector force

Consider a vector F lying in the xy plane and making an arbitrary angle  with
the positive x axis, as shown in Figure below

The x component Fx of the vector F is equal to the projection of F along the x

axis of a coordinate system, as shown in Figure below, where Fx  F cos  .
The y component Fy of F is the projection of F along the y axis, where Fy  F sin 

2. Unit vectors

A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a magnitude of exactly 1.

Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit vectors.
We shall use the symbols, i, j, and k to represent unit vectors pointing in the
positive x, y, and z directions, respectively.
The unit vectors are mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-handed
coordinate system, as shown in Figure below. The magnitude of each unit
vector equals 1; that is, i  j  k  1

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3.4. Addition of forces „resultant force‟

A resultant force is a single force which can replace two or more forces and
produce the same effect on the body as the forces.

We can add two vector forces graphically, using either the triangle method or
the parallelogram rule

1. Triangle addition law of forces

It states that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in

magnitude and the direction by the two sides of triangle taken in order then their
resultant may be represented in magnitude and the direction by the third side
taken in opposite order.

  
The resultant force R  F1  F2

2. Parallelogram law of forces

It states that if two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in

magnitude parallelogram then their resultant may be represented in magnitude
and the direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through
their point of intersection

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  
R  F1  F2
 
If  is an angle between F1 and F2

Then the magnitude of R is R  F1  F2  2 F1 F2 cos .
2 2

3.5. Moment of a force (0r torque,  ) about a point

3.5.0. Introduction
Why are a door‘s doorknob (door handle) and hinges (joint that holds two parts
together so that one can swing relative to another part) placed near opposite
edges of the door?

Answer:

If you want to open a heavy door, you must certainly apply a force.

The farther we are from the hinges, the easier we close or open the door.

3.5.1. Definition of torque and its mathematical calculation

The tendency of a force to rotate an object about some axis is measured by a

vector quantity called moment of force or torque  .

Torque or turning moment of force is the product of a force and the lever
arm, where the lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line
of application of the force.

  Fd
Torque has unit of Newton-meter [Nm].

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The figure below shows that the force F has a greater rotating tendency about
O, as F increases and as the moment arm d increases. The component F sin 
tends to rotate the wrench about O.

Here we define torque as   rF sin   Fd

r is the distance between the pivot point and the point of application of F and d
is the perpendicular distance from the pivot point to the line of action of F. (The
line of action of a force is an imaginary line extending out both ends of the
vector representing the force).

3.5.2. Torque made by two or many forces

In this example below, F2 tends to rotate the object clockwise, and F1 tends to
rotate it counterclockwise.

Hence, the net torque about O is    1  2  F1d1  F2d2

 Do not confuse torque and work, which have the same units but are very
different concepts.

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3.5.3. Couples and torques

A couple consists of two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite

directions along parallel lines of action. Their lines of action do not coincide.

Other examples
-Couple of force on steering wheel fig.(a).
-Turning a water tap, one of your fingers pushes on one end and another end
(Fig.b)

3.5.4. Moment of a couple

The torque or moment of a couple is a measure of its ability to rotate a body on
which it is acting.

 
C   1   2  F  AO sin   F  OB sin 
  
C   1   2  ( AO OB ) F sin   F AB sin 

Thus the torque about O does not depend on the position of O .

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3.6. Force and levers, Law of the lever

A lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge or pivot called a fulcrum.

It is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed point.

Law of the lever

The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no
friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. In this case, the power into the lever
equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input force is given by the ratio of
the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces. This is
known as the law of the lever.

From the principle of levers

F1.x  F2 . y

where F1 is the input force to the lever and F2 is the output force. The distances
x and y are the perpendicular distances between the forces and the fulcrum.

x
The ratio of the distances also called velocity ratio of two masses is equal to
y
the ratio of the output force (F2) to the input force (F1), or mechanical
advantage MA , then

F2 x
MA  
F1 y

This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes .

The upward reaction force on the pivot R  F1  F2

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Principle of moment

Principle of moment state that “the sum of the clockwise moments about
any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same
point, for a body under equilibrium condition”.

Example1

A woman of mass 𝑚 = 55𝑘𝑔sits on the left end of a seesaw a plank of length

L =4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as in Figure below:
(a)Where should a man of mass M =75.0 kg sit if the system (see-saw plus man
and woman) is to be balanced?
(b) Find the normal force exerted by the pivot if the plank has a mass of
𝑚𝑝𝑙 = 120.0𝑘𝑔.

(a) (b)

Solution
a) Apply the principle of moment of force to the plank by setting the sum of
the moments equal to zero:
𝑚𝑔 × 2 = 𝑀𝑔 × 𝑥
𝑀 = 75𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 = 55𝑘𝑔
55𝑘𝑔 × 9.81𝑁/𝑘𝑔 × 2𝑚 − 𝑥 × 75𝑘𝑔 × 9.81𝑁/𝑘𝑔 = 0 , 75𝑥 = 110𝑚
110𝑚
𝑥= = 1.47𝑚
75

b) normal force, 𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑀𝑔 + 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑝𝑙 𝑔
𝑛 = 𝑀 + 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑝𝑙 𝑔 = 75.0𝑘𝑔 + 55.0𝑘𝑔 + 12.0𝑘𝑔 9.80𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑛 = 1.39 × 103 𝑁

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3.7. Equilibrium

3.7.0. Definition

The term equilibrium implies either that the object is at rest or that its center
of mass moves with constant velocity. We deal here only with the former case,
in which the object is described as being in static equilibrium.

3.7.1. Types of equilibrium: (Stable, unstable and neutral)

1. Stable equilibrium

The body is in stable equilibrium when it returns to its original position after
being slightly disturbed.

A cone balancing on its base, on a horizontal surface

2. Unstable equilibrium
An object is in unstable equilibrium when does not return to its original
position after being slightly disturbed.

A cone balancing on its point, or apex, on a horizontal surface

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3. Neutral equilibrium
An object is in neutral equilibrium when it moves to a new position when it
is disturbed. It does neither move back, to neither its original position nor
any further.

A cone that can role on its edge.

3 .7. 2. Condition for equilibrium of a body about an axis

We now have two necessary conditions for equilibrium of an object:

-The resultant external force must be equal zero (The components of forces in

 The sum of all forces in the x-direction or horizontal is zero

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
 The sum of all forces in the y-direction or vertical is zero
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑜

-The resultant external torque about any axis must be zero (The sum of clockwise
moments about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the
same point)   0 .

Example

A uniform ladder 10.0 m long and weighing 50.0 N rests against a smooth
vertical wall as in Figure below. If the ladder is just on the verge of slipping
when it makes a 500 angle with the ground, find the coefficient of static friction
between the ladder and ground.

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Solution
Apply the first condition of equilibrium to the ladder:

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑓 − 𝑃 = 0 → 𝑓 = 𝑃
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑛 − 50.0 = 0 → 𝑛 = 50.0𝑁
Taking the moments of force about O
Σ𝜏𝑖 = 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 + τ𝑝 = 0
Apply the second condition of equilibrium, computing torques around the
base of the ladder, with 𝜏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 standing for the torque due to the ladder‘s
50.0N weight:
𝐿
𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑛 + 𝑚𝑔 (2)𝑠𝑖𝑛400 + 𝑃𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛500 = 0

0 + 0 − 50.0𝑁 5.00𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛400 + 𝑃 10.0𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛50.00 = 0

𝑃 = 21.0𝑁
we now have 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 n: = 𝑃 = 21.0𝑁 .

21.0𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 50.0𝑁
21.0 N
s   0.420
50.0 N

Other examples of equilibrium of bodies

1. Coplanar concurrent forces on a body in equilibrium

Coplanar concurrent forces are forces whose lines of action pass through a
common point and the forces have different directions in the same plane.

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When several forces act on a particle, the particle is said to be in equilibrium if

there is no unbalanced forces acting on it.

 Fy  0

 Fx  0
2. Seesaw

Consider a seesaw with three parallel forces acting as shown in fig below.

The forces acting are W1 acting downwards a distance L1 from the pivot, W2
acting downwards at a distance L2 from the pivot and the reaction, R, upwards
at the pivot.

At equilibrium

Condition1: F y  R  (w1  w2 )  0

Condition 2: Take moments (torques) about O (Pivot)

  w L  w L
1 1 2 2 0

3. Equilibrium of a body under the action of gravity:

(a)Equilibrium of a body on a horizontal plane

An object standing on a horizontal plane is in equilibrium because the plane

exerts an upward reaction force that balances the object‘s weight.

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Thus the total force is zero, according to Newton‘s third law, or from the
condition of equilibrium
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 , and Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑊 − 𝑅 = 0 , or 𝑅 = 𝑊 = 𝑚g

(b)Equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane

The force named above act on an object placed on an inclined plane:

i) The normal force (N) exerted on the body by the plane due to the
attraction of the gravity 𝑚g𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
ii) The force due to gravity acting parallel down to the plane 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
iii) The force of friction 𝑓𝑠 acting up parallel to the plane

The body is in equilibrium if and only if:

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑜, and Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓𝑠 = 0 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑓𝑠
, or , 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛
𝑛 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠

f s mg sin 
Therefore,   tan 
n mg cos
 fs 
  tan 1   , but 𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛
 n 
n
tan   s   s , therefore, 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜇𝑠
n
Or 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜇𝑠 .

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Example

Solution

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(c) Equilibrium of an object suspended

An object is in equilibrium if
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 , and Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑜
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑤 − 𝑇 = 𝑜 , or 𝑇 = 𝑤

Two strings attached to a beam supporting a mass

Lami‟s theorem
It gives the conditions of equilibrium for three forces acting at a point.
Lami‘s theorem states that if three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium,
then each of the force is directly proportional to the sine of the angle between the
remaining two forces.

Let forces T1 , T2 and T3 acting at a point O be in equilibrium.

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Applying the sine rule to the triangle OAD gives:

T1 T T
 2  3
sin x sin y sin y
T1 T2 T3
 
sin(180   ) sin(180   ) sin(180 0   )
0 0

T1 T T
 2  3
sin  sin  sin 
Which is Lami‘s formula

Worked examples

Example1

A machine weighing 1500 N is supported by two chains attached to some point

on the machine. One of these ropes goes to a nail in the wall and is inclined at
30° to the horizontal and other goes to the hook in ceiling and is inclined at 45°
to the horizontal. Find the tensions in the two chains.

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Solution
1st method
Now applying Lami‘s theorem at O, we get

2nd method
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 , and Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0


 T1 cos 30  T2 cos 45  0
0 0



T1 sin 30  T2 sin 45  w  0
0 0


 T1 cos 30  T2 cos 45  0
0 0



T1 sin 30  T2 sin 45  1500  0
0 0

T1  1098.96 N and T2  1346.11N

Example2

A uniform horizontal beam 5.00 m long and weighing 3 × 102 𝑁 is attached to a

wall by a pin connection that allows the beam to rotate. Its far end is supported
by a cable that makes an angle of 530 with the horizontal. If a person weighing
6 × 102 𝑁 stands 1.50 m from the wall, find the magnitude of the tension in the
cable and the force 𝑅 exerted by the wall on the beam.

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(a)

Solution

Compute torques around the pin at O. So, 𝜏𝑅 = 0 (zero moment arm). The
torque due to the beam‘s weight acts at the beam‘s center of gravity.
Σ𝜏𝑖 = 0 − 𝑤𝑏 𝐿 2 − 𝑤𝑀 1.50𝑚 + 𝑇𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛 530 = 0

Substitute L =5.00 m and the weights, solving for T:

− 3.00 × 102 𝑁 2.50𝑚 − 6.00 × 102 𝑁 1.50𝑚 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛530 5.00𝑚 = 0

𝑇 = 413𝑁
Now apply the first condition of equilibrium to the beam:

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑋 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠530 = 0
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 − 𝑤𝐵 − 𝑤𝑀 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛530 = 0

Substituting the value of T found in the previous step and the weights, obtain
the components of 𝑅 :
𝑅𝑥 = 249𝑁 , and 𝑅𝑦 = 5.7 × 102 𝑁

Example 3
A box of weight W rests on the sloping plank. The coefficient of static friction
between the surfaces is 0.25. If the slope of the plank is gradually increased, at
what angle of the slope will the box begin to slide?
Solution

tan 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑠 = 0.25
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.25 = 140
𝜃 = 140

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Example4

In static, a body is said to be in equilibrium when the force system acting upon
it has a zero resultant.
To determine the values of P and F, when the body M is in equilibrium, use the
projection of the force on the x and y-axis.

 Solve along x-axis

𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠600 + 200𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠450 − 300𝑁 − 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠300 = 0
0.5𝐹 + 141.4𝑁 = 300𝑁 + 0,866𝑃
0.5𝐹 − 0.866𝑃 = 300𝑁 − 141.4𝑁
0.5𝐹 − 0.866𝑃 = 158.6𝑁 (1)
 Resolving along y-axis
𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛600 + 300𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠900 − 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛300 − 200𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛450 = 0
0.866𝐹 = 0.5𝑃 + 141.4𝑁
𝑃 = 1.732𝐹 − 282.8𝑁 (2)
Substitute for P in (1)
0.5𝐹 − 0.866 1.732𝐹 − 282.4𝑁 = 158.6𝑁
0.5𝐹 − 1.5𝐹 + 245𝑁 = 158.6𝑁
−𝐹 = −86.4𝑁 , therefore 𝑭 = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟒𝑵
𝑃 = 1.732𝐹 − 282.8𝑁
𝑃 = 149𝑁 − 282.8𝑁 = −134𝑁
𝑃 = −134𝑁 , (negative signs shows that P is acting downwards if upward is
taken to be positive)
The body M will be in equilibrium under the action of the concurrent forces if
𝐹 = 86.4𝑁, and 𝑃 = 134𝑁

Activity
Determine analytically the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
following four forces acting at a point.

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(i) 10 kN pull N 30° E; (ii) 20 kN push S 45° W;

(ii) 20 kN push S 45° W;
(iii) 5 kN push N 60° W; (iv) 15 kN push S 60° E.
(iv) 15 kN push S 60° E.

Ans: 29.7kN and the direction is at an angle of 69.340

4. Centre of gravity and the total weight

1. Center of gravity

Centre of gravity (C.G) is defined as a fixed point in the body where the weight
of the body acts.
To find the centre of gravity, XCG , consider an object of arbitrary shape lying in
the xy plane, as illustrated in Figure below.

total mass of the object M = m1 + m2 + m3+...

Equating the torque resulting from Mg acting at the center of gravity to the
sum of the torques acting on the individual particles gives
(m1 g1  m2 g 2  m3 g3  ...) xCG  m1 g1 x1  m2 g 2 x2  m3 g3 x3  ...
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  ...
xCG 
m1  m2  m3  ...

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TOPIC AREA: MECHANICS

Unit4: work, energy and power

Key unit competence: By the end of unit the learner should to be able to relate
work, energy and power.

4.1. Doing work

Work is said to be done when a body undergoes a displacement as a results of

the application of the force.

The work done by a force is defined as the product of the force and the
distance moved in the direction of the force:
W=F×s
where s is the distance moved in the direction of the force. Work is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is the joule (J).
If the force F moves through a distance s which is at an angle  to F, as shown
in Figure fig.below.

To determine the work done by the force, it is simplest to determine the

component of F in the direction of s.
This component is F cos , and so we have:
work done , W  F cos  s

Or simply: W  Fs cos

Worked examples

Example1
A stone weighing 5.0 N is dropped from the top of a 50 m high cliff. What is the
work done by the force of gravity?

Solution
Since F and s are in the same direction, there is no problem:
work done = F × s
= 5.0 × 50
= 250 J

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Example2
A man pulls a box along horizontal ground using a rope (Figure below).
The force provided by the rope is 200 N, at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
Calculate the work done if the box moves 5.0 m along the ground.

Solution
work done W f  Fs cos
Wf  (200)(5.0) cos300  865J
Note: The work done can be given by the area under the Force versus
displacement graph.

Work done equals area under the F versus S graph.

Example
The following graph shows how a force varies with distance as it acts on a mass
of 3.0kg, initially at rest.

How much work was done by the force in moving the body 5.0m?

Solution
Work done =area under the F versus S graph.
=(1/2) [(5-0)+(10-0)](2-0)+(1/2)[(10-0)+(20-0)](4-2)+(1/2)(5-4)(20-0)
=15+30+10
=55J

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Work done by the force of pressure

Consider a gas of volume V1 confined in a cylinder by the piston of cross
sectional area A.

If the gas is heated it expands and the volume of the gas increases from V1 to
V2.
If x is the displacement of the piston, the work done during this displacement
is given by
W  Fx  PAx where P is the pressure of the gas on the piston.

W  F x  P v
v =change of the volume
Therefore W  Pv  P(V2  V1 )
4.2. Energy

Energy of a body is its capacity to do work.

It is the total work that a body can do. The S.I unit of energy is Joule (J),the
same as that of work.
Mechanical energy

Mechanical energy of a body is the sum of its potential energy and kinetic
energy.

1. Potential energy (p.e)

Potential energy can either be gravitational potential energy or elastic potential
energy.
(a)Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its

position. It is a work done by gravity.
Gravitational potential energy, = weight × change in height

EP  mgh
m=mass of a body
g=gravitational acceleration

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(b)Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy (or strain energy) is the energy due to the compressed
or stretched spring.

As the end of a spring is pulled by the force F, the spring is stretched by the
length e called the extension.
The work done in stretching the spring by an increasing force from 0 to F
=average force ×extension
(0  F ) 1
 e  Fe
2 2
From Hooke ‗s of extension F  e
That is F  ke
k =Force constant of the spring in N/m.
1 1 2
work done  ( ke)e  ke
2 2
Work done is stored as elastic potential energy.
1 1 2
The elastic potential energy EP  Fe  ke
2 2
(c). Elastic Strain energy

Elastic strain energy is energy stored in stretched body. It is the gain in

molecular potential energy of the molecules due to their displacement from
their mean positions.

Suppose that a wire has an original length l and is stretched by a length e

when a force F is applied at one end, as shown by the figure

If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension is directly proportional to the
applied load. So the force in the wire has increased uniformly in magnitude
from zero to F.

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Energy stored in a stretched wire

The average force in the wire while stretching was therefore F/2. We know that
𝟏
W= Fxd in the direction of the force. W=average force x extension=𝟐 𝑭𝒆.
1 e2
Further, since F=EAe/l, with the usual symbols energy, W  EA
2 l
Example
Calculate the elastic potential energy EP stored in a spring when stretched
through 4cm by a force of 2N.
Solution
1 1
The elastic potential energy EP  Fe  (2)(0.04)  0.04 J
2 2
Test yourself
Calculate how much gravitational potential energy is gained if you climb a
flight of stairs. Assume that you have a mass of 52 kg and that the height you
lift yourself is 2.5 m.

2. Kinetic energy (k.e)

Is the energy of a moving object. We imagine a car being accelerated from rest
(u = 0) to velocity v. To give it acceleration a, it is pushed by a force F for a
distance s. Since u = 0, we can write the equation v2 =u2 + 2as as: v2 = 2as
1 1 2
Multiplying both sides by m gives: mv  ( ma ) s
2 2
Now, ma is the force F accelerating the car,
1 2
mv  ( F ) s
2
The force × the distance it moves, that is, the work done by the force. So we
1 2
have: mv  W f = work done by force F. This is the energy transferred to the
2
car, and hence its kinetic energy.
Therefore For an object of mass m travelling at a speed v, we have:
1 2
kinetic energy k .e  mv
2

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What is a kilowatt-hour (kWh)?

One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the amount of energy used by an engine operating
at a power of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour.

1kWh  3.6 106 J

Worked example
Calculate the increase in kinetic energy of a car of mass 800 kg when it
accelerates from 20 m s-1 to 30 m s-1.
Solution
1 2
k .e  mv
2
1
Initial kinetic energy k .ei  mu
2

2
1 2
Final kinetic energy k .e f  mv
2
Change of kinetic energy
1 1 1
k .e  k .e f  k .ei  mv 2  mu 2  m(v 2  u 2 )
2 2 2
1
k .e  800(30 2  20 2 )  200000 J  200kJ
2

4.3. Power

Power if the rate at which work is done.

work
Power 
time
W
P
t
W =work done in joules
t=time in seconds
P=Power in joules/second or watts
Power can also be expressed in another unit called horse-power
1h.p=746Watts.

work Force  dis tan ce

Also Power  
time time
Power  Force  velocity
P  Fv
Example
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to 0.620 m/s
in 21.0 ms. The total mass of the train is 875 g. Find the average power
delivered to the train during the acceleration.

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Solution
P  Fv
v
F  ma  m
t
 0.620 
 (0.875) 3 
 25.8 N
 21 10 
P  25.8  0.620  16Watts .

4.4. Conservation of mechanical energy in isolated system

1.Energy transformation
Energy may be transformed or converted from one form to another. The
following are some examples of energy transformation.
1. When a fruit falls down from a tree, the gravitational potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy just before hitting the ground.
On hitting the ground, the kinetic energy of the fruit is converted into
sound and heat energy. The same is the case of waterfalls.
2. When a ball is thrown vertically upwards, the kinetic energy at the
bottom is converted into the gravitational potential energy at the top
most position.
A device which converts one form of energy to another is called a transducer.

Examples of transducers
Transducer Transformation of energy
Microphone Sound to electrical
Loudspeaker Electrical to sound
Battery Chemical to electrical
Light bulb Electrical to light

2. Law of conservation of energy

Law of conservation of energy states that: in an isolated system (System which
does not interact with the surroundings) the energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another.
Example 1

A 150g balls falls vertically downwards from a height of 1.8m on a horizontal

plate. On hitting the plate, the ball rebounds to a height of 1.25m. Find:
(a)The velocity of the ball just before hitting the plate,
(b)The kinetic energy of the ball as it hits the plate,
(c) The kinetic energy of the ball as it leaves the plate.(Take g=10m/s2).

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Solution
(a)Initial velocity u=0
Distance s=1.8m
g=10m/s2
Final velocity, v=?
From v2= u2+2gs
v2= 02+2(10)(1.8)=6m/s.
v=6m/s.
1 2 1
(b K .e  mv  (0.150)(6)  2.7 J
2

2 2
(c)Final velocity v=0
g=-10m/s2
Distance s=1.25m
Initial velocity, u=?
From v2= u2+2gs
02= u2+2(-10)(1.25)
u=5m/s.
The rebound velocity is 5m/s.
1 1
(d)K.e on rebound K .e  mu  (0.150)(5)  1.875 J
2 2

2 2
Example 2

Find the velocity with which the ball strikes the ground when it drops from a
height of 1.8m.(Take g=10m/s2).
Solution

By law of conservation of energy

Gravitational p.etop=k.ebottom
1
mgh  mv 2
2
v  2 gh  2(10)(1.8)
2

v 2  2 gh  2(10)(1.8)
v  6m / s
The ball strikes the ground with a velocity of 6m/s.

Test yourself
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15m/s.
Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball.
(Take g=10m/s2)

Definition: Work-Energy Theorem

The work-energy theorem states that the work done on an object is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy:
W  k .e  k .e f  k .ei

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Example

The driver of a 1000 kg car traveling at a speed of 16.7 m/s applies the car‘s
brakes when he sees a red robot. The car‘s brakes provide a frictional force of
8000 N. Determine the stopping distance of the car.
Solution
Mass m=1000kg
Speed v=16.7m/s
Frictional force F=-8000N
The negative sign indicates that this force opposes the motion of the car.
1 1
K .e  mv 2  (1000)(16.7) 2  139445 J
2 2

Assume the stopping distance is d

W  F.d  (8000)d
k .e  W
k .e f  k .ei  (8000)d
0J  139445J  (8000)d
d  17.4m
Test yourself

A 6.0-kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a horizontal,

frictionless surface by a constant horizontal force of 12 N. Find the speed of the
block after it has moved 3.0 m.

Sources of energy

(a)Renewable sources of energy: those which can be replaced fairly fast.

Example:
-Solar energy
-Geothermal
-Biomass
-Biogas
-Tidal energy
-Wind energy

(b)Non-renewable sources of energy: those which take millions of years before

to be replaced.
Example:
Fossils energy and nuclear energy

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4.5. Conservative forces and non-conservative forces

(a) Conservative forces.

Conservative forces have two important properties:

1. A force is conservative if the work it does on a particle moving between any

two points is independent of the path taken by the particle.

2. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any

closed path is zero. (A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points
are identical.)

Examples

 The gravitational force

 The force that a spring exerts on any object attached to the spring
is another:
(b)Nonconservative Forces

- A force is nonconservative if it causes a change in mechanical energy

E, which we define as the sum of kinetic and potential energies.
- For a nonconservative force, the change in kinetic energy depends on
the path followed between the initial and final points
For example, Kinetic friction force is no conservative force
Exercises
1. A block of mass 2.50 kg is pushed 2.20 m along a frictionless horizontal
table by a constant 16.0-N force directed 25.0° below the horizontal. Determine
the work done on the block by (a) the applied force, (b) the normal force exerted
by the table, and (c) the gravitational force. (d) Determine the total work done
on the block.

2. A particle is subject to a force Fx that varies with position as in Figure below.

Find the work done by the force on the particle as it moves the whole distance.

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3. Cite two examples in which a force is exerted on an object without doing any
work on the object.
4. A certain uniform spring has spring constant k. Now the spring is cut in
half. What is the relationship between k and the spring constant k- of each
resulting smaller spring? Explain your reasoning.

5. (a) If the speed of a particle is doubled, what happens to its kinetic energy?
(b) What can be said about the speed of a particle if the net work done on it is
zero?
6. A 650-kg elevator starts from rest. It moves upward for 3.00 s with constant
acceleration until it reaches its cruising speed of 1.75 m/s. (a) Find the
increase of the potential energy.(b)What is the average power of the elevator
motor during this period?
4.6. Linear momentum and impulse
4.6.1. Definition of linear momentum
The linear momentum of a particle or object of mass m moving with a velocity
 
v is defined to be the “product of the mass and velocity”: P  m v ( *)

Linear momentum is a vector quantity because it equals the product of a

scalar quantity m and a vector quantity v. Its direction is along v, it has
dimensions ML/T, and its SI unit is kg .m/s.

Impulse and momentum


If a person exerts a force F on moving an object in time interval  t the velocity
of the object changes. We say that its momentum changes too.

The product of the force F and the time interval  t in which it acts is called an

impulse represented by I .
 
I  F t .Its magnitude is I  Ft .

The S.I unit of impulse is Newton –Second (Ns).

An impulse can also be equal to the area under the force ( F) versus time (t)
graph

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Relation between impulse and momentum

 
We know that P  m v (1)
  
 P  (m v )  m v (when the mass is constant).

Divide both by  t
 
P v 
m  ma
t t

P 
F (2)
t

dP 
In general F
dt
  
From Eq. (2) we can write  P  F t  I

The change in linear momentum equals the impulse received by the object.

For the sand, liquid,…, we can write


P  m   
   v  F
t  t 

 m 
F  v
 T 

Its magnitude is F  m / secv , the quantity m / sec is called mass per second.

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4.6.2.Principle of conservation of Momentum


 P
For the isolated system  Fext  0 , 0
t
    
 P  0 this means P1  P2  P3  ...... P  cons tan t

The principle of conservation of momentum states that whenever two or

more particles in an isolated system interact, the total momentum of the
system remains constant”.
4.6.3. Applications:
1. Elastic collision

(a)Definition: Collision is an impact or contact between two or more particles

(objects) that come together or close to each other, and exchange or transfer
energy.
Elastic collision (head-on i.e in one dimension)

An elastic collision between two objects is one in which total kinetic energy
(as well as total momentum) is the same before and after the collision.

Example:

 Billiard-ball collisions
 The collisions of air molecules with the walls of a container at ordinary
temperatures are approximately elastic.
 Collisions do occur, however, between atomic and subatomic particles.

General case

Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and
u2 respectively; let v1 and v2 be their final velocities respectively after collision.

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Equation defining conservation of momentum

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2 (1)

Equation defining conservation of kinetic energy

1 1 1 1
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2
(2)
2 2 2 2
Eq.(1) and (2) give the system of equations

m1u1  m2u 2  m1v1  m2 v2


m1u1  m2u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2

m1 (u1  v1 )  m2 (v2  u 2 )

Or 
m1 (u1  v1 )  m2 (v2  u 2 )
2 2 2 2

m1 (u1  v1 ) m2 (v2  u2 )
2 2 2 2

m1 (u1  v1 ) m2 (v2  u2 )

u1  v1  v2  u2 (3)

v1  v2  u2  u1 (4)

Using Eq.(4) into (1) we get

2m1u1  u 2 (m2  m1 )
v2  (5)
m1  m2

Using Eq.(5) into (4) we get

2m2 u 2  u1 (m1  m2 )
v1 
m1  m2

2. Inelastic collision

Definition: An inelastic collision is one in which total kinetic energy is

not the same before and after the collision (even though momentum is
constant).

Inelastic collisions are of two types.

 When the colliding objects stick together after the collision, as

happens when a meteorite collides with the Earth, the collision is
called perfectly inelastic.

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 When the colliding objects do not stick together, but some kinetic
energy is lost, as in the case of a rubber ball colliding with a hard
surface, the collision is called inelastic (with no modifying adverb).

For example, when a rubber ball collides with a hard surface, the collision is
inelastic because some of the kinetic energy of the ball is lost when the ball is
deformed while it is in contact with the surface.

Perfectly Inelastic collision (head-on i.e in one dimension)

General case

Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and
u2 respectively; the particles stick together and there move with common
velocity. Let V be their common velocity after collision.

Equation defining conservation of momentum

m1u1  m2u2  (m1  m2 )V

Collision in two dimensions

If the velocities of two objects make a certain angle before collision and after
collision they stick together, analytically we have this situation:

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P  Px  Py
2 2

Px  P1  P1 cos
Py  0  P2 sin 

Px  P1  P1 cos
Py  P2 sin 

Explosion and defragmentation (Division of mass)

Suppose that object of mass m, moving with initial speed 𝒖1 , separated into
several parts, of mass m1, and m2. Suppose, further, the first part moves off at
an angle 𝜽 to initial direction of motion, whereas the second part moves off at
an angle 𝜷 to this direction. Let the final speeds of the two objects be 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐
respectively.

We consider the total momentum before collision and the total momentum after
collision on x-axis are equal.

𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 (1)

And also the total momentum before and after collision on y-axis are equal.

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0 = 𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 (2)

𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 (3), and

𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚1 𝑢`𝑥 − 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 (4)

Divide equation (3) by equation (4) both sides we get

𝑚 2 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚
1 𝑢 1𝑥 −𝑚 2 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 (5)

𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑚1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚2 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 (6)

Divide (5) equation by (6) equation both sides we get,

𝑚 1 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = 𝑚
1 𝑢 1𝑥 −𝑚 1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Note : It is useful to note that inelastic and elastic collision can are distinguished
by considering the equation relating the initial and final velocities of the particles.
This is done using what is called the coefficient of restitution, e.
We can use equation (6), to derive this coefficient of restitution

v2  v1 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

e =
u1  u 2 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐 𝑕
For 𝑒 = 1; the collision is said to be perfectly elastic.

For 0 < 𝑒 < 1; The collision is partially elastic,

For 𝑒 = 0 ,the collision is perfectly inelastic.

Propulsion by reaction and recoiling gun(or riffle)

1. Recoiling riffle
Consider the riffle which is held horizontally and when the shoot (bullet) is
from the riffle and an explosion occurs.

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Both the riffle and bullet are at rest

Pi  M  0  m  0

After the explosion

Pf  mv  M   V 

by conservation of momentum

0  mv  MV
 mv  MV

mv
V
M

Where m: mass of bullet

M: Mass of the riffle

V: Speed of riffle and

v: speed of bullet after shooting

2. Rocket propulsion
The motion of a rocket is an application of Newton‘s third law of motion and
law of conservation of linear momentum. A rocket is a projectile that carries the
rocket fuel and the oxidizer, which supplies the oxygen needed for combustion.

Just before launching, the momentum of the rocket is zero. When the
rocket is fired, it forces a jet of hot gases with a high velocity through the
nozzle. The jet of gases acquires a momentum downwards. Hence, the

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rocket acquires momentum of equal magnitude in the opposite direction.

Thus the rocket moves upwards.

From conservation of linear momentum V

Vm
0    VJ m   VR M  VR  J , where
M
M: mass of rocket and m: mass of jet gas
VJ: Speed of jet and
VR: velocity of rocket

Worked examples

Example 1
A ball moving with a speed of 9m/s strikes an identical stationary ball such
that after collision, the direction of each ball makes an angle 300 with the
original line of motion (see Fig below). Find the speeds of the two balls after the
collision. Is the kinetic energy conserved in the collision process?

Solution

The initial momentum must be equal to the sum of the components of

momentum after the collision.

mv0  mv1 cos 30 0  mv2 cos 30 0 (1)

In the direction perpendicular to the original direction of motion, the sum of
components of momentum after the collision must be equal to zero because
before collision the balls do not have any component of momentum in the
perpendicular direction:

mv1 sin 30 0  mv2 sin 30 0  0

Or v1  v2 (2)
This result could have been anticipated from symmetry.
Using (2) in (1)

v0  2v1 cos300  3v1

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v0 9
Or v1  v2   5.19m / s
3 3
Total kinetic energy of the two balls before collision

1 1
K 0  mv02  0  mv02 (3)
2 2

Total kinetic energy after the collision

1 1 1
K '  mv12  mv 22  mv12  mv02 (4)
2 2 2
On comparing (3) and (4) we conclude that kinetic energy is not conserved. The
collision is said to be inelastic.

Example2

Two bodies A and B, having masses 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚𝐵 , respectively, collides in a

totally inelastic collision
(i) If body A has initial velocity 𝑣𝐴 and B has initial velocity 𝑣𝐵 , write
down an expression for the common velocity of the merged bodies
after the collision, assuming there are no external forces.
(ii) If 𝑣𝐴 = 5𝑖 + 3𝑗 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑣𝐵 = −𝑖 + 4𝑖 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑚𝐴 = 3𝑚𝐵 2, show that
the common velocity after the collision is 𝑣 = 2.6𝑖 + 3.4𝑗 𝑚/𝑠
(iii) Given that the mass of body A is 1200 kg and that the collision lasts
for 0.2 s, determine the average force vectors acting on each body
during the collision.
(iv) Determine the total kinetic energy after the collision.

Solution

(i) If the common velocity of the merged bodies is v then momentum

conservation gives
mA  mB v  mAv A  mB vB
m v  mB v B
v A A
m A  mB
   
 mB (5 i  3 j )  mB ( i  4 j
3  
(ii) v 2
 2 . 6 i  3 . 4 j
4 mB  mB
3


     
   
(iii)  p A  m A  v  v A   m A 2.6 i  3.4 j   5 i  3 j 
    

  

 p A  m A  2.4 i  0.4 j 
 
p A  1200  2.4  0.4  2920 Nm
2 2

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p A 2920
FA    14600 N
t 0.2
∆𝑃𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑣 − 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵 2.6𝑖 + 3.4𝑗— 𝑖 + 4𝑗
∆𝑝𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵 3.6𝑖 − 0.6𝑗

2 2
mB  m A   1200  800kg
3 3
pB  800 3.6   0.6  2920 Nm
2 2

p 2920
FB  B   14600 N
t 0.2
(iv)
2
1
2
 
K '  m A  mB v 2  1200  800 2.6 2 3.4  18320 J
1 2

Example 3
A bullet weighing 5 g is fired horizontally into a 2 kg wooden block resting on a
horizontal table. The bullet is arrested within the block which moves 2 m. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and surface of the table is 0.2,
find the speed of the bullet.

Solution

Let the speed of the bullet be u. Let the block + bullet system be travelling with
initial speed v. If m and M are the masses of the bullet and the block,
respectively, then momentum conservation gives

(a) mu  M  mv
mu
v
M m
The initial kinetic energy of the block + bullet system
1 m 2u 2
KE  M  m v 2 
1
2 2 M  m 
Work done to bring the block + bullet system to rest in distance s is
1 m 2u 2
W   M  m gs 
2 M  m 

u
M  m  2gs  2.000  0.005 2  0.3  9.8  2
m 0.005
u  1123m / s
Example 4
Two particles of mass m1 and m2 and velocities u1 and αu2 (α > 0) make an
elastic collision. If the initial kinetic energies of the two particles are equal,

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what should be the ratios u1/u2 and m1/m2 so that m1 will be at rest after the
collision?
Solution

Example 5

The ballistic pendulum is a device for measuring the velocity v of a bullet of

mass m. It consists of a large wooden block of mass M which is supported by
two vertical cords. When the bullet is fired at the block, it is dislodged and the
block is set in motion reaching maximum height h. Show that

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 M
v  1   2 gh
 m
Momentum of the bullet before collision = momentum of the block + bullet
system immediately after collision, Fig. below

Solution

Due to the impact, the pendulum would swing to the right and would be raised
through the maximum height h vertically above the rest position of the
pendulum. At this point, the kinetic energy of the pendulum is entirely
converted into gravitational potential energy:

By measuring h and knowing m and M, the original velocity of the bullet can
be calculated.

Example 6
A smooth sphere of mass m moving with speed v on a smooth horizontal
surface collides directly with a second sphere of the same size but of half the
mass that is initially at rest. The coefficient of restitution is e.
mv 2
(i) Show that the total kinetic energy after collision is (2  e 2 )
6
(ii) Find the kinetic energy lost during the collision.

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Solution

Let a sphere of mass m1 travelling with velocity u1 collide with the second
sphere of mass m2 at rest, with their centres in straight line. After the collision
let the final velocities be v1 and v2, respectively, for m1 and m2. By definition the
coefficient of restitution e is given by the ratio

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Further exercises
1.A bullet of mass 20 g, travelling horizontally at 100m/s, embeds itself in the
centre of a block of wood of mass 1kg which is suspended by light vertical
string 1m in length. Calculate the maximum angle of inclination of the string to
the vertical.(Assume g=10m/s2). ANS: 370.
2. A snooker ball X of mass 0.3 kg, moving with velocity 5m/s, hits a stationary
ball Y of mass 0.4kg. Y moves off with a velocity 2m/s at 300 to the initial
direction of x. Find the velocity v of X and its direction after hitting Y.
ANS: 3m/s at 270.
3. A ball of mass 0.2 kg falls from a height of 45m. On striking the ground it
rebounds in 0.1sec with two-thirds of the velocity with which it struck the
ground. Calculate (i) the momentum change on hitting the ground (ii)the force
on the ball due to the impact. ANS: (i)10Ns (ii)100N.
4.The mass of gas emitted from the rear of toy rocket is initially0.1kg/s. If the
speed of the gas relative to the rocket is 50m/s, and the mass of the rocket is
2kg, what is the initial acceleration of the rocket? ANS: 2.5 m/s2
5. Twelve passengers per minute on average move on to an elevator (lift) which
is rising steadily at 2m/sec. Assuming the initial velocity of the passengers is
zero; calculate the extra tension (force) due to the passengers on the belt round
the elevator rollers. Average passenger mass=60kg. ANS:24N
6.A ball of mass 0.1kg, travelling at 4m/s, hits a smooth billiard cushion
normally and rebounds at 4m/s.
(a)Is the collision elastic?
(b)Calculate the force on impact if the time of impact is 0.1seconds.
ANS:(a)Yes (b)8N
7. (a)A ball A of mass 0.1kg , moving with a velocity 6m/s, collides directly with
a ball B of mass 0.2kg at rest. Calculate their common velocity if both balls
move off together.
(b)If A had rebounded with a velocity of 2m/s in the opposite direction after
collision, what would be the new velocity of B?
ANS: (a)2m/s (b)4m/s
8. A bullet of mass 20g is fired horizontally into a suspended stationary wooden
block of mass 380g with a velocity of 200m/s. What is the common velocity of
the bullet and block if the bullet is embedded (stays inside) in the block?
ANS:10 m/s.

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Unit5: Kirchhoff‟s rules and complex electrical circuit

5.0. Introduction: Direct-current circuits

In this unit, we study and analyze a number of simple direct-current circuits.

Most of the circuits are assumed to be in steady state, which means that the
currents are constant in magnitude and direction. The analysis is simplified by
the use of two rules known as Kirchhoff‘s rules, which follow from the principle
of conservation of energy and the law of conservation of charge.

5.1. Sources of the electromotive force (emf)

The sources of emf are any devices (for example, batteries and generators) that
increase the potential energy of the circulating charges. A source of emf can be
thought of as a ―charge pump‖ that forces electrons to move in a direction
opposite to the electrostatic field inside the source. The emf of a source is the
work done per unit charge; hence the SI unit of emf is the volt.

Consider the circuit in Active Figure (a) below consisting of a battery connected
to a resistor R. We assume that the connecting wires have no resistance. If we
neglect the internal resistance of the battery, the potential drop across the
battery (the terminal voltage) equals the emf of the battery. The battery,
represented by the dashed rectangle, consists of a source of emf  in series
with an internal resistance r,(Fig.b).

The emf   IR  Ir

I
Rr

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5.2. Resistors in series

When two or more resistors are connected end to end as in Active Figure below,
they are said to be in series.

V  IR1  IR2
IReq  IR1  IR2
Req  R1  R2
An extension of the preceding analysis shows that the equivalent resistance of
three or more resistors connected in series is Req  R1  R2  R3  ...
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is
the algebraic sum of the individual resistances and is always greater than
any individual resistance.

5.3. Resistors in parallel

Now consider two resistors connected in parallel, as in Active Figure below. In
this case, the potential differences across the resistors are the same
because each is connected directly across the battery terminals. The
currents are generally not the same.

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V  I1 R1  I 2 R2
The main current I  I1  I 2

V V V
Or  
Req R1 R2
1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2

An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel produces the

following general expression for the equivalent resistance:
1 1 1 1
    ...
Req R1 R2 R3
From this expression, we see that the inverse of the equivalent resistance of
two or more resistors connected in parallel is the sum of the inverses of
the individual resistances and is always less than the smallest resistance
in the group.

5.4. Kirchhoff‟s rules and complex dc circuits Kirchhoff‟s rules

Kirchhoff‘s rules state that:

1. The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction. (This rule is often referred to as the junction
rule.)
2. The sum of the potential differences across all the elements around any
closed circuit loop must be zero. (This rule is usually called the loop rule.)

The first rules can be illustrated by the diagrams below

(a) A schematic diagram illustrating Kirchhoff ‘s junction rule. Conservation of

charge requires that whatever current enters a junction must leave that
junction. In this case, therefore, I1  I 2  I 3
(b) A mechanical analog of the junction rule: the net flow in must equal the
net flow out.

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Note: (1) If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the change in
electric potential across the resistor is  IR .

(2) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite to the current, the change
in electric potential across the resistor is  IR .

(3)If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from negative to
positive on the terminals), the change in electric potential is  

(4) If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from positive to
negative on the terminals), the change in electric potential is  

EXAMPLE 1
A single-loop circuit contains two resistors and two batteries, as shown in
Figure below. (Neglect the internal resistances of the batteries.)Find the
current in the circuit.

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Solution

EXAMPLE 2

Use Kirchhoff‘s rules to find currents in a circuit with three currents and one
battery.

Solution

The junction rule gives I1  I 2  I 3 (1)

Select the bottom loop, and traverse it clockwise starting at point a, generating
an equation with the loop rule:
 V  Vbat  V4.0  V9.0  0
6V  (4.0) I1  (9.0) I 3  0 (2)
Select the top loop, and traverse it clockwise from point c. Notice the gain
across the 9.0 resistor, because it is traversed against the direction of the
current  V  V5.0  V9.0  0
 (5.0) I 2  (9.0) I 3  0 (3)
Solving Eq. (1), (2) and Eq. (3) simultaneously we get
I1  0.83 A , I 2  0.54 A and I 3  0.30 A

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EXAMPLE3
Calculate each of the unknown currents I1, I2, and I3 for the circuit of figure
below

Solution

Current rule
I1  I 2  I 3 (1)

From the loop 1

24  2 I1  4 I 1  3I 3  0

6 I 1  3I 3  24 (2)

From the loop 2

12  3I 3  I 2  5I 2  0

3I 3  6 I 2  12 (3)

Solving Eq. (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously we get

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I1  3.5 A , I 2  2.5 A and I 3  1A

EXAMPLE 4
For the circuit shown in the figure below ,the resistance R=5.0Ω and the e.m.f
E=20V.Find the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.

Let us write the loop equation for loop cdefc

 RI1  12.0  8.0  7.0I 2  0

5.0I1  7.0I 2  4.0 (1)

Next we write the loop equation for loop cdeac

 5.0 I1  12.0  2.0 I 3  20.0  0

5.0 I1  2.0 I 3  32.0  0 (2)

By the node rule I1  I 3  I 2 (3)

Solving equations (1),(2) and (3) simultaneously we get I1  3.9 A , I 2  2.2 A and
I 3  6.1A

To find the voltmeter reading Vab we write th loop equation for the loop abca

Vab  7.0 I 2  E  0

Vab  7.0(2.2)  20.0  0

Vab  4.3V

Activity
For the circuit shown in Figure below, calculate (a) the current in the 2.00
resistor and (b) the potential difference between points a and b.

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5.5. The efficient of generator (  )

By definition the efficiency (  ) of generator is the ratio of output power and

input power.
PR

P
Where PR =UI is the power dissipated in load resistance of external circuit and
RI 2 R
P=EI is the power of generator   or   (Here, the obtained
(R  r)I 2
Rr
value of efficiency is multiplied by 100%).
5.6. Combination of generators
1. Series combination
Consider a circuit constituted by n cells combined in series with e.m.f
E and their internal resistances r , with external resistance R as shown
in figure below

The total power supplied is given by

P= P1+P2+P3+...............+Pn
n
 I=  1 I+  2 I+  3 I+...+  n I   =  1 +  2 +  3 +...+  n =   i
i=1

The intensity of current dissipated in external resistance is

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1 + 2 + 3 +...+ n  i n
I  i=1
n
. Here r=r1 +r2 +r3 +...+rn   ri
R   ri
R+r1 +r2 +r3 +...+rn i=1

i=1

2. Combination of cells in opposition

Consider a circuit consists of two opposite cells with e.m.f E1 and E2 and their
internal resistances r1 a nd r2 , the external resistance Re . The two generators
are in opposition since the positive terminal of one is bounded by the positive
terminal of the other.( see fig. below)

If E1  E2, the current pass but is less than the one that must be registered if
the unique generator feed the circuit. The total e.m.f will be: E1  E2 and the
equivalent resistances are R e  r1  r2 . From Ohm‘s law

E1  E2
I
Re  r1  r2

The direction of the current is commended by the cell with great emf.
3. Combination of identical generators in parallel
Consider n identical generators connected in parallel as shown in figure bellow

r
All element are in parallel and have same Eeq=E and req  , the intensity of
n
Eeq E E nE
current in the external current is given by I     .
Req  req r nReq  r nReq  r
Req 
n n

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4. Mixing series and parallel combination of identical generators

Let q represents the number of generators connected en series and p
represents the number of generators connected in parallel. Recall that all
generators are identical.

The e.m.f in series is Eeq=q E and req=q.r and

q
For the whole combination req  .r and Eeq=q.E
p

The intensity of current (I) in the external resistance of circuit is hence given by

Eeq q q p.q
I   
Req  req q PReq  qr PReq  qr
Req  r
p P
With qp: number of all generators.

5.7. Electrical receptors

A receptor is defined as each electrical instrument which is able to receive
electric current and transforms electric energy into other form of energy.
Example
-Electric bulb which transforms electrical energy into light energy;
-The electrical motor which transforms electrical energy into mechanical
energy;
-The electric kettle which transforms electrical energy into heat energy.
-Loudspeaker: electrical energy into sound energy
-Accumulator: electrical energy into chemical energy
Receptor is called passive if it transforms electrical energy into heat.
e.g: electrical heater, flat iron ,….

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Receptor is called active if it transforms electrical energy into another form(e.g

mechanical energy ) which is not heat.
e.g: : radio, television, electric motor, accumulator and etc,…

5.8. Characteristic of receptors:

Back e.m.f, internal resistance and potential difference across receptors

A receptors is characterized by the counter-electromotive force E ' and the
internal resistance r '

1. Counter or back electromotive force (back .e.m.f)

By definition, counter-electromotive force (c.e.m.f) of the receptor is the ratio
Puseful
of the useful power to the current across the receptor E '  .
I
The S.I unit of back e.m.f is volt (v)
The back electromotive force is also defined as the voltage, or electromotive
force, that pushes against the current which induces it.

2. The power consumed by the receptor

The power dissipated in receptor which has been transformed into heat by
joule‘s effect is P'  r ' I 2
Since the receptor is connected in opposition to the cell, the current in the
E  E'
circuit is given by I 
ri '
The efficiency of electrical receptor is given by
P E'I E'
  usefu   .
Pexternal UI U

5.9. The thermoelectric effect

Seebeck effect

The heating effect of the current transfers electrical energy into heat, but we
have not so far described any mechanism which transfers heat into electrical
energy. This was discovered by SEEBECK in 1822.

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Thermocouple

Seebeck went on to show that a current flowed, without a battery, in any

circuit containing two different metals, with their two junctions at different
temperatures. Currents obtained in this way are called thermoelectric
currents, and a pair of metals, with their junctions at different temperatures
are said to form a thermocouple.

Worked example

A battery has an 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓, of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.05Ω . Its

terminals are connected to a load resistance of 3.00Ω. Find the current in the
circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.
(a)Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the
internal resistance of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.
(b)As a battery ages, its internal resistance increases. Suppose the internal
resistance of this battery rises to 2.00Ω toward the end of its useful life. How
does this alter the ability of the battery to deliver energy?

Solution
E 12.0V
a) I    3.93 A
R  r 3.05

And the terminal voltage:

Δ𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 = 12.0𝑉 − 3.93𝐴 0.05Ω = 11.8𝑉 .

To check this result, we can calculate the voltage across the load resistance R:
ΔV = IR = 3.93A 0.05Ω = 11.8V

The power delivered to the load resistor is

𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 3.93𝐴 2
0.05Ω = 46.3𝑊

The power delivered to the internal resistance is

𝑃𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 3.93𝐴 2
0.05Ω = 0.772𝑊

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Let us connect the same 3.00Ω load resistor to the battery. The current in the battery
now is

E 12.0V
I   2.40 A , and the terminal voltage is
R  r 3.00  2.00

Δ𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 = 12.0𝑉 − 2.40𝐴 2.00Ω = 7.2𝑉

Notice that the terminal voltage is only 60% of the 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. The power delivered to the
load resistor and internal resistance is

𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 2.40𝐴 2
3.00Ω = 17.3𝑊

𝑃𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 2.40𝐴 2
2.00Ω = 11.5𝑊

TOPIC AREA: ENERGY, POWER AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 6: Sources of Energy in the world

6.1. Sources of energy

Natural resources of energy can be classified as renewable resources and non-

renewable resources of energy.
(a)Renewable sources of energy: those which can be replaced fairly fast.
(b)Non-renewable sources of energy: those which take millions of years before to be
replaced.
6.2. Examples of renewable sources of energy
1. Hydroelectric power plant
It is a transformation of the energy stored in a depth of water into electricity. The
potential energy, or energy due to height, can be extracted by flowing the water
through turbines as it moves from a higher level to a lower one. See figure bellow

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Below is a simple block diagram showing energy changes in hydro-electric power

station.

Advantages
-The installation is not expensive: Big efficiency about 90%
-Source of water is available
-No pollution of atmosphere
-Require no fuel
Disadvantages

-Very expensive to set up because of high costs in setting suitable places, purchase of
necessary materials and construction of the station and supply power lines.
-Some energy is lost in sound and internal energy.
-Weak power produced; its function is accorded to the seasons
2. Solar energy
The sun: the sun is the biggest source of energy in our environment. Energy given off
by the sun is called solar energy.
This energy is produced by nuclear fusion reactions on the sun. Solar energy is in
form of heat and light.

Heat energy from the sun is used for making drying things, heating water (Solar
heaters) and for making rain in our environment. The light from the sun is used for
seeing and by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Light from the sun can be used
to make electricity. Cell containing these crystals is called a solar cell.

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Solar cell (Photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels)

Solar energy also can be used to produce electricity using solar cell. A solar cell
(photovoltaic cell) is a device that converts radiant energy from the sun into electrical
energy.

A photovoltaic cell consists of two thin sheets of a semiconductor sandwiched

together, usually silicon (see figure below)

As the photons from the sun hit the solar cell, its electrons are freed, passing through
the bottom of the cell to the electrical wire, thus producing electricity. The greater the
intensity of light, the more current is produced.
Advantages of using solar cell
-The installation is not expensive
-no pollution of atmosphere
Inconvenient (disadvantages)
Used only in sun season; weak efficiency
Storage system is expensive
3. Geothermal energy
It is heat energy from the earth. Heat energy from the hot interior of the earth can rise
the temperature of underground rocks in the earth‘s crust to very high temperatures.

To use this energy, water is pumped down to these rocks and is converted to steam by
this heat. The steam can then be directed to generators to produce electricity. In
Rwanda , you can find hot water springs in western province (Mashyuza in Bugarama)
with a power generation potential of about 170-320MW.
Advantages
The pollution can be controlled by putting water or steam back into the earth
High production in energy

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Disadvantages
The installation is very expensive; It requires a very greater space
The sources are not easily accessible; there is loss of internal energy

4. Wind energy

Moving air (wind) has kinetic energy which can be used to move windmill vanes,
resulting in the driving of generators, which produce electricity.
Windmill, in wind electric power station is machine that converts wind into useful
electrical energy.

The moving air exerts a very large force on the blades or vane of the turbines and
makes them rotate.

The wind striking the vanes possesses kinetic energy. It is this kinetic energy which is
converted to mechanical energy and makes the turbine rotate. As the turbine rotates,
it turns the dynamo which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Advantages of wind energy

Very cheap way of generation of electricity
Do not require fuels and can be run at low cost with minimum maintenance costs.
Safe because they do not produce substances which pollute air or water.

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Disadvantages

Very expensive to set up because of a lot of work must be done to select a proper site
with correct wind velocity and abundant wind supply.
The wind does not always blow, and wind direction may vary.
5. Tidal or water wave energy

The tides are the daily rise and fall of the earth‘s ocean waters. Tides are caused by
gravitational forces between the moon, the earth, and the sun, and by the spinning of
the earth.
Movement of water when tides come in or go out can be used to turn the blades of
turbine, which results in generation of electricity.
The tide energy installation is shown in figure bellow.

6. Biomass
It is the energy released from plants (wood, corn, etc) through combustion or other
chemical process.
A Biogas plant is an airtight tank in which organic wastes mixed with water can be
digested/ fermented through anaerobic bacteria action.
Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a process in which organic materials like cow dung,

agriculture residue or human feaces are digested in the absence of oxygen to produce
biogas (methane and ethanol) in the gas tight chamber called digester. There are three
principal products of anaerobic digestion; biogas, digestate, and water.

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Biogas
Advantages:
Biogas does not contribute to the atmospheric pollution, less air pollution
Available source; it replaces the deforestation (wood energy)
Production of fertilizers
It is not expensive
It is renewable.

The biogas is a type of fuels which can be burnt to produce heat energy for cooking
and other uses.
Disadvantages:
-when it is not well installed it can cause many problems (breathing diseases) because
of gas rejected.
6.3. Examples of non-renewable resources of energy
1. Fossils
They are remains of plant or animal that existed in a past geological age and that has
been excavated from the soil.
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are energy sources formed from the plants and animals wastes of the
ancient time.
Types of fossil fuels

Coal is a solid organic rock made up mostly of carbon. Coal was formed from the
waste of plants that lived in forests and swamps millions of years ago.
Petroleum

The word petroleum originates from Latin word petra (meaning rocks) and oleum
(which mean oil). It is also called crude oil. It was produced after millions of years by
the bacterial decomposition of animals and plants which were buried underground to
great depths inside the earth due to the earth quakes, cyclones and storms.
Natural gas

Natural gas is a fossil fuel. This gas is usually associated with petroleum bearing
formations and mines.
Thermal electric power station
Thermal electric power station use coal, oil, biogas etc as a source of energy to run the
station. There are two types of thermal electric power stations

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(i)The steam electric power station

This type uses steam to drive the turbines. The steam is produced by heating water in
a boiler using fuels such as coil, biogas. That heat is used to change water into vapour
(steam).The steam is directed on to a turbine connected to a dynamo.

As the turbine rotates, it drives the dynamo which in turn generates electricity. Energy
changes that take place in a steam electric power station:

Thermal power is the second national power source in Rwanda .There are six thermal
power plants in Rwanda .These are Jabana 1(7.8MW) Jabana 2 (20 MW), Gikonko2
(10MW), Mukungwa (5MW).
(ii)Diesel electric power station
The diesel electric power station uses a diesel engine to drive the dynamo . The
dynamo in turn changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. The energy changes
that take place in a diesel electric power station are summarized in figure below

Advantages

Can be set up in areas where grid electricity has not reached. A grid is a system of
overhead cables carried by pylons for distributing electricity over large area.
Disadvantages
They are more expensive to run because they require constant supply of petrol or
diesel which is very expensive

Some harmful gases and particles of soot are produced during the combustion of the
fuel which pollute air and water
2. A nuclear energy
Nuclei of elements like Uranium are a source of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is
released by reactions in the nuclei of the atoms.

Nuclei break up or the splitting of a nucleus into two smaller pieces is called nuclear
fission, this nuclear fission is followed by numerous liberation of energy. This
process can be written as an equation

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U  01n  141
235
92 56 Ba  56 Kr  3( 0 n )  Energy .The resulting energy can be used in the
92 1

generation of electricity. The energy changes in a nuclear electric power station are
summarized below.

The nuclear energy is given out when the nuclei join to form heavier nuclei; this
process is called nuclear Fusion.

Fusion takes place in the sun and in other stars. The atomic bomb derives its energy
from this kind of reaction. One kind of fusion reaction is 12 H 13 H  42 H e  Energy .

It takes place only if the hydrogen is in the plasma state, at temperatures in terms of
millions of degrees Celsius.
Advantages
No problem of environment
Great power is produced
Small amounts fuel required
Power station requires little space
Economical for producing bulk electrical energy.
Disadvantages
Escape of harmful radiation; pollution of water
The installation is very expensive
Require more careful sitting and very expensive equipment and structures.
Extremely expensive to ensure operation and disposal of the dangerous waste
products.

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TOPIC AREA: Energy, power and climate change

Unit 7: Energy degradation (dilapidation) and power generation

Key unit Competence: By the end of the unit the learner will be able to analyse
energy degradation/dilapidation and power generation

7.1. Definition of energy degradation /dilapidation

The degradation of energy is the process by which energy becomes less available for
doing work.
It is also the process of energy transformation into disordered, spread out energy.

Production of electrical energy by rotating coils in a magnetic fields.

Electricity can be produced mechanically, chemically or through photovoltaic cells. It

can also be stored chemically in the form of batteries.

Mechanical energy is converted to electrical power through an electric generator.

Electric generators are powered through steam, water or air. Generators come in the
form of AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current).

Most generators have a wired loop or coil that is rotated in a magnetic field to produce
a current, this is called electromagnetic induction. The wired loop or coil is attached to
a turbine that will turn when it is impacted by steam, wind or water, thus creating a
current.

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7.3. Conversion of thermal energy into work by single cyclic process.

Introduction to thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of the connection between thermal energy and work and
the conversion of one into another.
EXAMPLE: DIESEL CYCLE

The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion

engine.

The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work.

7.4. Construct and analyze energy flow diagrams (Sankey diagrams) and identify
where the energy is degraded.

Sankey diagrams indicate how much energy remains after a series of transformations.
The arrows pointing upwards indicate exhaust while the arrows pointing downwards
indicate loss due to heat, friction or other factors. The thickness of the lines should be
proportional to the percentage of energy being represented.

7.5. Energy and climate change

7.5. 1.Describe the environmental problems associated with the recovery of

fossil fuels and their use in power stations.
Pollution (ie. carbon dioxide, acid rain, smog, heavy metals, volatile organic
compounds, radioactive material)

Carbon monoxide released from powerplants is capable of poisoning people

(haemoglobin cells begin reacting with carbon monoxide instead of oxygen)

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Coal mining causes release of flammable gases, there is a risk of collapse and
underground fires, gases are a threat to the lungs of miners
Crude oil and gas retrieval can lead to explosions, oil spills and leakages that pollute
the environment and harm life
7.5. 2.The Greenhouse Effect

The radiation coming from the sun is approximately 50% visible light and 50%
infrared, with small amounts of UV light present. When UV light enters the
atmosphere from the sun, it is reflected back from the earth at a lower frequency. The
light, now Infrared, is no longer able to penetrate the gaseous layer in the troposphere
and becomes 'trapped'. This causes an overall increase in global temperature, affecting
a number of things, including arctic permafrost, climate, animal behavior and
frequency of natural disasters.

Main Causes of green house effect

Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrous oxide

7.5. 3. Global warming

It is an increase in the average temperature of the earth‘s atmosphere that causes the
climatic changes.

Causes of global warming

The burning of fossil fuels, which release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

The reduction of ice/snow cover due to global warming, which reduces albedo and
increases the rate of heat absorption.

Reductions in the solubility of carbon dioxide in the sea due to increases in

temperature, which increase atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.

Deforestation reduces carbon fixation by plans, which in turn increases carbon

dioxide concentrations.
SOLUTION
The world needs to change from this current dependence on the use of non renewable
energy resources. The use of oil and coal must be replaced with all kinds of alternative
energy sources. One part of the solution is using biodiesel or bio-fuel made of waste
from croplands.

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TOPIC AREA:MECHANICS

Unit 8: Projectiles and uniform circular motion

8.1. Definition of projectile motion and related terms
(a) Definition of projectile motion

A projectile is any object that is thrown or cast or fired or launched or projected

forward into space (empty or not) by a force. Projectile motion is the motion which
projectile execute.
(b) Related terms in projectile motion
Trajectory: is the path of the projectile.
Time of flight: is the total time it takes the projectile to reach the ground or is the
total time the projectile is in flight.
Horizontal range: is the horizontal distance covered during the time of flight.
Maximum height: Is the distance from the starting to the highest point reached by
the projectile.
8.2. Examples and application of projectile motion
1. Oblique projectile motion
Consider now, at the instant t  0 , a projectile fired from the ground level with initial

velocity v0 at an angle  above the horizontal axis.

(a)Equation of the trajectory

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

ym
v0 y
v0 
r

j 

0 i 
X
v0 x x
R

To study this projectile motion we neglect the forces due to air resistance.
There is no acceleration in the horizontal x direction.

At time t  0

The components of the acceleration are

a0 x  0
(1)
a0 y   g

Initial velocity

v0 x  v0 cos
(2)
v0 y  v0 sin 
    
Then v0  v0 x i  v0 y j  v0 cos i  v0 sin  j (3)

Position

x0
y0

At time t

The components of the acceleration are

a x  cons tan t
ay  g

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Velocity

v x  v0 cos
(4)
v y   gt  v0 sin 
    
Then v  vx i  v y j  v0 cos i   gt  v0 sin   j (5)

The magnitude of the velocity at the moment t is

v  v x2  v y2  v0 cos 2   gt  v0 sin  2

or

v  v02  2 gtv0 sin   g 2 t 2 (6)

Position

x  v0 cos t
1 2 (7)
y gt  v0 sin  t
2
The position vector of the projectile at the moment t is

     1 
r  x i  y j  v0 cos t  i    gt 2  v0 sin  t  j (8)
 2 
(b) Maximum height attained by the projectile

When the projectile reaches its maximum height, v y  0

v y  0   gt  v0 sin   0 .

The time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height:

v0 sin 
tm  (9)
g

The maximum height y m can be found remarking that y m  y t m  . We obtain:

2
1  v sin    v sin  
ym   g  0   v0 sin   0 
2  g   g 
Or

v02 sin 2 
ym  (10)
2g

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(c) Time of flight

When the projectile reaches the ground

1 2
y 0 gt  v0 sin  t  0 or
2
t  0 (Corresponds to the starting of the motion)

and

2v0 sin 
tf  (11)
g

t f is the time of flight.

It is a time taken by the projectile to go up and fall back to the ground.

Also

2v0 sin 
tf   2t m
g (12)
Trajectory of the motion

x
Solving the equation x  v0 cos t for t , we obtain t 
v0 cos

Substituting this value into the equation (7) we have

2
1  x   x 
y x    g    v0 sin   
2  v0 cos   v0 cos 
1
Since  1  tan 2  , we get
cos 
2

yx   
g
2v02
 
1  tan 2  x 2  tan   x

Or yx   ax 2  bx (13)

a, b are constants.

The trajectory of the projectile motion is parabolic.

Horizontal range

Range is the horizontal distance covered by the projectile to hit the ground:

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 2v sin    2 sin  cos 

R  xt f   v0 cos t f  v0 cos  0   v02  
 g   g 
Since 2 sin  cos  sin 2 , we find

v02 sin 2
R (14)
g

At the maximum range 2  90 0 ; so   450 , therefore

v02
Rmax  (15)
g
2. Projectile thrown horizontally from a height y

Consider, for example, a projectile thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff of

height y , with initial velocity v0 .This motion is a particular case of the motion
when the angle of projection is zero.


v0


vx


xm 
vy 
vf

The projectile coordinates at the moment t are

x  v0t (1)

1 2
y gt (2)
2
The components of the projectile at the moment t are

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v x  v0
(3)
v y  gt

We deduce the speed of the projectile at the moment t :

v  v x2  v y2  v02  g 2 t 2 (4)

Using the value of t from Eq.(1) into Eq.(2) we get

yx  
g 2
x
2v02

yx   ax 2 , a is a constant.

The trajectory of the projectile motion is a parabola.

Example 1
A projectile is fired at an angle of 60° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of
800 m/s:
(i) Find the time of flight of the projectile before it hits the ground
(ii) Find the distance it travels before it hits the ground (range)
(iii) Find the time for the projectile to reach its maximum height

Solution
2u sin  2  800 sin 60 0
(i) T   141.4s
s 9.8

(ii) R 

u 2 sin 2 800 sin 2  60 2
2

 5.6568 10 4 m  56.57km
g 9.8
(iii) Time to reach the maximum height  12 T  12 142.4  70.7 s

Example 2
A shell is fired at an angle  with the horizontal up a plane inclined at an angle
 
 . Show that for maximum range,   
2 4

Solution

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Example 3
If  is the angle of projection, R the range, h the maximum height, T the time
of flight then show that
4h gT 2
(a) tan   and (b) h 
R 8
Solution

Example 4
An airplane traveling at 100m/s drops a bomb from a height of 1500m. Find
(a)the time of flight, (b)distance traveled, (c)the velocity components as the
bomb strikes the ground.

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Solution
We analyze the problem in xy plane as follows

a)The time for the bomb to reach the earth means: Find the time when
x = 1500m?

b) How far does the bomb travel horizontally means: Find the value of y when t
= 17 s?

c) Find the velocity components at impact means: Find vx and vy at t = 17s?

5.A ball is projected upwards from the top of tower with a velocity 50 ms–1 making angle 300
with the horizontal. The height of the tower is 70 m. After how many seconds from the instant of
throwing will the ball reach the ground?

Solution

Equation of motion

1 2
y f  yi  u y t  gt
2

On the ground y f  0

1 2
yi  (u sin  )t  gt  0
2

gt 2  (2u sin  )t  2 yi  0

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u sin   u sin 2   2 gyi ) 50 sin 30 0  50 sin 2 30 0  2(9.8)(70)

t t
g 9.8
t  6.34 or t  1.25

The correct value of t is 6.34sec.

Test yourself

Home work
At an initial time t = 0 a projectile is launched upward from the origin O(0, 0)
using a gun at an initial velocity of 1000m/s making an angle of 600 with the
horizontal line. Find:
a) The initial velocity components
b) What is the position of the projectile after 2.0 s (with respect to the origin)?
c) What is the velocity (speed and direction) of the projectile after 2.0 s ?
d) What is the velocity after 20.0s?
e) At which moment the projectile will reach the maximum height on its
trajectory?
f) What is the duration of its complete trajectory (for which the projectile is in
the air)?
g) What is the horizontal range for this projectile?
h) What is the maximum height for that projectile?
8.3. Uniform Circular motion
1. Definition
A uniform circular motion is a motion of the body along a circular path at
constant velocity.
Example:-a satellite orbiting the earth
-A point on the vehicle‘s wheel

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Position
Let M be an object moving in circular motion from the initial position P at time
t=0.

(a)Angular displacement 
If the object moves M around the circle of radius r through an angle  , the
length s of an arc which subtends angle  at the centre of the circle is given by
s  r (5)
We call the arc s the linear displacement and  the angular displacement.
The angle  is measured in radians (rad).
(b)Cartesian position of an object
 x  r cos

 y  r cos
(c)Period, frequency
Period T is the time taken by the object to make one revolution.
Its S.I unit: second (s).
The frequency f , is the number of revolutions per unit time.

1
f 
T
Its S.I unit: rev / sec , Hertz ( Hz)

Angular velocity and linear velocity

(a)Linear velocity
It is a distance moved per unit time.

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ds d (r )
v 
dt dt
rd 
v
dt
This velocity is tangent to the circle.
For one complete revolution
s s  s0
v  ,
t t  t0

but t0  0 , s0  0

Since s  r  2r

2r
Then v 
T
v  2rf
(b)Angular velocity 
It is an angle described (swept) by the radius r per unit time.
It is the rate of change of the angular displacement.
d

dt
This is also called an instantaneous angular velocity.
Its S.I unit: rad/s.
For one complete cycle
    0
 
t t  t0

But  0  0 , t0  0 ,   2 , t  T

2

T
Or   2f

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Relationship between angular and linear velocity

By definition
ds rd 
v 
dt dt
v  r
(c) Acceleration
This normal acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is defined as
aN   2r

v2
Or aN 
r
Its direction: towards the centre of the circle

Its S.I unit: m / s 2

Consequently, the tangential component of the acceleration is also zero
since
v  ( r ) 
aT   r  0 , since  is constant.
t t t
The total vector acceleration is the sum of these two:
  
a  aT  a N
 
The figure below shows the representation of the vectors a T and a N .

aT

aN


a
0

  
Since a T and a N are always perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of a at
any moment is

a  a N2  aT2

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Graph of displacement against time

y  r sin   r sin t   0 

Assume  0  0

Then y  r sin   r sin t

Centripetal force
It is a force that keeps an object in circular path.
This force is directed towards the centre of the path.
v2
Fc  ma N  m 2 r  m
r
2. Application of circular motion
(a) Motion in vertical circle
Whenever a particle or a body moves in uniform circular path of radius r with
constant speed V, it experiences is an acceleration which is directed toward the
centre of the circular path.

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At the top (point 1) the body experiences two forces

Weight =mg and Tension= T1

2
v1
 F  T1  mg  ma  m r
2
v
T1  mg  m 1
r
To keep the ball moving in a circle, the speed v1is minimum and the tension force is
zero(T1=0).
v1  gr
At the bottom (point 2) the body experiences two forces
Weight =mg and Tension= T2
2
v
 F  T2  mg  ma  m r2
2
v2
T2  mg  m
r
(b) The conical pendulum
A small object of mass m is suspended from a string of length L. The object
revolves with constant speed v in a horizontal circle of radius r, as shown in
Figure below. (Because the string sweeps out the surface of a cone, the system
is known as a conical pendulum.) . Now we can find an expression for v.

F y  may  0

T cos  mg (1)

F x  T sin   macent

v2
T sin   m (2)
r

Eliminating T from (1) and (2)

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v2
t an    v  rg tan 
rg

From the geometry in Figure above, we note that r =L sin  ; therefore,

v  Lg sin  tan 

Note that the speed is independent of the mass of the object.

(C) Motion on a level circular road

When a vehicle goes round a level curved path, it should be acted upon by a centripetal force.
While negotiating the curved path, the wheels of the car have a tendency to leave the curved path
and regain the straight-line path. Frictional force between the tyres and the road opposes this
tendency of the wheels.

R1, R2 are the forces of normal reaction of the road on the wheels.
F1 and F2 be the forces of friction between the tyres and the road, directed towards the centre of
the curved path.
Total reaction force R1+R2=mg
Total friction force F fr  F1  F2
Condition for skidding
Skidding occurs when the car does not follow the curve
i.e friction force ≤Required centripetal force
v2
If  s is the coefficient of static friction, then the friction force F fr  m
r

Since F fr   s mg

v 2   s rg

vsk   s rg

Hence the velocity with which a car can go round a level curve while skidding is vsk   s rg
The car can move in circular path safely if

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friction force Required centripetal force

vsafe   s rg
This is the maximum speed by which vehicle can turn in a circular path of radius r, without
skidding.

(c) Motion of car round a banked road

Consider a vehicle of mass m moving with speed v on a banked road banked at

an angle of banking  as shown in the figure.

Let F be the frictional force between tyres of the vehicle and road surface.
We need to obtain an expression for maximum safety speed with which a
vehicle can be safely driven along curved banked road.

Diagram of forces

AC : inclined road surface

AB : horizontal surface
BC : height of road surface
G : centre of gravity of vehicle
W : (mg) weight of vehicle
N : normal reaction exerted on vehicle
 : angle of banking
Resolving the forces vertically
N cos  F sin   mg
Or
N cos  F sin   mg (1)
Resolving the forces horizontally

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mv 2
N sin   F cos  (2)
r
Dividing (2) by (1)

N sin   F cos v 2
 (3)
N cos  F sin  rg

Let vmax be the maximum speed of vehicle, the frictional force produced at this
speed is given by, Fmax  N max
Eq.(3) can be written as
N sin   Fmax cos vmax
2

N cos  Fmax sin  rg
Dividing the numerator and denominator by N cos
N sin   Fmax cos vmax
2

N cos  Fmax sin  rg

 Fmax 
 tan   N 
 rg 
2
vmax 
1  Fmax tan  
 N 

 Fmax 
 tan   N 
vmax  rg  
1  Fmax tan  
 N 
Since
Fmax  N max

   tan  
vmax  rg  s  (4)
1   s tan  
Note
(1)For a curved horizontal road,   00
hence equation (4) becomes,
vmax   s rg
(2) If  s  0 then equation (4) becomes,
vmax  rg tan 
At this speed, the frictional force is not needed to provide necessary centripetal
force. There will be a little wear and tear of tyres, if vehicle is driven at this speed
on banked road. vo is called as optimum speed.

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The equation shows that for a given radius of bend, the angle of banking is only
correct for one speed.

(e)Satellite cycling the earth

The centripetal force which keeps an artificial satellite in orbit around the earth
is the gravitational attraction of the earth for it.

Now consider a satellite of mass m travelling with a speed v in circular orbit of

radius ( RE  h) measured from the centre of the earth.
RE is the radius of the earth and h is the height where the satellite is.
The centripetal force
mv 2
Fc  (1)
RE  h
Newton ‗s of universal gravitation gives

mM E
Fg  G (2)
RE  h 2
Where M E =mass of the earth
G =universal gravitational constant
These two forces must be equal for a satellite revolving around the earth.
mv 2 mM E
G
RE  h RE  h 2
ME
vG
RE  h

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Examples

1. In uniform circular motion, (a) Is the speed constant? (b) Is the velocity
constant? (c) Is the magnitude of the acceleration constant? (d) Is
acceleration constant? Explain.
2. In a vertical motion does the angular velocity of the body change?
Explain.
3. An athlete runs around a circular track with a speed of 9.0 m/s and a
centripetal acceleration of 3 ms–2. What is the radius of the track?
4. A 20g mass moves as a conical pendulum with string length 8x and
speed v. if the radius of the circular motion is 5x find:
i) the string tension(assume g =10 ms-2 , ans. to 2 d.p.)
ii) v in terms of x, g.

ANSWERS

(1) (a) Yes (b) No (c) Yes (d) No

The velocity and acceleration are not constant because their directions are
changing continuously.
(2) Yes. The angular velocity changes because of acceleration due to gravity

4. i)

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5.State the factors which affect the angle of banking.

Ans: Factors affecting angle of banking:
i. Speed of vehicle: Angle of banking increases with maximum speed of vehicle.
ii. Radius of path: Angle of banking decreases with increase in radius of the path.
iii. Acceleration due to gravity: Angle of banking decreases with increase in the value of
‗g‘

Unit 9: Universal gravitational field potential

9.0 Introductions
Gravitational field: is defined as the area where the gravitation force of
attraction can have an action
Field is a region of space where forces are exerted on objects with certain
properties
Gravitation field strength: is defined as the force acting on a unit mass
placed in the field.
At the earth surface the gravitation field strength is equal to 9.81 N kg or

9.81 m s 2

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9.1. Law of universal gravitation (Newton‟s law of gravitation)

The law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

Mathematically, this translates into the force equation:

m1 m2
F G , In this equation, the quantities are defined as:
r2

 Fg = The force of gravity (typically in newtons)

 G = Thegravitational constant, which adds the proper level of
proportionality to the equation. The value of G is 6.67259 x 10-11 N m2 /
kg2,
 m1& m2 = The masses of the two particles (typically in kilograms)
 r = The straight-line distance between the two particles (typically in
meters

The dimension of G is

2
 L2
G  MLT 2
 L3 M 1T 2
M

So the S.I unit of G may also be expressed as m 3 kg 1 s 2

Relation between g and G

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Assuming the earth is a sphere of radius rE , a mass 𝑚 of the body (e.g. a planet)
orbiting at the altitude h at a distance r from the centre of the earth.

Let M E be the mass of the earth.

The gravitational force (weight) of the body FG  mg (1)

mM E
The law of gravitation gives F  G (2)
r2

These two forces are equal.

mM E
G  mg
r2
GM E
g
r2
But r  RE  h
GM E
g (3)
( RE  h) 2

GM E
On the earth‘s surface h  0 , g E  2
RE

2
g E RE
G (4)
ME

g E RE
Using Eq. (4) into Eq.(3) we get g 
( RE  h) 2

g depends on the altitude h .

Acceleration due to gravity at the equator and pole

GM E
At the pole of the Earth g P  2
RP

GM E
At the Equator g Eq  2
REq

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However, Earth is not quite a sphere. The planet's rotation causes it to bulge at
the equator. Earth's equatorial radius is REq  6378 Km . But from the earth‘s

centre to the pole, the radius is RP  6357 Km .

It is clear that RP  REq and then g P  g Eq

9.2. Variation of acceleration of free fall or field strength

(a) Above the earth‟s surface

Consider an object Q of mass m in an orbit R =h+RE, RE=the radius of the earth

and h= the altitude above the earth‘s surface.

So the acceleration of free-fall at the altitude h,is given by the expression

GmM E
mg '  (1)
R2

GmM E
At the earth‘s surface mg  2 (2)
RE

Dividing (1) and (2)

2
g ' RE
 2
g R

2
R
g '  g E2 (3)
R

1
Above the earth‗s surface the acceleration due to gravity g ' 
R2

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The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase in height above the surface of
the Earth.
(b) Variation of g with depth (below the earth‟s surface)

Consider the Earth to be a homogeneous sphere with uniform densityof radius

R and mass ME.
Let P be a point on the surface of the Earth and Q be a point at a depth d , from the surface such RE  d .

The acceleration due to gravity at P on the surface is

GM E
g 2 (1)
RE
 be the density, then, the mass of the Earth is
If
4
M E  RE 
3
(2)
3
Eq.(2) into (1) gives
4
g GRE  (3)
3
The acceleration due to gravity at Q at a depth d from the surface of the Earth is
GM E '
g' ' 
RE  d 2 (4)
M E ' =mass of the inner sphere of the Earth of radius (RE − d).
4
M E '   ( RE  d ) 3  (5)
3
Eq.(5) into (4) gives

4
g''  G ( RE  d ) (6)
3
Dividing (6) by (3) gives
g ' ' ( RE  d )

g RE

 d 
g ' '  1   g
 RE 

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The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase of depth.

Graphical representation of variation of g

9.3. Kepler‟s law and motion of planets

Kepler (1571-1630) had studied for many years the records of observation on
planets made by TYCHO BRAHE, and discovered three laws now known by his
name.

Kepler‘s laws state that:

1. The planet describes ellipses about the sun as one focus.

2. The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
times.

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3. The square of the periods of revolution of the planets T are proportional to

the cubes of their mean distance R from the sun. T 2  kr 3

Derivation Kepler‟s third law

mP M S
In the gravitational law gives F  G
r2

mP v 2
This force is centripetal F 
r

mP M S m P v 2
Then G 
r2 r

MS
v2  G (1)
r

2r
v , T =period of revolution
T

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 2r 
2

v2    (2)
 T 

4 2 3
Using Eq. (2) into (1) we get T  2
r
GM S

Or T 2  kr 3

4 2
Where k   constant
GM S

Parking orbit

A parking orbit is a temporary orbit used during the launch of a satellite.

Consider now a satellite of mass 𝑚 circling the earth in the plane of the equator
in two concentric orbits with the earth.

Suppose the direction of rotation in the same as and the orbit is at a distance R
from the center of the Earth, then if 𝑣 is the speed in orbit,

mv 2 GMm
 2
, but GM  grE2 , where 𝑟𝐸 is the radius of the Earth
R R

mv 2 mgrE2 gr 2
 2  v2  E
R R R

If T is the period of the satellite in its orbit, then

2R
v
T

4 2 R 2 grE2 4 2 R 3
  T 2
 (1)
T2 R grE2

If the period of the satellite in its orbit is exactly equal to the period of the earth
as it turns about its axis, which is 24hours, the satellite will stay over the same
place on the earth while the earth rotates.

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This same period is called a parking orbit.

Since𝑇 = 24𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, the radius R can be found from (1) its value is

T 2 grE2
R3 , and g  9.8m / s 2 , rE  6.4 10 6 m
4 2

R3
24  3600s 2  9.8  6.4 106 2  42400km
4 2

The height above the earth‘s surface of the parking orbit

R  rE  42400k  6400km  36000km  altitude

In the orbit, assuming it is circular, the speed of the satellite

2R 42400 km  2
v   3.1km / s
T 24  3600 s

Mass and density of the Earth

At the Earth‘s surface the force of attraction on a mass m of an object is FG  mg

Let M E = mass of the earth.

Using Newton‘s law of gravitation

GM E m GM E
 mg  g 
2
RE RE2

gRE2
ME 
G

Now, g  9.8m / s 2 , RE  6.4 10 6 m and G  6.67 10 11 N  m 2 / kg 2

ME 

9.8  6.4  10 6 2

 6.0  10 24 kg
6.67  10 11

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Density of the earth

4RE
3
The volume of the earth is given by V  .
3

So the mean density  of the earth is approximately given by

ME gR E2 3gR E2
  
V 4RE2 G / 3 4RE2 G

By substituting known values of g, 𝐺𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅𝐸

The mean density of the earth is found to be about 5500kg / m 3

The density of the earth is actually non-uniform and may approach a value of
10000kg / m 3 toward the interior.

Mass of the sun

The mass M s of the sun can be found from the period of a satellite and its

distance from the sun. Consider the case of the revolving earth around the sun.

Its period T is about 365days or 365  24  3600 s , its distance R s from the center of

the sun is about 1.5 1011 m .

If the mass of the Sun is M S and the mass of the Earth is mE , for circular

motion round the sun

GM s mE mE REs 4 2
 m E Rs  
2

Rs2 T2

Ms 
4 2 Rs3

 
4 2  1.5  1011
3

 2.0  10 30 kg
GT 2 6.67  10  365  24  3600 
11 2

The mass of the sun is approximately 2.0 1030 kg

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Gravitational potential in radial field

The potential,𝑉 at a point due to gravitational field of a given planet of mass m p

is defined as the numerical value equal to the work done in taking a unit of
mass m from infinity (  )to that point.

W
That is V 
m

Linking potential and field strength

The work W  mV

But work done in moving a mass m from  to the planet‘s centre O,

=𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

 mgr

So mgr  mV

V
g
r

Gm p
But g 
r2

Gm p
Therefore V  gr  r ,
r2

Gm p dr
In calculus notation, this equation can be written as dV 
r2

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so the potential at a point distant R from the centre to outside the earth is
R
Gm p dr  Gm p   Gm p   Gm p 
given by VR  
R
        
 r2  r   R    

The potential at infinity, is conventionally taken as zero.

Gm p Gm p
VR   0 
R R

The negative sign shows that VR decreases with R .

On the earth‘s surface of radius 𝑅𝐸 and mass M E

GM E
V  (1)
RE

Substitute, G  6.7 1011 Nm 2 / kg 2 , M E  6.0  10 24 kg and RE  6.4 10 6 m , the potential

V at the earth‟s surface is about  6.3 10 7 J / kg .

This negative sign indicates that the potential at infinity is higher than the
potential close to the earth.

Above the earth, the value of V will be smaller numerically than at the earth‘s
surface since the distance to the earth‘s centre will then be greater than 𝑅𝐸 .

Equipotential line

Equipotential line is the line that joins the point of the same potential.

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The gravitational potential outside a spherical mass M at a point distance R

from its centre is given by V   GM R . So all point at a distance R (e.g points D
and C) have the same potential. This points lie on a sphere of same radius so
we call this sphere an equipotential surface.

Energy of satellite

A satellite of mass 𝑚 in orbit round the earth has both kinetic energy KE and
potential energy PE.

Kinetic energy KE

1
The KE  mv 2 , where 𝑣 is the speed in the orbit. Now for the circular motion in
2
an orbit of radius𝑅, if ME is the mass of the earth

mv 2 GM E m
The forces on satellite are 
R R2

GM E
v2 
R

1 2 GM E m
KE  mv  (1)
2 2R

Gravitational Potential Energy

Below a particle of mass m moves from A to B while acted on by a central force

Fg, which is directed radially. Because the work done along the arcs is zero, the
work done is independent of the path and depends only on Rf and Ri.

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By definition, a central force is always directed along one of the radial

segments; therefore, the work done by Fg along any radial segment is
dw  F( R ) .dR
Rf
w   Fg ( R).dR
Ri

mM E
But Fg ( R )  G
R2
Rf
mM E
w  G dR
Ri R2

Thus, the work done is equal to the change in potential energy

mM E R f dR
U  U f Ui   G
Rf

Ri R2
dR  GmM E Ri R 2

 1R  1 1 .
 GmM E   f  GmM E   
 R  Ri  R f Ri 
It is customary to choose the reference configuration for zero potential energy
to be the same as that for which the force is zero. Taking Ui=0 at Ri   ,

The potential energy in the earth‘s field at infinity is assumed to be zero.

For an orbiting mass m , we obtain the important result

mM E
U  G (2)
R
Total energy in orbit

GM E m GM E m GM E m
E  U  KE    
R 2R 2R
(3)
R
  gm
2

The satellite energy diminishes and the radius of the orbit decreases.

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Velocity of escape

Escape velocityis the initial velocity which a body must have to be able to
overcome the gravity of another object.

We have:
1. The first cosmic velocity
2. Second cosmic velocity (escape velocity)
3. The third cosmic velocity
Escape velocity (cosmic velocity):

As you know the satellites which were sent by a human are orbiting around the
Earth. They are moving in some circles around the Earth. They had to be
launched with a very high velocity, namely, with the first cosmic velocity

The 1stcosmic velocity, V1

It is a velocity for which a body becomes an artificial satellite of the earth and is
kept moving on a circular orbit near the earth.

Assuming the radius of orbit equal to the earth‘s radius RE

2
mv1
 mg ,
RE

with (m) mass of the body.

From this equation

V1  gRE , the velocity V1 is called the first cosmic velocity, is the minimum
velocity to be communicated to body so that it becomes the Earth‘s artificial
satellite.

Take R  6.4 10 m and g  9.81m / s 2 , we get

6

V1  9.81m / s 6.4 10 m  8km / s

2 6

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The 2nd cosmic velocity, V2

It is a velocity to be communicated to a body which is launched from the

earth‘s surface so that it escapes the sphere of the earth‘s attraction.

During the launching, the total energy

mv 2  GM E m 
E   
2  R 

mv 2 GM E m
E 
2 R

With 𝑚 mass of the body M E is mass of the earth.

When the projectile reaches infinity, it stops and thus has no kinetic energy. It
also has no potential energy because an infinite separation between two bodies
is our zero-potential-energy configuration. Its total energy at infinity is
therefore zero.
From the principle of conservation of energy, its total energy at the planet's
surface must also have been zero, and so

mv 2 GmM E 2GM E
E  0 V22 
2 R , we get R

2GM E
V2  GM E m
R , and mg 
R2

GM E GM E
From where 2
g   gR
R R

V2 , becomes

V2  2gR  2V1 , putting numerical value of V1 , we get

V2  11.2km / s  11km / s

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This is also called an escape velocity (2nd cosmic velocity).

The 3rd cosmic velocity, V3

It is a velocity to be communicated to a body during its launching from the

earth‘s surface so that it leaves the limit of the solar system.

Let Vs =velocity at the earth‘s surface

m =mass of the body (e.g satellite)

M S =mass of the sun

Using energy conservation

1  GM S m 
mV s    0
2

2  R 

2GM S
VS  , with M s  2  10 30 kg is the mass of the sun
R

R  1.5 1011 m is the earth‘s orbit.

Putting the numerical values in the formula we get

2  6.67  10 11  1.97  10 30

VS   42.2km / s
1.5  1011

The earth‘s orbital velocity VO around the sun is given by the centripetal force

2
Vo GM S M E
ME 
R R2

GM S
VO 
R

VO  29.8Km / s

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Since the satellite and the earth are moving, the relative velocity
Vr  VS  VO  42.2  29.8  12.6 Km / s

If V3 is the third cosmic velocity from the earth, then from energy conservation,

1  GM E m  1
mV3      mVr 2
2

2  RE  2

2GM E
V3   Vr
2

RE

V3  16.9 Km / s

Examples

1. Mars‘ period (its year) was noted by Kepler to be about 687 days (Earth
days, which is (687/365d) =1.88yr. Determine the distance of Mars from
the Sun using the Earth as a reference.
APPROACH we know the periods of Earth and Mars and the distance
from the Sun to Earth. We can use Kepler‘s third law to obtain the
distance from the Sun to Mars.
Solution
The period of the Earth T1  1year , and the distance of Earth from the Sun

is rES  1.5 1011 m . From Kepler‘s law

2 2
rMS  TM  3  1.88 yr  3
      1.52
rES  TE   1yr 
So Mars is 1.52 times the Earth‘s distance from the Sun or 2.28 1011 m
2. Determine the mass of the Sun given the Earth‘s distance from the Sun
as rES  1.5 1011 m .

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Solution

The Earth‘s period is TE  1yr  365 14 d 24h 3600 s / h   3.16 10 7 s. we solve for

MS:

MS 
4 2 rES
3


4 2 1.5 1011 m 
3

 2.0 1030 kg
GTE 2
 11 2 2

6.67 `0 N  m / kg 3.16 10 s
7

3. Spacecraft at𝟐𝒓𝑬 , What is the force of gravity acting on a 2000kg
spacecraft when it orbits two Earth radii from the earth‘s center (that is,
a distance 𝑅𝐸 = 6380𝑘𝑚 above the earth‘s surface, the mass of the Earth
is
𝑀𝐸 = 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔.

Solution
At the surface of the earth𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔, at a distance from the Earth‘s center
of
1
2𝑟𝐸 , 𝐹𝐺 is as great:
4

FG 
1
4
1
4
 
mg  2000kg  9.80m / s 2  4900 N .

4. A man jump 1.5m on earth. Calculate height he might be able to jump

on a planet whose density is one-quarter that of the earth and whose
radius is one-third that of the earth.

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Solution

Suppose the man of mass 𝑚 leaps a height 𝑕 = 1.5 on the earth and a height h1
on the planet. Assuming he can give himself the same initial kinetic energy on
the planets, the potential energy gained is the same at maximum height. So

Where 𝑔1 and 𝑔 are respective gravitational intensities on the planet. So

g
h1  h (1)
g1

But for the earth, g  GM rE2  G  43 rE3  E rE2  G  43 rE  E , where  E is the

density of the earth. Similarly, g1  G  43 r1 1 , where 𝑟1 , 𝜌1 are the respective

g rE  E
radius and density of the planet. So   4  3  12
g1 r1 1

From (1), we have h1= 12 × 1.5𝑚 = 18𝑚.

5. A geosynchronous satellite is one that stays above the same point on the
earth, which is possible only if it is above a point on the equator. Such
satellites are used for TV and radio transmission, for weather forecasting,
and as communication relays. Determine (a) the height above the Earth‘s
surface such a satellite must orbit, and (b) such a satellite‘s speed. (c)
Compare to the speed of a satellite orbiting 200km above Earth‘s surface.

Solution

(a) To remain above the same point on Earth as the Earth rotates, the
satellite must have a period of one day; we can apply Newton‘s 2nd
law:
F  ma
mSat mE v2
G  m Sat (Satellite equation)
r2 r

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This equation has unknown, r and v . But the satellite revolves round the
Earth with the same period that the earth rotates on its axis, namely
once in 24hours. Thus the speed of the satellite must be
2r
v ,
T
, Where T  1day  24h3600s / h  86400s . We substitute this into the
―satellite equation‖ above and obtain (after cancelling 𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑡 on both sides)

m
G 2E 
2r  2

r rT 2
After cancelling an𝑟, we can solve for 𝑟 3 :

r3 
GmET 2

  
6.67 10 11 N  m 2 / kg 2 5.98 10 24 kg 86400s 
2
 7.54 10 22 m 3
4 2 4 2

Then r  3 7.54 1022 m3  4.23107 m

We subtract the Earth‘s radius of 6380km to find that a geosynchronous
satellite must orbit about 36000km (about6𝑟𝐸 ) above the earth‘s surface.

(b) We solve for 𝑣 in the satellite equation in part (a):

(c) v 
GmE

6.67 10 11

N  m 2 / kg 2 5.98 10 24 kg 3070m / s
r 4.23 10 7 m 
(d) We get the same result if we use v  2r T . The equation in part (b) for

𝑣 shows𝑣 ∝ 1 𝑟. So for r  rE  h  6380km  200km  6580km , we get

(e) v'  v
r
 3070m / s 
42300km  7780m / s
r' 6580km

Note: the center of a satellite orbit is always at the center of the Earth; so it is
not possible to have a satellite orbiting above a fixed point on the Earth at any
latitude other than 00

6. Suppose you want to place a 1000kg weather satellite into a circular

orbit 300km above the earth‘s surface. (a) What speed, period, and radial
acceleration must it have? (b) How much work has to be done to place

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this satellite in orbit? (c) How much additional work would have to be
done to make this satellite escape the earth? the earth‘s radius is
RE  6380km and its mass 5.97 10 24 kg

Solution
(a) The radius of the satellite‘s orbit is
r  6380km  300km  6680km  6.68 106 m

The orbit speed is v 

Gm E

6.67 10 11

N  m 2 / kg 2 5.97 10 24 kg 
R 6.68 10 6 m
v  7720 m / s

Period T  

2R 2 6.68 10 6 m 
 5440s  90.6 min
v 7720m / s
v 2 7720m / s 
2
Radial acceleration ar    8.92m / s 2
R 6.68 10 m 6

This is value of g at a height of 300km above the earth‘s surface; it is

somewhat less than the value of g at the surface.
(b) The work required is the difference between E 2 , the total

mechanical energy when the satellite is in orbit, and E1 , the

original mechanical energy when the satellite was at rest on the
Gm E m
launch pad back on earth, the energy in orbit is E2  
2R


6.67 10 11
 
N  m 2 / kg 2 5.97 10 24 kg 1000kg 
 2.99 1010 J
E2

2 6.68 10 m 6

At rest on the earth‘s surface R  RE  , the kinetic energy is zero:

 GmE m 
E1  K1  U1  0    
 RE 

E1 
6.67 10 11
 
N  m 2 / kg 2 5.97 10 24 kg 1000kg 
 6.25 1010 J
6.38 10 m6


And so WRe quired  E2  E1  2.99 1010 J   6.25 1010 J  3.26 1010 J 
(c) We saw in part (b) that for a satellite to escape to infinity, the total
mechanical energy must be zero. The total mechanical energy in

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the circular orbit is E2  2.99 1010 J ; to increase this to zero, an

amount of work equal to 2.99 1010 J would have to be done. This

extra energy could be supplied by rocket engines attached to the
satellite.
7. A satellite of mass 1000kg moves in circular orbit of radius 7000km
round the earth, assuming to be a sphere of radius 6400km. calculate
the total energy needed to place the satellite in the orbit from the earth,
assuming 10N / kg at the earth‘s surface.

Solution

To launch the satellite, mass𝑚, from the earth‘s surface of radius 𝑅𝐸 into
an orbit of radius R
Energy needed W  increase in potential energy and kinetic energy
GMm GMm 1 2
   mv
RE R 2

GMm GMm
 
RE 2R

mgRE2  R 
W  mgRE   mg  RE  E 
2R  2R 



W  1000 10 6.4 10 
6  
6.4 10 6 
2

 3.5 1010 J
 6 
2  7 10 

W  3.5 1010 J

EXERCISES
1. A satellite is to be put into orbit 500 km above the earth's surface. If its
vertical velocity after launching is 2000 m/s at this height, calculate the
magnitude and direction of the impulse required to put the satellite
directly into orbit, if its mass is 50 kg. Assume radius of earth, rE = 6400
km. [Answer: 4.0 x 105 kg m/s, 14.6°]

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2. A satellite of mass 1000 kg moves in a circular orbit of radius 7000 km

round the earth, assumed to be a sphere of radius 6400 km. Calculate
the total energy needed to place the satellite in orbit from the
earth. [Answer: 3.5 x 1010 J]
3. A satellite in a stable orbit contains two closed vessels: one of these is
filled with water while the other is filled with hot steam. Explain why the
water exerts very little pressure on its container but the steam exerts
almost the same pressure as it would on earth when at the same
temperature.
4. Assuming the earth is a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R, show
that the acceleration of free-fall at the earth's surface is given by
g = GM / R2. What is the acceleration of a satellite moving in a circular
orbit round the earth of radius 2R? [Answer: 0.25g]

5. A planet of mass m moves round the sun of mass M in a circular orbit of

radius r with an angular speed w. Show (i) that w is independent of the
mass of the planet, (ii) that in a circular orbit of radius 4r round the sun,
the angular speed decreases to w/8.

6. A satellite X moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius R.

Another satellite Y of the same mass moves round the earth in a circular
orbit of radius 4R. Show that (i) the speed of X is twice that of Y, (ii) the
kinetic energy of X is greater than that of Y, (iii) the potential energy of X
is less than that of Y. Has X or Y the greater total energy (kinetic plus
potential energy)? [Answer: Y]

7. Find the period of revolution of a satellite moving in a circular orbit

round the earth at a height of 3.6 x 106 m above the earth's surface.
Assuming the earth is a uniform sphere of radius 6.4 x 106m, the earth's
mass is 6 x1024 kg and G is 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2. [Answer: 9910 s]

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8. If the acceleration of the free fall at the earth's surface is 9.8 m/s2, and
the radius of the earth is 6400 km, calculate a value of for the mass of
the earth (G = 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2). Give the theory. [Answer: 6 x 1024 kg]

9. Two stars, masses 1020 kg and 2 x 1020 kg respectively, rotate about their
common centre of mass with an angular speed w. Assuming that the only
force on a star is the mutual gravitational force between them, calculate
w. Assume that the distance between the stars is 106 km and that G
is 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2. [Answer: 4.5 x 10-9 rad/s]

10.A preliminary stage of spacecraft Apollo 11's journey to the moon was
to place it in an earth parking orbit. This orbit was circular,
maintaining an almost constant distance 189 km from the earth's
surface. Assuming the gravitational field strength in this orbit is 9.4 N
kg-1, calculate (a) the speed of the spacecraft in this orbit and (b) the
time to complete one orbit. (Radius of the earth = 6370 km) [Answer:
(a) 7852 m/s (b) 5250 s
11. Explorer 38, a radio-astronomy research satellite of mass 200 kg,
circles the earth in an orbit of average radius 3R/2, where R is the
radius of the earth. Assuming the gravitational pull on a mass of 1 kg
at the earth's surface to be 10 N, calculate the pull on the
satellite. [Answer: 889 N]
12.A satellite of mass 66 kg is in orbit round the earth at a distance of
5.7 R above its surface, where R is the value of the mean radius of the
earth. If the gravitational field strength at the earth's surface is 9.8 N
kg-1, calculate the centripetal force acting on the satellite. Assuming
the earth's mean radius to be 6400 km, calculate the period of the
satellite in orbit in hours. [Answer: 14.4 N, 24.5 h]

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13.(a) Explain what is meant by gravitational field strength. In what units

is it measured? Starting with Newton's law of gravitation, derive an
expression for g, the acceleration of free-fall on the earth's surface,
stating clearly the meaning of each symbol used. (Assume that the
earth may be considered as a point mass located at its centre.)

(b) g may be found by measuring the acceleration of a free-falling body.

Outline how you would measure g in this way, indicating the
measurements needed and how you would calculate a value of g from
them.
(c) At one point on the line between the earth and the moon, the
gravitational field caused by the two bodies is zero. Briefly explain why is
it so. If this point is 4 x 104 km from the moon, calculate the ration of
mass of the moon to the mass of earth. (Distance from earth to moon =
4.0 x 105 km) [Answer: (c) 0.012]

Unit10: Effects of electric and potential fields

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit the learner should be able to
analysis electric and potential fields

10.1. Some definitions

Electrostatics: It is a branch of electricity that deals with the study of electric
charges at rest.

Electric Charge
It is one of the basic properties of the elementary particles of matter giving rise
to all electric and magnetic forces and interactions.

The structure of atoms can be described in terms of three particles: the

negatively charged electron, the positively charged proton, and the uncharged
neutron. The protons and neutrons in an atom make are located in the nucleus.
The charge of electron is e  1.6  1019 C that of proton is e  1.6  1019 C .
Properties of electric charges

Unlike charges attract; like charges repel.

Alternatively, charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with
opposite signs attract one another.
Charge is conserved; the total charge in an isolated system is constant.

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The electric charge q is said to be quantized, when q= Ne, where N is some

integer.

When the total number of protons in a macroscopic body equals the total
number of electrons, the total charge or net charge is zero and the body is
electrically neutral.

Coulomb‟s law
In 1785 Charles Coulomb (1736–1806) experimentally established the
fundamental law of electric force between two stationary charged particles.

Coulomb‘s experiments deals with the attraction or repulsion forces between

two electric charges.

It states that the electric force F between two stationary charged particles q1 and
q2 is proportional to the product of the charges q1 and q2 and is inversely
proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and directed
along the line joining them.

q1q1
F k
r2
1
k  9  109 Nm 2C 2 is Coulomb constant.
4 0
 0  8.85  10 12 C 2 / Nm 2 =permittivity of free space.

Permittivity, relative permittivity

The relative permittivity,𝜀𝑟 of a medium is the ratio of its permittivity 𝜀 to that
of the vacuum ,𝜀0 .
Therefore
𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀 𝜀0
Although 𝜀 and 𝜀0 have dimension, 𝜀𝑟 is a number and has no dimensions.

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EXAMPLE

The electron and proton for hydrogen atom have equal magnitude of charge of
1.6  1019` C and are separated (on the average) by a distance of approximately
5.3  1011` m . Find the magnitudes of the electric force.

Solution
Electrostatic force
qq
Fe  k 1 2 1  9  109
  
1.6  10 19 1.6  10 19
 8.2  10 8 N
r 
5.3  10 

11 2

Solving problems involving coulomb‟s law and vectors

When several forces act on an object (call them 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , etc. ), the net force 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 on
the object is the vector sum of all the forces acting on it:
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯
Example
Consider three point charges located at the corners of a right triangle as shown
in Figure below, where 𝑞1 = 𝑞3 = 5.0𝜇𝐶

𝑞2 = −2.0𝜇𝐶, and 𝑎 = 0.10𝑚. Find the resultant force exerted on 𝑞3

Solution
First, note the direction of the individual forces exerted by 𝑞1 and q2 on q3. The
force F23 exerted by q2 on q3 is attractive because q2 and q3 have opposite signs.
The force F13 exerted by q1 on q3 is repulsive because both charges are positive.
The magnitude of F23 is,

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q1 q2
F23  k e
a2

 2.0 10 C 5.0 10 C   9.0 N

6 6

F23  8.99 10 N  m / C9 2 2

0.10m 2
F23  9.0 N

In the coordinate system shown in Figure, the attractive force F23 is to the left
(in the negative x direction).
The magnitude of the force F13 exerted by q1 on q3 is
q1 q3
F13  ke
 2a 2

 5.0 10 C 5.0 10 C   11N

6 6

F13  8.99 10 9 N  m 2 / C 2
20.10m 
2

F13  11N

The repulsive force 𝐹13 makes an angle of 450 with the x axis.
Fx = F13x  F23x = F13 cos450 N - F23 cos00 = 7.7 - 9  1.3N

Fy = F13y  F23y = F13sin450 N  0 = 7.7N

We can also express the resultant force acting on 𝑞3 in unit-vector form as

𝐹= −1.3 2 + 7.7 2 ≈ 8𝑁

10.2 Electric Field

Definition
Electric field is defined as a region of space around isolated charge where
an electric force is experienced if a positive test charge placed in the
region.
Electric field around charges can be represented by drawing a series of lines.
These lines are called electric field lines (lines of force).
The direction of electric field is tangent to the electric field line at each point.
Figures below show the electric field patterns around the charge.

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The properties of electric field lines:

The field lines indicate the direction of the electric field (the field points in the
direction tangent to the field line at any point).
The lines are drawn so that the magnitude of electric field is proportional to the
number of lines crossing unit area perpendicular to the lines. The closer the
lines, the stronger the field.
Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges,
and the number starting or ending is proportional to the magnitude of the
charge.
The field lines never cross because the electric fields don‘t have two values at
the same point.

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10.3 Electric Field Strength (intensity)

Definition
It is defined as the electric (electrostatic) force per unit positive charge
that acts at that point in the same direction as the force.
Mathematically,

where
q : magnitude of isolated point charge
r : distance between the point and isolated point charge
Note :
The direction of the electric field strength, E depends on the sign of isolated
point charge.
The direction of the electric force, F depends on the sign of isolated point
charge and test charge. For example

A positive isolated point charge.

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A negative isolated point charge.

In the calculation of magnitude E, substitute the magnitude of the charge

only.

Example 1 :
Two point charges, q1=1 C and q2=-4 C, are placed 2 cm and 3 cm from the
point A respectively as shown in figure below.

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Example 2 : (exercise)

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Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P due to the four point charges
as shown in the figure below if q=1 nC and d=1 cm.

(Given ε0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2) Ans. : zero.

10.4 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

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10.5 Electric Flux, E Φ

The electric flux is proportional to the number of field lines passing

through the area.

E  EAcos
 =angle between E and A

If the area is perpendicular to the electric field (fig.below)

E  EAcos 00

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E  EA

In many cases, we deal with the flux through a closed surface and the net flux
through the surface is given by

10.6. Gauss‟s law

It states that the total electric flux through an enclosed surface is

proportional to the algebraic sum of the electric charges within the
surface.
Mathematically,

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Equivalent relation of Gauss‟s law

The electric field due to the charge q located at the center of a sphere of radius
r , is given by
 q 
E i r .
4 0 r 2

q
This points in the radial direction and its magnitude is E  .
4 0 r 2

The total electric flux is obtained by considering a sphere of radius r whose

surface area A  4 r 2 .
q q
E  EA  (4r 2 ) 
4 0 r 2
0
q
Therefore  E  EA 
0

Surface charge density

The surface charge density is defined as the amount of electric charge per unit
q
area. Thus   (1)
A
The unity is coulomb/meter square (C/m2)
q
Gauss‘ s law can be written as  E  EA 
0

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Where q 0 EA (2)

Using (2) into (1)

 0 E
10.7. Electric Potential, V

Consider a positive point charge (+q) held stationary at O exerts a repulsive

force Fe on a positive test charge (+q0) at P (figure below). A and B are two
points on the line that passes through O and P.

The test charge at P is moved by an external force, F through a small distance

dr towards A.
dr is so small that the force F can be considered to be constant. Thus the work
done dW by the external force is given by

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Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

The S.I. unit for electric potential is the Volt (V) or J /C.
The total electric potential at a point in space is equal to the algebraic sum of
the constituent potentials at that point.

Note :
(1)The theoretical zero of electric potential of a charge is at infinity.
(2) The total electric potential at a point in space is equal to the algebraic sum
of the constituent potentials at that point.

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kQ kQ kQ
VA   
r1 r2 r3

(3) In the calculation of V, the sign of the charge must be substituted in the
equation of V.
(4)Potential inside the sphere surface is zero since there is no electric field

Example 1

Example 2

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Example 3

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Example 4
Four point charges are located at the corners of a square that is 8.0 cm on a
side. The charges, going in rotation around the square, are q, 2q, -3q and 2q,
where q = 4.8 μC as shown in figure below. Find the electric potential at the
centre of the square.

Ans. : 1.53 x 106V

Potential Difference

Potential difference between two points in an electric field,

Definition
Potential Difference is defined as the work done in bringing a positive test
charge from a point to another point in the electric field.

The potential difference between point A and B, VAB is given by

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Note :
If the positive test charge moving from point A to point B, thus the potential
difference between this points is given by

Example

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10.8. Relation between V and E

Consider a positive test charge, q0 placed near a positive point charge, q.
To move q0 towards q by a small displacement (Δr), work done (ΔW) must be
expended as shown in figure below.

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An alternative unit for electric field strength, E is volts per meter where
The electric field produced by a pair of flat metal plates, one of which is earthed
and the other is at a potential of V is uniform. This can be shown by equally
spaced lines of force in figure below.

The V against r graph for pair of flat metal plates can be shown in figure (b).
From the figure (b), the graph is a straight line with negative constant gradient,
Thus

Example (exercise)
At a certain distance from a point charge, the magnitude of the electric field is 500
V/m and the electric potential is -3.00 kV. Calculate
a. the distance to the charge.
b. the value of the charge.
Ans. : 6.00 m, -2.00 μC

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10.9 Lightening and lightening arrestor

(a)Point discharge (lightning)

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge during an electrical storm

between electrically charged regions of a cloud (called intracloud lightning),
between that cloud and another cloud, or between a cloud and the ground.

Lightning creates light in the form of plasma (one of the four fundamental
states of matter), and sound in the form of thunder. Lightning may be seen and
not heard when it occurs at a distance too great for the sound to carry as far as
the light from the strike or flash.

(b)Lightening arrester
A lightening arrester is a device used on electrical power systems
and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of
the system from the damaging effects of lightning.

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It consists of a long thick copper rod passing through the building to ground. The lower end of
the rod is connected to a copper plate buried deeply into the ground.
A metal plate with number of spikes is connected to the top end of the copper rod and kept at the
top of the building.
When a negatively charged cloud passes over the building, positive charge will be induced on the
pointed conductor. The positively charged sharp points will ionize the air in the vicinity.
This will partly neutralize the negative charge of the cloud, thereby lowering the potential of the
cloud. The negative charges that are attracted to the conductor travels down to the earth ,thereby
preventing the lightning stroke from the damage of the building.
Solve problems
1.Two point charges +9e and +1e are kept at a distance of 16 cm from each
other. At what point between these charges, should a third charge q to be
placed so that it remains in equilibrium?

2. Calculate the electric potential at a point P, located at the centre of

the square of point charges shown in the figure.

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3. A test charge q0=+2.3x10-4 C is 5 cm from a point charge q. A work done of

+4 J is required to overcome the electrostatic force to bring the test charge q0 to
a distance 8 cm from charge q. Calculate :
a.the potential difference between point 8 cm and 5 cm from the point
charge, q.
b. the value of charge q.
c. the magnitude of the electric field strength for charge q0 at point 5 cm
from the charge q.
(Given Coulomb‘s constant, k = 9.0 x 109N m2 C-2)

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4. A point charge causes an electric flux of –6 × 103 Nm2 C−1 to pass through a
spherical Gaussian surface of 10 cm radius centred on the charge. (i) If the
radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, how much flux will pass through
the surface? (ii) What is the value of charge?

Unit 11: Applications of the laws of thermodynamics

11.0 Introduction to the ideal gas laws‟ experiments

In general the state of a gas is characterized by three parameters:
-The volume V occupied by a gas
-The pressure P of the gas
-The thermodynamic temperature T
An ideal gas is a gas that obeys (Boyle‘s law, Charles‘s law and Gay Lussac‘s
law)

A. Boyle‘s law:

Boyle’s law states that, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure applied to it when the temperature is kept constant.
That is
1
V Or PV  constant
P

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If P1 and V1 are initial pressure and volume, P2 and V2 are final pressure and
volume, then
P1V1  P2V2 .
The process in which, the volume occupied by a gas and the pressure, at
constant temperature is called an isothermal process.

The graph P  V is isothermal.

B. Charles‘ law

Charles gas law, states that, at constant pressure, the volume of a given amount
of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

That is
V
V  T Or  constant
T
For two states characterized by ( V1 ,T1 ) and ( V2 ,T2 ) the equation takes the form
V1 V2

T1 T2
The process that occurs when the pressure of a gas is constant is called an
isobaric process

The graph V  T is an isobaric graph.

Note that the temperature of  2730 C  0K is called an absolute zero.

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It is the temperature at which the pressure and volume of an ideal gas are zero.

C. Gay Lussac ‗s law

The law states that at constant volume, the absolute pressure of a gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
P
That is P  T Or  constant
T
For two states characterized by ( P1 ,T1 ) and ( P2 ,T2 ) the equation takes the form
P1 P2

T1 T2
The process, in which the volume occupied by a gas is constant, is called an
isochoric process.

The graph P  T is an isochoric graph.

General equation of an ideal gas

Summarizing the above three laws in one equation involving two states

P1 , V1 , T1  and P2 , V2 , T2  we get

P1V1 P2V2
 .
T1 T2
The ideal gas law states that the absolute pressure P of one mole of a gas
contained in a volume V is related to the absolute temperature T by
PV
 constant
T
PV
 R , R is called universal gas constant.
T
Experiment confirms that; at the standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.)
1mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 litres.
That is
V  22.4litres  22.4 103 m3 P  760mmHg  1.013  105Pa

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T  273K
PV 1.013  105  22.4  10 3
Then R  
T 273
R  8.31J / mol .K
It is the same for all gases.

The density of the gas

The density of a gas is very sensitive to changes of temperature and pressure.

For n moles, the gas equation is PV  nRT

If the mass of gas is m and M is the molar mass of the gas molecules, then the
number of moles n  m M
m
So with a mass m, pV  nRT  RT
M
The density  of gas  m V
mRT RT
Then P  
VM M
PM

RT

Example

A helium party balloon, assumed to be a perfect sphere, has a radius of 18.0cm

at room temperature (200C), its internal pressure is 1.05atm. Find the number
of moles of helium in the baloon and the mass of the helium needed to inflate
the balloon to these values.
Answer

We get the volume V from the formula for a sphere:

4 4
V  r 3 , V   (0.180m) 3  0.0244m 3
3 3
P  1.05atm  1.05 1.013 105  1.064 105 N / m2 .
T  (20  273)  293K .
R  8.314 J / mol .K , therefore
PV (1.064  10 5 N / m 2 )  (0.0244m 3 )
n   1.06mol
RT 8.314 J / mol.K (293K )
The mass of helium with molar mas M  4.00 g / mol
is m  n  M  (1.06)(4)  4.3g

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10.1. Thermodynamics

1. Definition

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation into mechanical energy.
The foundation of thermodynamics is the conservation of energy and the fact that heat
flows from hot body to cold and not the other way round. Thermodynamics provides
the basic theory of heat engines, from steam turbine to fusion reactors and the basic
theory of refrigerators and heat pumps.

2. Important terms

(a)Dissipative and non dissipative process

A dissipative process is one in which the energy conversion (e.g. by the performance of
work) usually shows itself a temperature increase.
Example
Work done against friction
Action of electrical resistance
A non dissipative process is one in which the energy converted can be recovered by
reversing the direction of the displacement that caused the energy conversion.
Example
-The very slow compression of a gas
-The charging of an electrical capacitor, if we neglect joule heating.

(b)Thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a set of particles or molecules in space that can perform a
transformation of energy.
(c) Thermodynamic equilibrium

A system is in thermal equilibrium when the thermodynamic coordinates of

homogeneous system are the same at all points.

(d)Reversible process

It is a process in which at every instant the pressure, temperature and density of each
homogeneous portion of the system remain uniform.
Alternatively, it is a process by which the state of a system is changed in such a way
that the system in thermodynamic equilibrium.
An irreversible process is a process in which the succession of states is different from
each other.

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3. Work done by an expanding gas

Consider a mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by a frictionless piston of cross sectional

area A which is in equilibrium under the action of an external force F acting to the left
due to the pressure P of the gas acting to the right.

Let the gas expand, moving the piston outwards through a small distance dx at a
constant pressure during an expansion. The external work done dW by the gas against
F is
dw  Fdx
dw  PAdx
 Pdv , or dv is the increase in volume of the gas.
The total work done w by the gas in a finite expansion from v1 to v2 is given by
v2
w   Pdv
v1

w  P(v2  v1 )
The work done in expansion from initial state to the final state (from v1 to v2) is the
area under the curve in P-V diagram as shown in the figure below

From the diagram, work=Area under the curve

If v1 > v2, the gas is compressed and the work done is negative.
That is, work is done on the gas.
If v1 <v2, the gas expands and the work done is positive, the gas does work on the
piston.
If the gas expands at constant pressure, called isobaric process,
then w  P(v2  v1 ) .

Work done by an ideal gas at constant temperature

For an ideal gas PV  nRT

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nRT
P
V
v2 v2 nRT
w 
v1
Pdv   v1 V
dv
v2 v2 1
w   Pdv  nRT  dv
v1 v1 V
V 
w  nRT ln  2 
 V1 
The work done depends on the initial, final, and intermediate states of the system.

Example
One mole of oxygen expands from 12 to 19 liters at constant temperature of 310 K.
What is the work done?
Solution
V 
w  nRT ln  2 
 V1 
 19 L 
w  (1mole)(8.314 j / mol.k )(310) ln    1180 J
 12 L 

4. Laws of thermodynamics

(a)Zeroth law and thermal equilibrium

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two systems which are individually in thermal
equilibrium with a third one, are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Alternatively, if body A and B are each separately in thermal equilibrium with body C,
then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
For example, if C is a thermometer and reads the same when in contact with two
bodies A and B, then A and B are at the same temperature.

(b) First law and internal energy

The first law of thermodynamics states that the heat energy supplied to a system is
equal to the sum of the change in internal energy of the system and the work done by
the system.
Heat added = increase in internal energy + external done by the system

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Q  U  W 1
This equation is shows as the first law thermodynamics.

Where:  U -the change in internal energy

Q -The heat added to the system

W -is the network done by or on the system.

N.B: (1) Internal energy U of a system is the energy possessed by the system due to
molecular motion and molecular configuration.
(2)We must be careful and consistent in following the sign convention for Q and W.

The equation (1) applies to a closed system; it also applies to an open system if we
take into account the change in internal energy due to increase or decrease in the
amount of matter.
For isolated system, no work is done and no heat enters or leaves the system

So, W=Q= 0 and hence  U = 0

Application exercises
1.An amount of heat equal 2500J is added to a system, and 1800J of work is done on
the gas, what is the change in internal energy of the system?
ANS:U=Q-W
U=2500-(-1800)=4300J
2. What would be the internal energy change if 2500 of heat is added to the system
and 1800 J of work is done by the system?
ANS:U=Q-W
U=2500-1800)=700J

3. Compute the work done in an isothermal compression of 30 litres of ideal gas at 1.0
atm to a volume of 3.0liters. Ans. 7.0kJ
 V2 
(Hint: use w  nRT ln   and p1V1  nRT )
 V1 

5. Principle of Molar heat capacities of gases

It is usual to consider only two different molar heat capacities, namely;

(i)The molar heat capacity when the gas remains at constant volume C v
(ii) The molar heat capacity when the gas remains at constant pressure C p
The molar heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to produce a unit
temperature rise in one mole of the substance.
The molar heat capacity of a substance at constant pressure C p is the heat required
to produce a unit temperature rise in one mole of the gas at constant pressure.

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The molar heat capacity of a substance at constant volume C v is the heat required to
produce a unit temperature rise in one mole of the gas at constant volume.

Relation between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas

(i) Constant volume

Q
We define molar heat capacity at constant volume C v as C v  (1)
nT
Q  Cv nT (2)
n  Amount gas presents (number of moles)
T  Temperature change
The first law of thermodynamics states that
Q  U  W (3)
At constant volume W  0
Using Eq. (2) into Eq. (3)

Cv nT  U (4)

(ii) Constant pressure

Q
We define molar heat capacity at constant pressure C p as C p  (5)
nT
Q  C p nT (6)
The first law of thermodynamics states that
The change in heat is Q  U  W (7)
At constant pressure W  pV (8)
Using Eq. (6) and (8) into Eq. (7)
C p nT  U  pV (9)
Therefore if the pressure is constant, then for a small change in temperature and
pressure we have
pV  nRT (10)
Subtracting Eq. (4) from (9) we get
C p  Cv  R (11)
This equation is known as Mayer‘s equation.
It is true for any ideal gas for which there is no intermolecular potential energy.

6. Application of first law of thermodynamics

(a) Isothernal process

The change occurs at constant temperature work is done at the same rate as heat is
supplied so there is no increase of internal energy (ideal gas).

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So U  0 and Q  W .

The temperature of the system is constant.

Thus the process follows a curve like AB on PV diagram show below.

(b) Isochoric process

It is the change that occurs at constant volume. No work is done.
An isochoric graph is given below.

(c)Isobaric process

Pressure remains constant and the heat is received by the gas.

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(d)Adiabatic process in ideal gas

In the adiabatic process no heat enters or leaves the system.

In adiabatic expansion all the work is done at the expense of the internal energy of the
gas, which therefore cools conversely. The work done on the gas by an external agent
increases the internal energy and the temperature of the gas rises.
Representation on P-V graph

In adiabatic change, equation of an ideal gas takes the form PV   cons tan t and
TV  1  cons tan t
Cp
Where   is the ratio of the molar heat capacities (or adiabatic index)
Cv

For two states involving (V1,P1, T1)and (V2,P2,T2)

   1  1
P1V1  P1V2  cons tan t and T1V1  T2V2  cons tan t

  1.67 for an ideal monatomic gas and   1.4 for diatomic and air.

Proof

The first law of thermodynamics is given by

Q  U  W  0 (1)
U  W
U   pV (2)
U  nCv T
Eq. (2) becomes nCv T   pV
In differential form nC v dT   pdV (3)
Since we are dealing with an ideal gas
pV  nRT (4)
Differentiating Eq. (4) we get
pdV  Vdp  nRdT

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dT 
1
 pdV  Vdp 
nR (5)
Using Eq. (5) into (3) we get
 1 
nCv   pdV  Vdp   pdV
 nR 
Cv pdV  CvVdp   RpdV
(Cv  R) pdV  CvVdp  0
(Cv  R) pdV  CvVdp
(6)
From Mayer‘s equation, C p  Cv  R
Eq. (6) becomes (C p ) pdV  CvVdp
C p dV dp

Cv V p
Cp
Putting   the ratio of the molar heat capacities
Cv
The equation becomes
dV dp
 
V p
dV dp
Integrating both sides   
V p
When the gas is in a finite expansion from V1 to V2 due to the pressures P1 to P2
V2 dV P2 dp
  
V1 V P1 p

If  does not change with temperature, then

 ln V VV  ln pPP
2
1
2
1

 ln V2  ln V1   ln P1  ln P2 
 V2   P1 
 ln   ln 
Or  V1   P2 

 V2  P
   1
 V1  P2
 
Or P1V1  P2V2
 
Therefore in adiabatic change, equation of an ideal gas takes the form P1V1  P2V2 
constant.

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Work done in an adiabatic expansion

Consider one mole of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with perfectly non conducting
walls and fitted with a perfectly frictionless, non conducting piston.
If we assume that pressure of the gas remains constant during an infinitesimally
compression of small volume dV by the piston, then work done
dw  PdV
PV   k
k =constant
Total work done by the gas in adiabatic expansion from volume V1 to V2 is
k
V2 V2 1
w 
dV  k  dV
V1 V V1 V 

k 1 1
w [V2  V1 ]
1 
1 1 1
w [kV2  kV1 ] (1)
1 
 
But P1V1  P2V2  k
Using k in (1)
1  1  1
w [ P2V2 V2  P1V1 V1 ]
1 
1
w [ P2V2  P1V1 ] (2)
1 
If T2 is the final temperature of the gas in adiabatic expansion, then
P1V1  nRT1 , P2V2  nRT2
Eq (2) becomes
R
w [T2  T1 ]
1 

(e) Cyclic process

It is a process for which the initial and the final state are the same.
For a cyclic process, U  0 and Q  W
The net work done per cycle equals the heat energy added to the system per cycle.

7. Second law of thermodynamics, heat engine and heat pumps

The second law of thermodynamics tells about the extent and direction of energy
transformation.

Different scientists have stated this law in different ways:

(i) Clausius statement

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It is impossible for a self acting machine to transfer heat from a body at a lower
temperature to another body at a higher temperature.

(ii) Kelvin’s statement

It is impossible to obtain a continuous supply of work from a body by cooling it to a
temperature below the coldest of its surroundings.

(iii)Kelvin - Planck’s statement

It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle that will extract heat from
a reservoir and use it all for work.

8. Applications of second law of thermodynamics

(a)Heat engines
Heat engine: is any device that changes internal energy into mechanical work
The basics idea behind any heat engine is that mechanical energy can be obtained
from thermal energy only when heat is allowed to flow from a high temperature to a
low temperature.
The thermodynamic processes that occur in a heat engine are represented
schematically by the following diagram:

A reservoir in thermodynamics is a source or sink of infinite heat capacity.

Its temperature remains constant however much heat it supplies or receives.

The high and low temperature TH and TC are called the operating temperature of the
engine.
The efficiency of the engine is defined as

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W Q  Qout Q Q
e  in  1  out  1  C
Qin Qin Qin QH

(b)Carnot‟s ideal heat engine

In 1824 the French scientist Carnot took the first steps towards developing a
scientific theory of heat engines. He discovered that a thermodynamic change in a heat
engine, called a cycle (Carnot cycle), consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic
processes.
Carnot cycle

Explanations
Curve AB: Isothermal expansion at temperature TH
Work is done by the gas
Curve BC: Adiabatic expansion
Work is done by the gas
Curve CD: Isothermal compression at TC
Work is done on the gas
Curve DA: Adiabatic compression
Work is done on the gas.

The efficiency for Carnot engine

W Q  QC TH  TC
e  H 
QH QH TH

Conclusion
Efficiency of Carnot‘s cycle will be 100% if TH = ∞ or TC = 0 K. Since it is impossible
that TH = ∞ or TC = 0 K, the reason is that the Carnot heat engine working on the
reversible cycle cannot have 100% efficiency.
(c)Refrigerator

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A refrigerator is a cooling device. An ideal refrigerator can be regarded as Carnot‘s heat

engine working in the reverse direction. Therefore, it is also called a heat pump.
In these device work W is done on the system(compressor) which enables it to transfer
heat Qin from a low-temperature reservoir at TC , to a high temperature reservoir at TH
,(to the atmosphere).

Here Qin  W  Qout  0

W  Qout  Qin

The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator

The coefficient of performance of refrigerator CP is defined as heat QC removed from the
low –temperature (the inside a refrigerator) divided by the work W done to move the
heat.

QC
CP  (1)
W

W  QH  QC

Qin QC TC
CP    (2)
Qout  Qin QH  QC TH  TC

Conclusion
(i) Equation (2) shows that the smaller is the difference in temperature between
atmosphere and the things TH  TC  to be cooled higher is the CP.
(ii) When the refrigerator is defrosted, TC increases. Therefore defrosting is
essential for better working of the refrigerator.
(d)Diesel engine
It is also known as compression –ignition engine. It is internal combustion engine that
use the head of compression to initiate ignition to burn the Fuel which is injected into
the combustion chamber.

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In Diesel engine the heat reservoir (source) is provided by the combustion of fuel and
cold reservoir (sink) by atmosphere at the exhaust.

Heat QH flows from the source at temperature TH to the engine, which transform part
of this energy into mechanical work W and transfers the remainder Q L to the sink at
the lower temperature TL

Conservation of energy

Q W Q
H C

Or W  QH  QC

The efficiency

W Q  QL Q
e  H  1 C
QH QH QH

INTAKE stroke: on the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston descends
from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the
cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air, or just air in a diesel engine, is forced by
atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake
valve(s) then closes. The volume of air/fuel mixture that is drawn into the cylinder,
relative to the maximum volume of the cylinder, is called the volumetric efficiency of
the engine.

COMPRESSION stroke: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston
returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the
combustion chamber of the cylinder head. During the compression stroke the
temperature of the air or fuel-air mixture rises by several hundred degrees.

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POWER stroke: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston
is close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is
ignited, usually by a spark plug, or fuel is injected into a diesel engine, which ignites
due to the heat generated in the air during the compression stroke. The resulting
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston
back down toward bottom dead centre.

EXHAUST stroke: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top
dead centre while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air
mixture through the exhaust valve(s).
(e) Heat engine and climate change
During combustion of fuels in heat engine, some harmful gases such as CO2,
SO2 and particles of soot are produced and hence contribute to the air and
water pollution
The combustion of oil, coal and other fossil energy sources in heat engine to
produce mechanical energy and electricity is polluting the planet with
greenhouse gases released in the atmosphere that are capturing heat from the
sun rays in a dangerous degree that is responsible to the green house effect
and hence to the climate change.

There is a clear correlation between the amount of carbon dioxide released by

heat engine in the atmosphere and global warming and temperature.

Carbon monoxide released from heat engine in power plant is capable of

poisoning people (haemoglobin cells begin reacting with carbon monoxide
instead of oxygen).

WORKED EXAMPLES

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6. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is at 70 C has an efficiency of 50 %. It is

desired to increase the efficiency to 70 %. By how many degrees should the temperature of the
high temperature reservoir be increased?

Solution

7. A refrigerator does 153 J of work to transfer 568 J of heat from its cold
compartment.
(a) Calculate the refrigerator‘s coefficient of performance,
(b) How much heat is exhausted to the kitchen

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Solution:
(a) To obtain the coefficient of performance K of refrigerator, substitute 568 J for
extracted heat QC and 153 J for the work W in the equation
CP = Qc/W
= 568 J/153 J
= 3.71
Therefore, the coefficient of performance K of refrigerator would be 3.71.

(b) To obtain exhausted heat to the kitchen by refrigerator, substitute 153 J for the
work W and 568 J for extracted heat QC in the equation
QH = W + QC
= 153 J + 568 J
= 721 J
Therefore, exhausted heat to the kitchen by refrigerator would be 721 J

8.How much work must be done to extract 10.0 J of heat (a) from a reservior at 7ºC
and transfer it to one at 27ºC by means of a refrigerator using a Carnot cycle; (b) from
one at -73ºC to one at 27ºC
Solution
Coefficient of performance K of a Carnot refrigerator is defined as,
K = TL / TH - TL …… (1)
W = QL/K …… (2)
Substitute the value of K from equation (1) in the equation (2)
W = QL/K
= QL/( TL / TH - TL)
= QL (TH/ TL – 1)
= 10.0 J (27° C/ 7° C -1)
= 10.0 J ((27+273) K /(7+273) K -1)
= 10.0 J (300 K/280 K – 1)
= 0.714 J
Therefore the work done would be 0.714 J.

(b) To obtain work W, substitute 10.0 J for QL, 27° C for TH and -73° C for TL in the
equation W = QL (TH/ TL – 1),
W = QL (TH/ TL – 1)
= 10.0 J (27° C/ (-73° C) -1)

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= 10.0 J ((27+273) K /(-73+273) K -1)

= 10.0 J (300 K/200 K – 1) = 5.00 J
Therefore the work done would be 5.00 J.

EXERCISES

1. An ideal gas expands isothermally, performing 3.40 103 J of work in the process.
Calculate (a) the change in internal energy of the gas, and (b) the heat absorbed
during this expansion.
2. One liter of air is cooled at constant pressure until its volume is halved, and
then it is allowed to expand isothermally back to its original volume. Draw the
process on a PV diagram.
3. In an engine, an almost ideal gas is compressed adiabatically to half its volume.
In doing so, 1850 J of work is done on the gas. (a) How much heat flows into or
out of the gas? (b) What is the change in internal energy of the gas? (c) Does its
temperature rise or fall?
4. A nuclear power plant operates at 75% of its maximum theoretical (Carnot)
efficiency between temperatures of 625°C and 350°C. If the plant produces
electric energy at the rate of 1.3 GW, how much exhaust heat is discharged per
hour?
5. The exhaust temperature of a heat engine is 230°C. What must be the high
temperature if the Carnot efficiency is to be 28%?
6. A certain power plant puts out 550 MW of electric power. Estimate the heat
discharged per second, assuming that the plant has an efficiency of 38%.
7. A heat engine utilizes a heat source at 550°C and has an ideal (Carnot)
efficiency of 28%. To increase the ideal efficiency to 35%, what must be the
temperature of the heat source?
8. The low temperature of a freezer cooling coil is 15º C, and the discharge
temperature is 30°C. What is the maximum theoretical coefficient of
performance?
9. An ideal refrigerator-freezer operates with a COP  7.0 in a 24°C room. What is
the temperature inside the freezer?
10. A restaurant refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 5.0. If the
temperature in the kitchen outside the refrigerator is 29°C, what is the lowest
temperature that could be obtained inside the refrigerator if it were ideal?
11. A heat pump is used to keep a house warm at 22°C. How much work is
required of the pump to deliver 2800 J of heat into the house if the outdoor
temperature is (a) 0°C, (b) 15º C? Assume ideal (Carnot) behavior
12. An inventor claims to have designed and built an engine that produces
1.50 MW of usable work while taking in 3.00 MW of thermal energy at 425 K,
and rejecting 1.50 MW of thermal energy at 215 K. Is there anything fishy about
his claim? Explain.

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13. A ―Carnot‖ refrigerator (the reverse of a Carnot engine) absorbs heat from
the freezer compartment at a temperature of 17º C and exhausts it into the
room at 25°C. (a) How much work must be done by the refrigerator to change
0.50 kg of water at 25°C into ice at 17º C? (b) If the compressor output is
210 W, what minimum time is needed to accomplish this?

TOPIC AREA: ASTROPHYSICS

Unit12: General Structure of the Solar System

12.1 Definition of astronomy

Astronomy is the study of celestial objects (the sun, moon, stars, planets, comets, gas, galaxies, gas, dust
and other non-Earthly bodies) and phenomena.
NASA ( National Aeronautics and Space Administration) which is an independent agency of
the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space
program)defines astronomy as simple "the study of stars, planets and space.

12.2. Astronomical Scales

These are methods of measuring physical entities having huge numbers onto a scale that we can
visualize and comprehend.

For the solar system we use the Earth-Sun distance.

First, the solar system scale factor - the Astronomical Unit:

Distance of Earth to Sun

= 93 million miles

= 150 million kilometers

= 150 x 106 km

= 1.50 x 108 km

1 kilometer = 1000 meters

= 1.5 x 108 x 103 meters

= 1.5 x 1011 meters

= 1 Astronomical Unit or AU for short.

Therefore 1AU =1.5 x 1011 meters

Now let's think about the speed of light:

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Speed of Light = 300,000,000 meters / second

= 3 x 108 m/s

1 kilometer = 1000 meter

=3 x 108 km/s
1000

= 3 x 105 km/s

= 3 x 105 x 60 x 60 km/hour

= 1 x 109 km/hour = 1 billion km/hour

Next, we need to convert SPEED to DISTANCE:

You know that

SPEED = DISTANCE meters = m / s

TIME seconds
So, multiplying both sides by TIME we can get
DISTANCE = SPEED x TIME
(meters / sec) x (sec) = meters

Distance travelled by light in 1 year

= (speed of light) x (seconds in a year)

= (3 x 108 m / s) x (60 x 60 x 24 x 365 s)
= 3 x 108 x 3 x 107 meters
= 9 x 1015 meters

= 1 Light-year or Ly for short.

Therefore 1Ly =9 x 1015 meters

12.3 .Sun-Earth-Moon system: (eclipses, and phases of the moon)

The movements of the Earth, Moon around the Sun affect different phenomena on Earth and moon,
including solar and lunar eclipses, phases of the Moon, Day and night, the seasons and tides.

1. Eclipses

(a) Solar eclipses

A solar eclipse occurs when the new moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun (see figure
below). This casts a shadow on the Earth and blocks our view of the Sun. A total solar eclipse occurs
when the Moon's shadow completely blocks the Sun.

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Figure: A solar eclipse.

Total solar eclipse

For a total eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line. During a total solar
eclipse the New Moon comes between the Sun and Earth and casts the darkest part of its shadow, the
umbra, on Earth.

Partial solar eclipse

A partial solar eclipse takes place when the sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up.

NEVER look at the sun during any type of solar eclipse! Looking at the sun is dangerous. It can damage
your eyes.

(b)Lunar eclipses

A lunar eclipse occurs when the full moon moves through the shadow of the Earth (Figure below). This
can only happen when the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun and all three are lined up in the same
plane, called the ecliptic.

The Earth's shadow has two distinct parts: the umbra and the penumbra. The umbra is the inner, cone
shaped part of the shadow, in which all of the light has been blocked. The outer part of Earth's shadow is
the penumbra where only part of the light is blocked. In the penumbra, the light is dimmed but not
totally absent.

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Figure : The formation of a lunar eclipse.

Total lunar eclipse

Total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon travels completely in Earth's umbra.
During a total Lunar Eclipse, the Sun, Earth and the Moon form a straight line.
Earth blocks any direct sunlight from reaching the Moon. The Sun is behind
Earth, so the Sun's light casts Earth's shadow on the Moon. This shadow
covers the entire Moon.
Partial lunar eclipses
A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the moon enters the
umbra. Partial lunar eclipses occur at least twice a year, but total lunar
eclipses are less common
12.4. The Phases of the Moon
The lunar phase or phase of the moon is the shape of the illuminated (sunlit)
portion of the Moon as seen by an observer on Earth.
There are different phases of the moon that make it appear a little different
every day, but it looks the same again about four weeks.
The moon can sometimes be seen at night and sometimes during the day.
The different phases of the moon are caused by the angle from which an
observer on earth can see the moon illuminated by the sun as it orbits our
planet. As the moon makes its way around the earth a person can look up in
the sky and see various fractions of its surface reflecting sunlight.

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While there is always half of the moon that is "lit" by the sun the observer on
earth will see the moon pass through its phases one complete time in a span of
29 and a half days.

The moon‘s phases are also caused by the changing angle of the sunlight
hitting the moon. As the Moon revolves around Earth, the illuminated portion
of the near side of the Moon will change from fully lit to completely dark and
back again.

The Earth is at the center of the diagram and the Moon is shown orbiting
(dashed circle). The Sun lights half of the Moon and Earth from the right-side.
The phase of the Moon is shown next to the corresponding position of the Moon
in its orbit around Earth. The phase is as seen in the Northern hemisphere of
the Earth.
When the Moon moves between Earth and the Sun, the side facing Earth is
completely dark. This is called the new moon phase, and we do not usually see
the Moon at this point.
Before and after the quarter-moon phases are the gibbous and crescent
phases. During the gibbous moon phase, the moon is more than half lit but not
full. During the crescent moon phase, the moon is less than half lit and is seen
as only a sliver or crescent shape. It takes about 29.5 days for the Moon to
revolve around Earth and go through all the phases .

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12.5 .The Solar system:

Solar system is constituted by the sun and everything that orbits the sun,
including the planes and their satellites, the drafts planet, asteroids, and
comets and interplanetary dust and gas….

Our solar system constitutes of

1 star (The Sun)
8 planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune)
5 dwarf planets
A dwarf planet has the following characteristics
It is in orbit around the Sun
It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it
assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape
It has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit; and
It is not a satellite (a moon)
Examples :Pluto, Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris)
181 moons
566,000 asteroids
Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System
3,100 comets
(A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to
the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing.)

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12.6. How Did the Solar System form?

Scientists believe that the solar system was formed when a cloud of gas and
dust in space was disturbed, maybe by the explosion of a nearby star (called a
supernova). This explosion made waves in space which squeezed the cloud of
gas and dust.

12.7 .The Inner and Outer Planets in Our Solar System

In our Solar System, astronomers often divide the planets into two groups —
the inner planets and the outer planets. The outer planets are further away,
larger and made up mostly of gas.
The inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. After an asteroid belt
comes the outer planet, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The inner planets
The inner planets are called terrestrials planet because their surfaces are solid
and closer to the Sun, are smaller and rockier.
Mercury
Mercury is the smallest planet in our Solar System and also the closest.
Mercury does not experience any seasons
Mercury has a very thin atmosphere
A year in Mercury is 88 days, yet a Mercury day is 176 Earth days.
The planet has just 38% of the gravity on Earth.
The planet has no moons, but has a tenuous atmosphere (exosphere)
containing oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium and potassium.
Venus
Venus is the second brightest natural object in the sky
Venus is sometimes referred to as the ―morning star‖ and ―evening star‖
One day on Venus is longer than one year
Venus is sometimes called Earth‘s sister plane
Venus rotate in the opposite direction to other planets.
Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system with an average surface
temperature of 462°C (863°F)

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Venus is the closest planet to Earth.

Earth
The Earth was once believed to be the centre of the universe
Earth is the most dense planet in the solar system
The gravity between the Earth and the Moon causes the tides on Earth
Earth‘s atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace
amounts of other gases including argon and carbon dixoide.
The Earth has an Ozone Layer which protects it from harmful solar
radiation.
70% of the Earth‟s surface is covered by water
The highest point found on Earth is Mount Everest which reaches a height of
8.8 km.
The lowest point on Earth is called Challenger Deep and at 10.9 km below sea
level, it is further than the peak of Mount Everest.
A year on Earth lasts just over 365 days.
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun
Pieces of Mars have been found on Earth
Mars was once believed to be home to intelligent life.
Mars experiences huge dust storms – the largest in our solar system
With the exception of Earth, Mars is the most hospitable to life
It takes Mars 687 Earth days to orbit the Sun
Mars has seasons like Earth, but they last twice as long.
Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos
Mars does not have a magnetic field
(2)The outer planets
The outer planets (sometimes called Jovian planets or gas giants) are huge
planets swaddled in gas. They all have rings and all of plenty of moons each.
Despite their size, only two of them are visible without telescopes: Jupiter and
Saturn.

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Uranus and Neptune were the first planets discovered since antiquity, and
showed astronomers the solar system was bigger than previously
thought. Below are brief descriptions of each of these planets

From left, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from our sun and the largest planet in the solar
system.
Jupiter's stripes and swirls are cold, windy clouds of ammonia and water.
The atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium surrounding a terrestrial core
that is about Earth‘s size
Jupiter is surrounded by more than 50 moons
Jupiter has the shortest day in the solar system.
Jupiter's environment is probably not conducive to life
Saturn
It is the second largest planet in our solar system
Like Jupiter, Saturn is made mostly of hydrogen and helium.
Saturn is blanketed with clouds, stripes and storms
Saturn rotates in the same direction as the Earth, which is west to east, but it
does this far faster than Earth
Saturn is best known for its prominent ring system

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Uranus
It is the seventh planet from the sun with the third largest diameter in our
solar system.
Uranus is very cold and windy.
Uranus makes a complete orbit around the sun (a year in Uranian time) in
about 84 Earth years (30,687 Earth days).
Uranus is also one of just two planets that rotate in the opposite direction than
most of the planets (Venus is the other one), from east to west.
Uranus' atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium, with a small amount of
methane and traces of water and ammonia.
The methane gives Uranus its signature blue color.
It has dozens of moons and a faint ring system.
Uranus' environment is not conducive to life because of high extreme
temperatures, and pressures
Neptune
Neptune is a distant planet that contains water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen
and helium and a possible Earth-sized core.
It is invisible to the naked eye because of its extreme distance from Earth.
12.8. Comets

A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to
the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing.
Comets have an icy center (nucleus) surrounded by a large cloud of gas and
dust (called the coma). Comets can develop two tails as they travel closer to the
Sun: a straight gas tail and a curved dust tail. Materials in comets may have
played a major role in formation of earth and the origin of life.
12.9. Meteorites
A meteorite is a rock that originates in outer space and survives its passage
through the Earth's atmosphere and impact with the Earth's surface or that of
another planet.
When the object enters the atmosphere, various factors like friction, pressure,
and chemical interactions with the atmospheric gases cause it to heat up and
radiate that energy.

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It then becomes a meteor (dust or rocks broken off an asteroid) and forms
a fireball, also known as a shooting star or falling star; astronomers call the
brightest examples "bolides(bright and exploding body).

Fig: Meteorite from Mars

12.10. Asteroids
Asteroids are rocky worlds revolving around the sun that are too small to be
called planets. They are also known as planetoids or minor planets. Most
asteroids are found between the orbit of Mars and Jupiter in a wide region
called the asteroid belt.
12.11. KEPLER‟S LAWS.

As learned in the last course of universal gravitation, kepler state three

planetary laws , and we can recall them without proof.
1. The first law of kepler

State that “All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focal point‖.
2. The 2nd law of kepler
“The radius vector from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals”
3. Kepler‘s Third Law

Kepler‘s Third Law state that:

“The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi major axis of the elliptical orbit”

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12.12. STAR PATTERNS: CONSTELLATIONS

A constellation is a group of stars that are considered to form imaginary
outlines patterns on the celestial sphere, typically representing animals,
mythological people or gods, mythological creatures, or manufactured devices.

12.3. Celestial coordinate system

In astronomy, a celestial coordinate system is a system used to specify the
positions of celestial objects ( Satellites , planet, stars, galaxies ,…)onto a
celestial sphere.
A celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of which the observer (on the earth)
is the centre and on which all celestial bodies (bodies in the sky) are considered
to lie.
The celestial sphere is a large sphere surrounding the earth and with it we can
keep references to where celestial bodies lie in the sky.
Five Common Coordinate Systems in Use are:
Horizontal (Altitude & Azimuth)
Equatorial (Declination & Right Ascension / Hour Angle)
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Ecliptic (Own Latitude & Longitude)

Galactic & Super galactic

1. Horizontal (Altitude & Azimuth)

It is based on the position of stars relative to an observer‘s ideal Horizon.
The horizon changes depending on your position on earth.

Some coordinates in the system can be used

- Azimuth (along the horizon regardless of the location on the Earth)
Azimuth (Az for short is the measured angle from the North point, toward the
East going in a clockwise direction)
- Altitude (Alt for short is the measured angle of a celestial body in the sky
w.r.t. the ground)
Altitude (0º at the horizon to 90º directly overhead, at Zenith)

For the Azimuth: Each cardinal direction corresponds to a particular angle.

Then 1º = 60minutes=1hour.

The Horizontal coordinate divides the sky into the upper hemisphere that you
can see, called Zenith and the lower hemisphere that you can't (because the
Earth is in the way), and called Nadir.
2. Equatorial (Declination & Right Ascension / Hour Angle)

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The coordinates are based on the location of stars relative to Earth‘s equator if
it were projected out to infinite distance. A Celestial Equator is the projection of
the earth‘s equator onto the celestial sphere.

This system uses two measurements:

Right Ascension (R.A.) also known as the Hour Angle (H.A.) it is similar to
longitude and is measured in hours, minutes and seconds eastward along the
celestial equator. It is the point on the celestial sphere where the Sun is found
on the first day of spring (the vernal equinox).
Declination (dec ) is known as the latitude .Declination: is measured
northward or southward from the plane containing the equator. The
declination of the equator is 0 degrees, the North Celestial Pole, +90 degrees,
the South Celestial Pole, -90 degrees.
North Celestial Pole (NCP) and the South Celestial Pole (SCP) - these are
just the north and south poles extended into space ( it is the projection of the
earth‘s geographic poles onto the celestial sphere.)
Stars and galaxies have (almost) fixed positions in Right Ascension and
Declination. The Sun and planets, on the other hand, move among the distant
stars so that their coordinates change throughout the year. Because of the
Earth's yearly orbital motion, the Sun appears to circle the ecliptic.

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3. Ecliptic
The ecliptic is the path that the Sun appears to trace among the stars in a year
because of the Earth's revolution around it.

Ecliptic and Celestial Equator do intersect at two positions of RA in the night

sky: These are known as the Equinoxes.

4. The Galactic Coordinate System

The galactic coordinate system locates objects within the Milky Way galaxy by
‗latitude‘ and ‗longitude‘ in a similar manner to Right
Ascension and Declination in the equatorial coordinate system.

The galactic plane, or galactic equator, is similar to the celestial equator of

the equatorial coordinate system. It is the great circle of the celestial
sphere made by the plane of the disk of our Galaxy.

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The system defines a sphere enclosing the galaxy, with the Sun at its centre,
onto which galactic latitude (b) and longitude (l) are projected. Galactic latitude
ranges from -90° to +90° (below and above the galactic plane respectively), and
galactic longitude ranges from 0° to 360°. The galactic longitude l of an object
is the angular distance around the Galactic equator from the Galactic
centre at l = 0⁰ (towards the constellation Sagittarius) to the object. As for
right ascension in the equatorial coordinate system, galactic longitude
increases counter-clockwise as viewed looking down from the north galactic
pole.

The galactic north pole is at RA = 12h 51.4m, Dec = +27⁰ 07‘ (2000.0), the
galactic centre at RA = 17h 45.6m, Dec = -28⁰ 56‘ (2000.0). The inclination of
the galactic equator to Earth‘s equator is 63⁰.

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