FORM ONE MATHEMATICS BOOK

Contents
UNIT ONE: NUMBERS 1 ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Directed Numbers ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Classification of numbers ........................................................................................................ 6
Fractions and Decimals ..................................................................................................................... 15
Order of Operations with Fractions ...................................................................................................... 21
Indices, Standard Form and logarithm.......................................................................................... 26
Rounding Fractions .................................................................................................................... 31
O Common logarithms ......................................................................................................................... 34
The Logarithm Laws .............................................................................................................................. 34
1.5 Percentage .................................................................................................................................. 36
1.6 Pattern in Mathematics .............................................................................................................. 42
Patterns and Graphs ............................................................................................................................. 43
1.7 Ratio, Rate and Proportion ......................................................................................................... 48
UNIT TWO: ALGEBRA 1..................................................................................................................... 53
2.1: Algebraic Expressions................................................................................................................ 53
2.2 Solving Equations ...................................................................................................................... 104
2.3 Simultaneous linear equations ................................................................................................. 116
2.4 INEQUALITIES ............................................................................................................................ 128
2.5 Quadratics ................................................................................................................................. 138
UNIT THREE: GEOMETRY 1 ................................................................................................................. 146
3.1 Points and Lines ........................................................................................................................ 146
3.2 Angles and Parallel Lines ........................................................................................................... 147
3.3 Plane shapes ............................................................................................................................. 177
3.4 Pythagoras theorem ................................................................................................................. 180
3.5 SOLID SHAPES............................................................................................................................ 185
3.6 Scale and Drawing ..................................................................................................................... 192
3.7 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY ............................................................................................................... 204
3.8 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS .............................................................................................. 211
3.9 Similarity: similar figures enlargement ................................................................................... 222
3.10 Similar Triangles ...................................................................................................................... 224
3.11 CONGRUENT TRIANGLES......................................................................................................... 235
3.12 Area and volumes of similar figures ....................................................................................... 242
UNIT FOUR: TRIGONOMETRY ............................................................................................................. 246
4.1 Degrees and minutes ................................................................................................................ 247
4.2 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM .......................................................................................................... 248
4.3 Using Trigonometric Ratios with Right-Angled Triangles ......................................................... 253
UNIT FIVE: FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS.............................................................................................. 275
5.1 Conversions of Sales and Currencies .................................................................................. 275
5.2 Commission and Discount ................................................................................................... 278
5.3 Wages and Salaries ............................................................................................................... 281
UNIT SIX: STATISTICS 1 ..................................................................................................................... 285
6.1 Collecting Data .......................................................................................................................... 285
Example ........................................................................................................................................... 285
6.2 Averages .................................................................................................................................... 287

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 O

UNIT ONE: NUMBERS 1

1.1 Directed Numbers
Many of the numbers we use represent situations which have directions as well as size. The
numbers which have a direction and a size are called directed numbers, as shown in figure
1.1.

Fig. 1.1
Once a direction is chosen as positive (+), the opposite direction is taken as negative (-). For
example, positive numbers to the right, and negative numbers to the left of zero. If above zero
degrees is positive (+), then below zero degrees is negative. If north is positive (+), then south
is negative (-). If profit is positive (+), then loss is negative (-).
Directed numbers are used in Mathematics, Engineering, Business and the Sciences.
For example: -15, 8, 100, -100, -3.5, 0.33, -0.75 are directed numbers. In the above example -
15, 8, 100, -100 are called integers. If a directed number is a whole number, it is called an
integer. In another words, an integer is a whole number (not a fractional number) that can be
positive, negative, or zero. The set of integers, denoted Z, is formally defined as follows:
Z = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Positive integers are called a natural numbers. The natural numbers are also called the
counting numbers. The set of natural numbers, denoted N, can be defined as follows:
N = (1, 2, 3, 4 ...}
Positive & Negative Numbers
Numbers can either be positive or negative. Often brackets are put around negative numbers
to make them easier to read, e.g. (-2). If a number is positive, the + is usually missed out
before the number. So 3 is really (+3). Adding and multiplying combinations of positive and
negative numbers can cause confusion and so care must be taken.
Addition and Subtraction of Directed Numbers
Directed numbers are numbers which are either positive or negative. In addition and
subtraction of direct numbers, if the numbers have same sign add to each other and the

2
answer must have the same sign but if the numbers have different signs, subtract to each
other and the answer must have the sign of the larger number.

Example1:
Evaluate the following
1) +4+ 5 = +9 4) +15– 7 = +8
2) –3 –4 = – 7 5) – 10 + 4 = – 6
3) +9 – 12 = – 3
Exercise:
Find the value of the followings:
1. +3– 3 = 6. −6 −9= 10. (+17) –
2. +4 −7 = 7. −2 + 4 = (−22)
3. −5 −2= 8. +18 – 7) 11. (+15) + (–14)
4. +4 −5+ 9. −16 + 8) 12. –13 +8)
5. +6+ 10= 13. –5) + 8=
Number line

A number line is a line in which real numbers can be placed, according to their value. It is
helpful to use a number line to add and subtract directed numbers.
There are three steps to adding and subtracting directed numbers:
Step 1: Find the starting position on the number line - this will be the first number in the
calculation.
Step 2: Identify the direction of travel on the number line - this is determined by the signs
that appear in the calculation.
Step 3: Move the number of places on the number line required by the calculation - this will
be the second number in the calculation.
Example (1)
Evaluate: 2 + 3
Solution
Start at 2. Move 3 spaces to the right. Finish at 5. What would be the result? Look at figure
1.2.

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 Start point Finish point
Fig. 1.2
The result in this case is 5 O

Example (2)
Evaluate: 6 – 4
Solution
Start at 6. Move 4 spaces to the left. Finish at 2. What would be the result? Look at figure 1.3.

Finish point Start point

Fig. 1.3
The result in this case is 2
Exercise:
Using a number line, find the values of the following:
1. 3+2 3. −2+1 5. 7−2 7. −1−7
2. 4+5 4. −6+8 6. 10−4 8. −3−5
Multiplication and Division
If two positive numbers are multiplied together or divided, the answer is positive.
If two negative numbers are multiplied together or divided, the answer is positive.
If a positive and a negative number are multiplied or divided, the answer is negative.
Example1
1) (-2) ÷ (-4) = ½ 3) 2 × (-3) = (-6)
2) (8) ÷ (-2) = (-4) 4) (-2) × (-2) = 4
Exercise
Evaluate each of the following
1. 2 × (−6) 4. (−8) × (+12) 7. (124) ÷ (8)
2. 12 × (−5) 5. (−36) ×(−7) 8. (−400) ÷(−50)
3. (+9) × (−50) 6. (12) ÷ (−6) 9. (−250) ÷ (+15)

Order of Operations
The order in which operations are performed can be shown by the use of specific rules. There
are three basic rules concerned about the order of operations.
1. First perform any calculations inside brackets.

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 2. Next perform all division and then multiplications, working from left to right.
3. Lastly, perform all additions and subtractions, working from left to right.

Example (1)
Evaluate the following arithmetic expression:
5+7x3
Solution
5+7 x 3 = 5+21 = 26
Example (2)
Evaluate 7 + 3 x (9 + 3) ÷ 4 - 5 using the order of operations.
Solution
7 + 3 x (9 + 3) ÷ 4 −5
= 7 + 3 x 12 ÷ 4 – 5 O
= 7 + 36 ÷ 4 – 5
= 7 + 9 –5
= 16 – 5
= 11
Example (3)
Evaluate 13 - 12 ÷ (10 - 4) x 3 + 11 by using order of operations.
Solution
13 −12 ÷ (10 – 4) x 3 +11
= 13 – 12 ÷ 6 x 3 + 11
= 13 – 2 x 3 + 11
= 13 – 6 +11
= 7 + 11 = 18
Exercise
1. Evaluate each of the following using the order of operations.
a) 31 + 3 x 5 f) –7 x 9 + 5 – 14 ÷ 2 – 5
b) 7 x (5 –2) g) 24 ÷ 3 + 4 x 5 – 8 ÷ 4 x 10 + 1
c) 45 ÷ 5 + (9 – 2) x 3 h) 320 ÷ (67 – 27)
d) 14 + 5 x 3 –10 i) 8 – (75 – 25) + 19
e) 90 ÷ (6 + 3 x 4) + 9 j) 6 x (30 ÷10)

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 k) 8 + 3 x (12 - 4) 40−10 × 3
m) 17−8 ÷4
l) 2 x 7 + 6 ÷ 6 - 10 x 3

1.2 Classification of numbers

1.2.1 Even and Odd Numbers:
Even Numbers
The numbers that are exactly divisible by 2 are called even numbers.
Examples: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10..........
Odd Numbers:
The numbers that are not divisible by 2 are called odd numbers.
Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9..........
Properties of Even and Odd Numbers:
1. Sum (or difference) of any number of even numbers is always even.
Even ± Even = Even.
2. Sum (or difference) of even number of odd numbers is always even.
Odd ± Odd = Even
3. Sum of odd number of odd numbers is always odd.
Odd + Odd + Odd = Odd
4. Sum of an even and an odd number is always odd.
Even + Odd = Odd
5. Difference between an even and an odd number is always odd.
± Even ∓ Odd = Odd
6. Product of any numbers of even numbers is always even.
Even x Even = Even
7. Product of any number of odd numbers is always odd.
Odd x Odd = Odd
8. Product of any number of numbers where there is an even number is always even.
Even x Any number = Even
Word Problems on Natural Number
Example (1)
1. Given the numbers 5, 7 and 9, form all possible numbers of three different figures,
arrange them from low to high and add them.
2. With the money that I have now and $247 more, I could pay a debt of $525 and I
would still have $37. How much money I have?

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Solutions
1. Given the numbers 5, 7 and 9, form all possible numbers of three different figures,
arrange them from low to high and add them.
579 + 597 + 759 + 795 + 957 + 975 = 4662
2. With the money that I have now and $247 more, I could pay a debt of $525 and I would
still have $37. How much money I have?
525 + 37 = 562;
562 − 247 =$315
Exercise
1. The quotient division is 21, the divisor, 15, and the dividend, 321. What is the remainder?
2. From a rope 11 m long, two pieces of lengths 13/5 m and 33/10 m are cut off. What is the
length of the remaining rope?
3. Ahmed has overdrawn his checking account by $27. His bank charged him $15 for an
overdraft fee. Then he quickly deposited $100. What is his current balance?
4. Find the difference in height between the top of a hill 973 feet high and a crack caused by
an earthquake 79 feet below sea level.
5. In Detroit the high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit for five days in January were -
12°, -8°, -3°, 6°, -15°. What was the average temperature for these five days?
6. The sum of two consecutive integers is 15. Find the numbers.
7. Twice the larger of two numbers is three more than five times the smaller and the sum of
four times the larger and three times the smaller is 71. What are the numbers?
8. The product of two consecutive negative even integers is 24. Find the numbers.
Factors:
Factor is the divisor of a number. Every natural number is a factor of itself.
Example: 20 is completely divided by 5 and leaves remainder zero. Therefore 5 is a factor of
20.
Multiple:
A multiple is the result of multiplying a number by an integer. When the given number is
multiplied by any natural number then the product is a multiple of the given number and the
natural number. Example: When 8 is multiplied by 4 we get 32. Therefore 32 is a multiple of
both 8 and 4.

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Prime Numbers:
A set of numbers which do not have any other common factor other than 1 and itself only is
called a prime number. It has only 2 factors: 1 and itself. The set of numbers are {2, 3, 5, 7,
11, 13, 17, 19................}
Composite Numbers:
Any number other than 1, which is not a prime number, is a composite number. Thus a
composite number is a number which has at least one factor other than 1 and itself.
Example: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10.........
Composite numbers can be expressed as a product of two or more prime factors. For
example:
12 = 2 ×2 × 3
15 = 3 × 5
28 = 2 × 2× 7
But in some times, some numbers are repeated in many times. For instance:
48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
In short form of 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 is 23. Thus, 48 is equal to 23 × 3.
Exercise
1. List down all prime numbers between 20 and 30
2. Which of the following numbers are even
a) 3345 c) 2220 e) 987
b) 897 d) 342 f) 3001
3. How many odd numbers are there between 121 and 731
4. Name the only even number which is a prime number.
5. Which of the following numbers are composite numbers?
a) 32 c) 37 e) 45
b) 90 d) 1 f) 9983
6. Express the following composite numbers as a product of prime factors.
a) 840 d) 729 g) 5929
b) 81 e) 15 h) 824
c) 1024 f) 70 i) 736
7. Classify the numbers in the brackets by putting each one in the suitable space in the
table. Some number may be suitable in two spaces or more.

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 (39, 75, 800, 41, 328, 567, 29, 841, 37, 133, 2, 15, 91, 888, 10,000, 17, 9981, 97, 453,
700, 8, 111, 887, 200,000, 99871, 234, 107, 1133, 703)
Even numbers Odd numbers Prime numbers
Divisibility
Rules of Divisibility
One whole number is divisible by another if, after dividing, the remainder is zero. The
divisibility rules help us to find factors of numbers. It is important to use divisibility test on
numbers in order for easier calculation.

Exercise
1. Which of the following numbers is divisible by 2, 3, 4 or 5?
a) 279 c) 712 e) 722
b) 640 d) 6750 a) 100

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 b) 144 e) 636 h) 420
c) 173 f) 930 i) 300
d) 654 g) 325 j) 505
2. Which of the following numbers are divisible by both 5 and 6?
a) 300, 883, 150, 900, 320, 216, 385, 822
b) 750, 468, 735, 270, 8100, 3171, 456
c) 435, 490, 833, 336, 700, 893, 2799, 4,005
3. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 9?
a) 160 d) 729 g) 343
b) 3,571 e) 500 h) 19,683
c) 54 f) 933 i) 33,7
4. Which of the following number are divisible by 7, 8 or 10
a) 800 d) 605,052 g) 8775
b) 923 e) 7320 h) 728
c) 32,768 f) 1000 i) 630
5. Copy and match.

6. Test whether 1134 is divisible by:

a) 7 b) 8 c) 9
7. Test whether 5760 is divisible by:
a) 3 c) 7 e) 8
b) 5 d) 10 f) 4
Greatest Common Divisor
The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two whole numbers, also called the Greatest
Common Factor (GCF) and the Highest Common Factor (HCF), is the largest whole number
that's a divisor (factor) of both of them. Greatest common divisors can in principle be

10
computed by determining the prime factorizations of the two numbers and comparing factors.
For instance, the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 6 and 12. The factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20.
1, 2, and 4 are common factors of both 12 and 20. Thus, 4 is referred as:
i. The greatest common divisor (G,C,F) of 12 and 20, or
ii. The greatest common divisor (G.C.D) of 12 and 20, or
iii. The highest common factor (H.C.F), of 12 and 20.
Example (1)
Find the GCD of 45 and 54.
Solution
Step 1: Find the divisors of given numbers:
The divisors of 45 are: 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, and 45
The divisors of 54 are: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, and 54
The common factors are 1, 3, and 9
Step 2: Find the greatest number that these two lists share in common. In this example the
GCD is 9.
Example (2)
Find the GCD of 72, 96 and 300
Solution
72 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 12, 18, 24, 36 and 72
96 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, and 96
300 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 50, 60, 75, 100, and 300
The common factors are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. The greatest among them is 12. Thus, the GCD
of 72, 96 and 300 is 12.
Exercise
1. Find the GCD of the following pair of numbers
a) 12,16 e) 40, 60
b) 10, 15 f) 24, 128
c) 30, 45 g) 75, 95
d) 15, 36
2. Find the GCD of the following integers:
a) 24, 42, 96 d) 48, 60, 100, 140
b) 210, 135, 300 e) 28, 70, 120,160
c) 144, 240, 360, 700 f) 96, 120, 144

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3. Ali is going to plant 30 oak trees and 120 pine trees. Ali would like to plant the trees
in rows that all have the same number of trees and are made up of only one type of
tree. What is the greatest number of trees Ali can have in each row?
4. Three tanks are capable of holding 12, 18and 20 liters of milk. Determine the capacity
of the greatest vessel which can be used to fill each one of them an exact number of
times.
5. Sara has 16 red flowers and 24 yellow flowers. She wants to make bouquets with the
same number of each color flower in each bouquet. What is the greatest number of
bouquets she can make?
Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple is also referred to as the lowest common multiple (LCM). The
least common multiple of a set of numbers is the smallest number (not zero) that is a
multiple of all given numbers. For instance, the common multiples of 3 and 4 are 0, 12,
24 ... Therefore; the LCM of 3 and 4 apart from 0 is 12.
Example (1)
Find the least common multiple of 4 and 10:
Solution
The multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 ... and the multiples of 10 are: 10, 20, 30, 40 ...
So the least common multiple of 4 and 10 is 20.
Example (2)
Example: Find the least common multiple of 4, 6, and 8
Solution
Multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, ...
Multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ...
Multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, ....
So 24 is the least common multiple.
Exercise
1. Find the first seven multiples of the following numbers
a) 5 b) 8 c) 10 d) 12
2. Find the least common multiple of each of the following
a) 5, 20 c) 24, 30 e) 24, 36
b) 14, 16 d) 20, 24, 25 f) 8, 12,18, 20
3. What is the least length of school working day in hours if it can be split into exact
periods of 35 minutes, 40 minutes, or 45 minutes?

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 4. The GCD of three numbers is 30 and their LCM is 900. Two of the numbers are 60
and 150. What are the other possible numbers?
Square and Square Roots
Squares
A square is the result of multiplying a number by itself. For example the square of 3 is 3×3.
The square of 8 is 8×8. To show that a number is squared, a small 2 is placed to the top right
of the number. Like this:
52, 122 and y2
These signs can be read as "5 squared, 12 squared, and y squared."
Example
Find the square of each of the following numbers:
1) 7 2) 8.4 3
3) 28

Solutions
1) 7 = 7×7 = 72 = 49
2) 8.4 = 8.4×8.4 = 8.42 = 70.56
3 19 19 19 361
3) 28 = = × =
8 8 8 64

Exercise
1. Find the square root of the following
a) 7 d) 6.9 f) 40.75
b) 9 3 2
e) g) 35
7
c) 20
2. Copy and complete this table

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Square Roots
The square root of a number is the inverse operation of squaring that number.
42 = 16 the square
The square root
The sign for square root is
Example (1)
Find the square root of the following
1) √36 2) √400 3) √256
Solution
1) √36 = 6 2) √400 = 20 3) √256 =

Example (2)
Simplify the following square roots
1) √8 2) √48 3) √𝑥𝑦 2
Solutions
4) √8 = √4 × 2 = 2√2
5) √48 = √16 × 3 = 4√3

6) √𝑥𝑦 2 = y√𝑥

Exercise
1. Evaluate each expression
a) √169 d) √196
b) √10000 e) √1369
c) √289 f) √225
2. Simplify the following
a) √20 d) √𝑎𝑏 2
b) √75 e) √98
c) √200 f) √1053

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Fractions and Decimals
1.3.1 Fractions
Introduction
Fractions are ways of writing parts of whole numbers. Fractions represent parts of a whole.
For example if we take a pizza, and divide it up equally between 4 people, each person will
1
have 4 or, written in words, one quarter of the pizza.

3 1
If three pieces of the pizza have been eaten, then 4 or three quarters is used (unshaded), and 4
𝑎
or one quarter remains (shaded part). In general a fraction is the number of the form 𝑏, where

a and b are represent integers. The integer a is the numerator and b is the denominator of the
numerator
fraction. This means, fraction = denominator . the integer b can never be zero. If the numerator
2 7
is less than denominator such as and , the fraction is called a proper fraction but if the
8 15

numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator, the fraction is said to be improper
100 7 7 1 9 5
fraction. For instance, , 7and are improper fractions. The fractions like 3 2, 72, 1319 is
14 3

called mixed numbers. A mixed number is a mix of two kinds of numbers. There is a whole
number as well as a proper fraction,
Exercise
1. Explain the following terms and in each case give an example of your own.
a) Fraction d) Denominator
b) Proper fraction e) Numerator
c) Improper fraction
2. Classify the fractions in the brackets into proper, improper fraction and mixed
numbers.
9 12 3 1 7 9 1 231 1 2 3 17 3 4 5 3 75 5
(2 , , 13 , 8 2 , 23 , 18 5 , 9 , ,52,3,3, , 7 , 27 , 1 2 , 11 , 33 , 6)
7 73 8

3. Express each of the following as a mixed number

190 994
a) c)
20 7
7350 1200
b) d) 25
7

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Simplifying Fractions
To simplify a fraction, divide the top and bottom by the highest number that can divide into
both numbers exactly. The fraction is in its simplest form when there are no factors common
5 4
to both numerator and denominator of the fraction. For instance, is the simplest for, but 12
13

is not in its simplest form since 4 is a common factor to both numerator and denominator of
the fraction.
Example
Express the following fraction in its simplest form
5 240 900
1) 2) 3)
10 960 5100

Solutions
5 5÷5 1
4) =
10 10÷5 2
24 24÷240 1
5) =
96 96÷240 4
45 45÷300 3
6) = 255÷300
255 17

Exercise
1. Express the following fractions in their simplest form
114 2100 625
a) d) g)
142 540 800
5 −14 5200
b) e) h)
75 −30 790
30 363 126
c) f) i)
24 −66 18

2. Copy and insert the missing number

8 − 80 8 440 4
a) = c) =− e) = 15
30 15 30 −
1275 5 1825 1 − 3
b) =− d) =− f) = 13
930 1625 104

3. Find the missing numerator by raising the fraction to higher terms.

3 ? 5 ?
a) = d) =
4 144 9 720
7 ? 2 ?
b) = e) 5 =
16 4624 3 597
5 ? 4 ?
c) = f) 1 =
8 728 5 550

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Equivalent Fractions
Equivalent Fractions is the fractions that have same value, even though they may look
1 2 4
different. For example, 2, 4, and are all equivalent fractions. Equivalent fractions can be
8

formed by multiplying or dividing the numerator and denominator by the same number.
Example (1)
Find the missing number
3 147 2560 5
a) = b) =
144 − 8704 −

Solutions
3 3×49 147
a) =
144 12×49 7056
2560 2560÷512
b) =
8704 8704÷512

Example (2)
3 5
Which of the fractions4 and 7 is greater?

Solution
First, find the LCM of the denominator of two fractions. In this case, the LCM is 28.
3 3×7 21 5 5×4 20
Thus, 4 = 4×7 = 28 and 7 = 7×4 =28.
21 20
Clearly, 28 is greater that 28

Exercise
1. Find the missing numbers in each of the following fractions
674 6740 480 3
a) = f) =
735 − 1760 −
3 150 200 4
b) = g) =
8 − 800 −
237 − 1280 −
c) = h) =
131 6157 640 2
9 1098 42 6
d) = i) =
7 − 63 −
15 45 216 −
e) = j) =3
11 − 108

2. Express each of the following as an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 24.

35 1500 30x3
a) c) e)
240 576 240x
7 24
b) d) f) 15
2 288

3. Which fraction is greater than other in each of the following?

517 126 119 127
a) , b) 75
, 84
31 45

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 250 390 478 289 551
c) , d) , ,
450 690 117 461 124

4. Arrange the following fractions in ascending order.

590 4 112 29 65
a) , , , c) , ,
114 5 112 23 36
16 71 101 810 7 39 91
b) , , 250 , 140 , , 43
53 74 8 52
8 4 6. Write down five fractions
5. Ali says that is bigger than
13 5
12
because 8 is bigger than 4. Is Ali equivalent to 480.

correct? Justify for your answer.

Addition and Subtraction of Fraction
Fractions can be add or subtract, if and only if they have a common denominators. The
numerators only are added or subtracted and the result is divided by the common
denominators.
Example (1)
1 1
1) +2 = 1 + =
2
4 2 2
2) − =7 − =
7 7

Example (2)
Find:
15 93 7 4 115 18
1) + 41 3) + 5) + 120
41 15 45 24
1205 645 5 25
2) − 4) 214 − 147
19 19

Solutions
15 93 15+93 108
1) + 41 = =
41 4 41
1205 645 1205−645 560
2) − = =
19 19 19 19
17 49 17×3+49×1 51+49 100 20
3) + = = = =
15 45 45 45 45 3
33 25 33×21+25×2 693+50 743
4) + 147 = = = 294
14 294 294
115 18 115×5+ 18×1 575+18 593
5) + 120 = = = 120
24 120 120

Example (3)
5 2
a) Express 24 and 16 as an improper fraction
5 2
b) Evaluate 214 − 16

Solution

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 a) To convert mixed fraction into improper fraction, multiply a whole number to the
denominator then add the product to the numerator and divide denominator to the
result.
5 13 2 8
So 24 is equal to and 16 is equal to 6
4
5 2 28 8 28×3 − 8×2 84−16 68 17
b) 24 − 16 = −6 = = 12 =
4 12 12 3

Exercise
1. Covert each of the following into an improper fraction.
5 3 5
a) 13 c) 57 e) 96
4 7 28
1 123 10
b) 29 d) 6 49 f) 5872

2. Evaluate each of the following.

99 37 817 455 783 245
g) 22
+ 22 d) + i) −
29 61 6 7
978 675 97 86 113 61
a) − 234 e) + 58 j) −
234 53 90 80
165 162 167 121 95 55
a) + f) −3 k) −
19 19 99 90 45 45
171 52 917 361 61 95
b) + 18 g) − l) 1231 + 5
87 14 84 32
39 39 88 16
c) 274 + 130 h) −
50 18

3. Evaluate in each of the flowing fractions.

111 13 15 53 32
a) (+ 49 +(− 56) d) + 81 + (− 41) − 16
122 34 17 314
b) − + (− 80) +100 e) 345 −
15 47
43 634 151 43
c) − 25 – (− ) +3 f) − 111 + 83
70 21
1 5
4. What is the sum of 243 and 91 ?
14 42
5. What is the difference of and ?
21 70
17
6. Ali goes out for a long walk. Ali walk mile and then he sit down to take a rest.
63
43
Then he walk 70mile. How far did Ali walk altogether?
123 66 9
7. By how much is the sum of and 100 is less than 241
55

Multiplication of Fractions
To multiply to or more fractions, multiply the numerators to get a new numerator and then
multiply denominators to form a product of denominators. Also, change mixed numbers into
improper fraction before multiplying.

19
Example
Evaluate each of the following
29 15 1 7
1) × 3) 4 8 × 1 4
37 40
3 6 35
2) × 4) ×7
5 8 8

Solutions
29 15 29×15 435 87
1) × = = 1480 = 296
37 40 37×40
3 6 3×6 18 9
2) × = 5×8 = 40 = 20
5 8
1 7 33 11 363
3) 4 8 × 1 4 = × =
8 4 32
35 3×7 21
4) ×7= =
8 8 8

Exercise
1. Evaluate
45 190 1 22
a) × d) 3 23 ×
127 631 113
122 75 55 19
b) × e) – (− 84 ×
83 48 45
233 812 66 18
c) × f) 1 107 × 2 39
125 965

2. Evaluate each of the following fractions

11 366 2 1
a) of c) of 5 8
198 343 3
97 26 29 83 37
b) of of d) (− 96) of
38 45 57 161
5 7
3. What is the product of 3 6 and 3?
1
4. A certain machine uses 225 litters of diesel in one hour. How much diesel does it use
1
in 1548 hours?

Division of Fractions
To divide one fraction to another fraction:
i. Change division sign into multiplication sign,
ii. Invert the second fraction, then
iii. Multiply the two fractions to each other
Example
Find the value of:
75 45 100 35
a) ÷ b) 12 ÷ 21
37 50 3

20
 Solutions
75 45 75 50 3750 250
a) ÷ 50 = 37 × 45 = 1665 = 111
37
100 35 106 35 106 21 2226 318
b) 2 ÷ 21 = ÷ 21 = × 35 = =
3 3 3 105 15

Exercise
Simplify the following
79 25 90 35 16 8
1. ÷ 94 5. ÷ 12 70 9. ÷ 55
65 56 11
17 66 15 30 56 10
2. ÷ 73 6. ÷ 47 10. 42 ÷ 120
191 44
10 21 7 261
3. ÷ 58 7. 9 ÷ 2 5 11. 186 ÷ 352
13
15 15 4 19 −24 50
4. 2 ÷ 39 8. 158 ÷ 4 12. ÷ 48
3 5 25

Order of Operations with Fractions

BODMAS is a useful acronym that lets you know which order to solve mathematical
problems. It's important that you follow the rules of BODMAS as without it your answers can
be wrong.
The BODMAS acronym is for:
 Brackets (parts of a calculation inside brackets always come first).
 Orders (numbers involving powers or square roots).
 Division.  Addition.
 Multiplication.  Subtraction
Example (1)
1 2 1
Simplify: 2 (− 2) + 4 (− 2)

Solution
Exponents first, then multiply, and then add.
1 2 1
2 (− 2) + 4 (− 2) = 2( ¼ ) − 2 = ½ – 2 = -1 ½

Example (2)
5 5 1 4
Evaluate: 9 ÷ 1 6 +2 3 − 2

Solution
5 5 1 5 5 11 7 5 5 6 1 5
÷ 1 6 +2 3 − 2 = 9 ÷ +3 − 2 = 9 × 11 +3 − 2
9 6
5 2 1 5 10 1 5 10+11 5 21 5 42+165
= × 11 +3 − 2 = 33 +3 − 2 = − 2 = 33 − 2 =
3 33 66
207
=
66

21
 O

Exercise
Perform the operations in the correct order.
2 4 2 9 20 7 1 2
1) 6
×5−9 5) × ÷ (8 − 4) + 10
5 7
8 2 7 5 1 1 2 1 9 10 2
2) 7
÷ 12 × 10 − (8 − 4) +7 6) 79 +26 − 10 18 × ( 7 − 14)
5 2 7 3 8 18 10
3) 5(8 + 1 7) ÷ 11 7) (12 ÷ 128) − 3 15
4

16 2
2 13 8 1
4) ( ×
5 8
) + 9 ÷ 56
4 8) 5 8 + 3
÷ 1 11 − 10 2
8 10
3 1 2 2 5 1
9) 5 11 × (3) ÷ 15 + (7 12 − 6)

1.3.2 Decimals and Fractions

Introduction
A decimal number is a number that contains a decimal point. The number to the left of the
decimal is an ordinary whole number. The first number to the right of the decimal is the
number of tenths (1/10's). The second is the number of hundredths (1/100's) and so on. The
decimal fractions are usually written in particular way, e.g 0.7, 8.5 and the dots in this case is
called decimal point.
Conversion between Decimals and fractions
The fraction that has a denominator that can be changed to power of 10 can easily be changed
into decimals.
Example (1)
Express each of the following fractions into decimal
3 2 7 1
1) 2) 3) 4)
10 5 25 8

Solutions
3 3×10 30
1) = = 100 = 0.3
10 10×10
2 2×20 60
2) = 5×20 = 100 = 0.6
5
7 7×4 28
3) = 25×4 = 100 = 0.28
25
1 1×125 125
4) = 8×125 = 1000 = 0.125
8

Example (2)
Express each of the following decimals into fractions
1) 0.4 2) 0.825 3) 0.31476
Solution

22
 10 4
1) 0.4 = 0.4 × 10 = 10
1000 825
2) 0.825 = 0.825 × 1000 = 1000
100000 31476
3) 0.314 = 0.31476 × 100000 = 100000

Exercise
1. Write each of the following decimals in fraction form.
a) 0.5 e) 0.37 i) 0.62256475
b) 0.765 f) 0.789321 j) 0.76455
c) 0.12987 g) 0.325671 k) 49.7785465
d) 0.89732 h) 3.8287565 l) 8.454350
2. Write each of the following in decimal notation
a) Fourth-tenths. c) Twenty-seven thousands
b) Forty-five ten millions d) Eighty- eight tenths
3. Use division to convert each of the following fractions into decimals
523 37968 10654 1275
a) c) e) g)
80 223 47685 1090
16789 86785 9897 19872
b) d) f) h)
25786 567 667 1875

4. Write each of the following decimal fractions in order of size. Start with the smallest
number each time.
a) 0.4767986753, 0.487, 0.78876, 0.449844, 0.628762
b) 8.879807, 8.0907805, 8.090877, 8.090875, 8.0796857, 8.0786796
c) 23.9564, 23.475688, 23.786751, 23.8576833, 23.807567
5. Copy and complete the table 1.3.1

23
Addition and subtraction of decimals
Example
Evaluate:
2.345 14.09567
+ 1.500 - 5.66547
3.845 8.43020
Evaluate each of the following
1. 4.357689 + 18.65748 = 8. 97650 – 2685.39778 =
2. 63.57668 – 1.74564767 = 9. $7.5565672 + $11.7565647 =
3. 264.36574 + 12.868704 = 10. 6577.81 – 3564.685 =
11. 104.5406 – 15.85640 =
4. 116.7546 – 32.8257 = 12. 16565.4 + 73.65641 =
5. 3 ¾ + 1.0812 = 13. 1267. 1564 – 6.55642 =
6. 19.77860 + 62.5967858 = 14. 4675.3 – 15.265773 =
15. 0.45782 + 1.455672 + 31.46578 =
7. 256781 + 3.817654 = 16. 3.047865 – 165⅛ =
Find the sum of the following:
1) 563.521 2) 1877.324 3) 16573.087861
+ 50.56474 + 566.987 +25634.6654
Solve the following problems:
1. When the Better Builder Company completed a small construction job, they found
that the following expenses had been incurred: labor, $6782.25; gravel, $876.77;
sand, $3569.41; cement, $18870.96; and bricks, $26504.35. What total bill should
they give the customer if they want to make a profit of $22675 on the job?
2. The resistance of an armature while it is cold is 650.07628 ohm. After running for
several minutes, the resistance increases to 177.34540 ohms. Find the increase in the
resistance of the armature.
3. Asma ran a 20650 m race. She ran the first 10760m in 1678.88 seconds and the
second 106750 min 17659 seconds. What was her time for the race?
4. At the grocery store, Billy spent a total of $16756.78. He had $1768.00 in all to
spend. How much will Billy have left over?

24
Multiplication of decimals
To multiply decimal numbers:
1. Multiply the numbers just as if they were whole numbers.
2. Place the decimal point in the answer by just counting up how many numbers are after
the decimal point in both numbers you are multiplying.
Example
Multiply:
1) 3.71 ×2.4 2) 9.2563 × 7.56758
Solutions
1) 3.71 two decimal place
× 2.4 one decimal place
1484
7420
8.904 three decimal place
2. 9.2563 × 7.56758 = 70.477908
Exercise
Evaluate each of the following
1) 8.6542 × 6.3657 = 6) 0.23654 × 0.645 × 0.967 =
2) 2654.7145 × 456.41120 = 7) 56.0562 34 × 73.37867 =
3) 628.7568 × 453.3265 =
4) 23568.85 × 256.7659 = 8) 650.678 × 3.1598 × 2.0456
5) 0.0045645 × 0.026757 =
Division of decimals
To divide a decimal by another decimal:
1. Move the decimal point in the divisor to the right until it is a whole number.
2. Move the decimal point in the dividend to the right by the same number of places as
the decimal point was moved to make the divisor a whole number.
3. Then divide the new dividend by the new divisor
Example: Evaluate: 4.2684 ÷0.04
Solution
4.2684 4.2684×100 426.84
= = = 106.7
0.04 0.04×100 4

25
Exercise
Evaluate each of the following
1. 34.26 ÷ 4.57 = 6. 320.0434 ÷ 30.04576 =
2. 0.4241 ÷ 0.545 = 7. 23718.4576 ÷ 423.045 =
3. 3.8344 ÷ 2.1367 = 8. 1238 ÷ 6.23894 =
4. 0.00357 ÷ 0.03678 = 9. 0.0898 ÷ 0.02353 =
5. 1 ¼ ÷ 0.62123 =
Work out:
1. Six people share $284.6230 equally. Work out how much each person will get.
2. In completing one lap, a runner covers 0.454 kilometer. How many laps does he
complete in a 12 kilometer race?

Indices, Standard Form and logarithm

1.4.1 Indices
Index simply is a power. The plural of index is indices. The expressions involve indices can
be solved if the laws of indices are used.
Law of Indices
There are eight rules of the laws of indices. A table 1.3.1 summarizes these eight rules.

Exercise
Calculate the value of:
1) 53 3) 63 5) 25
2) 105 4) 73 6) 302

26
 7) 33 8) 87 9) 108

Copy each of the following statement and fill in the missing numbers
1) 4×4×4×4×4 = 4 3) 19× 19 × 19 × 19 × 19 = 19
2) 10× 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 4) 6× 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6
= 10 =6
Evaluate each of the following
1) 42 +33 3) 34 + 63 5) 103 − 25
2) 72+53 4) 105 + 83 6) 35 − 44
Simplify each of the following
2 −2
1) 5) (5)-2 4 3
8) (9)
2) (y2)6
6) 5-3 × 5-1
-2 9) x5 × x8
3) 2 63 2
7)
4) (𝑥 4 )3 65 ×6−3 10) (𝑎3 × 𝑎)5

Find the value of n in each of the following

1) N = 23 3) 3 × n = 90 5) 2n = 45 × 4-4
2) n = 4-3 4)
2 43
n = 45 ×4−1 6) 5(n− 1) = (103 )2
3

Consider the table 1.3.2 and answer the question below the table .

The table above gives the average distance in kilometers of the nine major planets from the
Sun.
a) Which planet is approximately 4 times further away than Mercury?
b) How far apart are the orbits of Neptune and Pluto?
c) Which planet is about half the distance from the Sun as Uranus?
d) Which planet is 40 times further away from the Sun than Venus?

27
 e) A probe was sent from the Earth to Mars. If it took one year to reach Mars, what
average speed would it have to travel? Give your answer in km/h
Standard form
Standard form (Britain Scientific Notation) is a special way of writing Numbers. Standard
form is a convenient way of writing very large or very small numbers. It is used on a
scientific calculator when a number is too large or too small to be displayed on the screen. In

standard form, the numbers is written in the form A × 10n where A is a number between 1

and 10 and n is a whole number.

Example (1)
Write each of the following number in standard form
1. 600, 000 3. 6300, 0000,000
2. 5730 4. 48,000,000
Solutions
1. 600, 000 = 6 × 100, 000 = 6 × 105
2. 5730 = 5.73 × 100 = 5.73 × 103
3. 6300, 000,000 = 6.3 × 1000, 000, 000 = 6.3 × 109
4. 48,000,000 = 4.8 × 10,000,000 = 4.8 × 107
Example (2)
Express each of the following in ordinary form
1. 3 × 104 3. 7.83 × 107
2. 4.3 × 105 4. 1.924 × 10
Solutions
1. 3 × 104 = 3 × 10,000 = 30,000
2. 4.3 × 105 = 4.3 × 100,000 = 430,000
3. 7.83 × 107 = 7.83 × 10,000,000 = 7,8300,000
4. 1.924 × 103 = 1.924 × 1000 = 1924
Exercise
Write each of the following numbers in standard form:
1) 2000 4) 68,000 7) 35 400,000,000
2) 7000 5) 480,000 8) 8 25000
3) 9 000,000 6) 12 000,000,000 9) 2.8 million
Convert each of the following numbers from standard form to the ordinary form.
1. 6 × 104 2. 3.6 × 104 3. 6.5 × 103

28
 4. 7.45 × 105 7. 3.7 × 103 10. 6.91 × 102
5. 3.4 × 102 8. 9.17 × 104 11. 8 × 109
6. 8.4 × 107 9. 6.83 × 106 12. 5.1 × 107

Solve the problems

1. The distance from the earth to the nearest star outside our solar system is
approximately 25,700,000,000,000. When expressed in scientific notation, what is the
value of n. 2.57 x 10n.
2. Husien travels regularly for his job. In the past five years he has traveled
approximately 355,000 miles. Convert his total miles into scientific notation.
3. One light year is approximately 5.87 x 1012 miles. Use scientific notation to express
this distance in feet (Hint: 5,280 feet = 1 mile).
Decimal Fractions in Standard Form
Decimals such as 0.001, 0.00003, and 0,000981 can be expressed as a scientific notation.
Note that for decimal fractions, n is a negative integer.
Example
Write each of the following decimal fractions in standard form:
1. 0.0002 3. 0.000 045
2. 0.000 000 005 4. 0.000 000 0937
Solutions
2 2
1. 0.0002 = 10,000 = 104 = 2×10-4
5 5
2. 0.000 000 005 = 1000,000,000 = 109 = 5×10-9
4.5 4.5
3. 0.000 045 = 100,000 = 105 = 4.5×10-5
9.37 9.37
4. 0.000 000 0937 = 100,000,000 = = 9.37×10-8
108

Exercise
Express each of the following numbers in standard form:
1) 0.0004 4) 0.0052 7) 0.00000000000027
2) 0.000 009 5) 0.000000062 8) 0.000 000 483
3) 0.0142 6) 0.00000971
Convert each of the following numbers from standard form to the ordinary form.
1) 9.7 ×10-8 4) 9.37×10-8 7) 2.74×10-11
2) 7×10-5 5) 9.1×10-4
3) 4.6×10-8 6) 1×10-6

29
Without using a calculator, determine:
1. (5×104) × (2 ×104) 4. (2.5×105) × (3 ×102)
2. (6.1×104) × (8 ×10-8) 5. (4.8×1012) ÷(1.2 ×104)
3. (3.72×105) × (2.1 ×103) 6. (3.6×108)÷ (9 ×103)
Solve the following problems
1. The radius of the earth is 6.4 × 106 m. Giving your answers in standard form, correct
to 3 significant figures, calculate the circumference of the earth in:
i. m iii. mm
ii. cm iv. km
2. The distance between two points is 3.47 × 10-5m. Express this distance in km in
scientific notation.
3. The height of Mount Everest is 8.85 103 m. the height of Mount Kilimanjaro is 5.89 ×
103 m. write these heights in ordinary form and find the difference in heights between
the two mountains.
4. The half-life of Uranium 234 is 2.5 x 105 years and the half-life of Plutonium is 8.0 x
107 years. How many times greater is the half-life of Plutonium than Uranium 234
Rounding off numbers
When approximating numbers, remember that the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 are rounded down while the
digits 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are rounded up. A rounded number has about the same value as the
number you start with, but it is less exact. For example, 341 rounded to the nearest hundred is
300. That is because 341 is closer in value to 300 than to 400.
Examples
Approximate the 5,839 to the nearest:
i. Ten ii. Hundred iii. Thousand
Solutions
i. 5,839 rounded to the nearest ten is 5,840
ii. 5,839 rounded to the nearest hundred is 5,800
iii. 5,839 rounded to the nearest thousand is 6,000
Exercise
Approximate each of the following to nearest (i) ten, (ii)hundred (iii) thousand
1. 12847 4. 9823 7. 59097
2. 4517 5. 7991 8. 31729
3. 1667 6. 4931 9. 6723

30
Rounding Fractions
Rounding fractions works exactly the same way as rounding whole numbers. The only
difference is that instead of rounding to tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on, you round to
tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and so on.
Example
Approximate the number 3.7294 to the nearest (i) whole number (ii) tenth (iii) hundredth
(iii) thousandth.
i. 3.7294 rounded to the nearest whole number is 4
ii. 3.7294 rounded to the nearest tenth is 3.7
iii. 3.7294 rounded to the nearest hundredth is 3.73
iv. 3.729 rounded to the nearest thousandth is 3.729
Exercise
Approximate each of the following to the nearest (i) whole number (ii) tenth (iii) hundredth
(iii) thousandth.
1. 4.517 4. 3.7126
2. 6.378 5. 9.5623
3. 0.945 6. 2.9237
Decimal Places
Decimal places (d.p) are counted from decimal point. In decimals, zero after the point is
significant and are counted. When approximating the decimals, the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 are
rounded down and the digits 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are rounded down.
Example (1)
Approximate each of the following into 1 decimal place
1. 5.7825 2. 12.5379 3. 0.07856
Solutions
1) 5.3825 = 5.4 (1 d.p)
2) 12.5379 = 12.5 (1d.p)
3) 0.07856 = 0.1 (1 d.p)
Example (2)
Write 63.72941 into (i) 1 d.p (ii) 2 d.p (iii) 3 d.p.
Solution
i. 63.72941 = 63.7 (1 d.p)
ii. 63.72941 = 63.73 (2 d.p)
iii. 63.72941 = 63.729 (3 d.p)

31
Approximate each of the following into (i) 1 d.p (ii) 2 d.p (iii) 3 d.p (iv) 4 d.p.
1) 0.005879 4) 7.038456 7) 100.23948
2) 6.0749118 5) 0.96116 8) 3.56183
3) 45.117826 6) 1.94759 9) 92.9325
Rounding to Significant Figures
When approximating significant figures, they usually started from first non-zero digits at the
left of a number. For instance, 0.00736, the 7 is first non-zero digit. So, the approximation
begins at 3. Digits are rounded up or down as before. The word significant figures are usually
abbreviated to s.f.
Example (1)
Approximate each of the following into 1s.f
1. 5.7825 2. 192.5379 3. 837361
Solutions
1. 5.7825 = 6
2. 192.5379 = 200
3. 837361 = 800,000

Example (2)
Write 169184 into (i) 1 d.p (ii) 2 d.p (iii) 3 d.p.
Solutions
i. 167184 =200,000 iii. 169184 = 169,000
ii. 169184 = 170,000
Exercise
1. Approximate each of the following into (i) 1 d.p (ii) 2 d.p (iii) 3 d.p (iv) 4 d.p
a) 34561 e) 981347 i) 108.1347
b) 914.823 f) 0.0078235 j) 4.00835
c) 29834 g) 0.030783
d) 912758 h) 493.19238
2. Writ 92.3751 to (a) 1 d.p (b) 2 s.f (c) 1 s.f (d) 2 d.p
3. Write 467.9713 to:
a) 4 s.f c) 2 s.f e) 2 d.p
b) 3 s.f d) 1 s.f f) 1 d.p

32
 1.4.2Logarithms
A logarithm (log for short) is the power. Logarithms functions are the inverse of exponential
functions. If y = ax then we say “x is the logarithm of y in base a”, and write this as x
=log 𝑎 𝑦. For example, if 125 = 53, we can write in log form as 3 =log 5 125. The two
statements ‘5 to the power 3 equal 125’ and ‘the logarithm of 125 in base 5 equals 3’ are
equivalent. We can exchange logarithm and exponential forms as follow:

Example (1)
Write down the logarithm form of the following.
1. 5x = 13 2. 8 = 23 1
3. = 5-2
25

Solutions
1. 5x = 13 = 𝑥 = log 5 13
2. 8 = 23 = log 2 8 = 3
1 1
3. = 5-2 =
log 5 25 = −2
25

Example (2)
Write an equivalent exponential statement for:
1. log 4 64 = 3 2. log10 𝑏 = 7
Solutions
1. log 4 64 = 3 = 46 = 43 2. log10 𝑏 = 7 = b = 107
Exercise
Write down the exponential form of the following.
1. log10 10000 = 4 4. log 3 27 = 3 7. log 2 𝑦 = 12
2. log 2 16 = 4 5. log 2 8 = 3 8. log 2 64 = 6
3. log10 100 = 2 6. log 4 1024 = 5 9. log 6 216 = 3

Write an equivalent logarithmic statement for:

1. 22 = 4 3. 32 = 9 5. 105 = 10 000 000
2. 42 = 16 4. 53 = 125 1
6. 3-5 = 243

33
 1
7. 0.01 = 10-2 9. 1287 = 2 11. 38 = 6561
1 12. 65 = 7776
8. 8-1 = 8 10. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥
Common logarithms
The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithms. The common logarithm of x is
the power to which the number 10 must be raised to obtain the value x. For example, the
common logarithm of 10 is 1, the common logarithm of 100 is 2 and the common logarithm
of 1000 is 3. It is often used in various engineering fields, logarithm tables and handheld
calculators. We write log x to mean log10 x.
Examples
Evaluate the common logarithms. Round the answers to four decimal places.
1) log 420 2) log 0.0002 3) log(8.2 × 109 )
Solutions
Use a table of the common logarithm
1) log 420 ≅ 2.6232
2) log 0.0002 ≅9.9138
3) log(8.2 × 109 ) ≅ −3.6990
Exercise
Evaluate the common logarithms. Round answers to 3 decimal places.
1) log 120 4) log 12 7) log 0.08
2) log 122 5) log 0.003 8) log(6.2 × 105 )
3) log 350 6) log 0.00006 9) log(7.8 × 106 )

The Logarithm Laws

Since a logarithm is simply an exponent which is just being written down on the line, we
expect the logarithm laws to work the same as the rules for exponents, and luckily, they do.

34
Example
Express each of the following in a single logarithm
1) log 4 + log 5 3) 2log 5 + log 2 − log 10
2) log 40 − log 8
Solutions
1) log 4 + log 5
= log 4 × 5 = log 20
2) log 40 − log 8 = log 40 ÷ 8 = log 5
3) 2log 5 + log 2 − log 10 = log 52 +log 2 − log 10
= log 25 +log 2 − log 10 = log 25 × 2 − log 10
= = log 50 ÷ 10 = log 5
Exercise
Express each of the following in a single logarithm.
1) log 3 + log 4 7) log 50 − log 5
2) log 7 + log 2 8) log 45 − log 9
3) log 10 + log 5 9) 3log 5 + log 25 − log 5
4) log 5 + log 6 10) 3log 4 − log 8 +log 4
5) log 15 + log 3 11) log 4 + 2log 7
6) log 4 − log 2 12) 2log 3 + log 4 − log 12

Theory of logarithms
Example (3)
Evaluate the following logarithms
1
1. log 2 4 2. log 3 81 3. log 5 625

Solutions
1. log 2 4 2. log 3 81 = log 3 34 = 4log 3 3
log 2 22 = 2log 2 2 = 2 × 1 3 ×1=3
1 1
3. log 5 625 = log 5 54 = log 5 5−4

−4 log 5 5= −4 × = −4
Exercise
Without using a calculator, find the value of:
1. log10 1000 3. log 4 8 5. log 3 3
2. log 5 25 4. log 5 125 6. log 2 32

35
 7. log12 144 10. log 49 7 13. log 3 81
8. log 8 0.0625 11. log 2 1024 14. log 3 9
9. log 6 216 12. log10 0.01 15. log 2 8
Find the values of x which satisfy the following equations.
1) 2x = 8 4) 3x = 81
2) 3x = 81 5) 4x = 8
3) 10x = 10 000 6) 125x-2 = 25

1.5 Percentage
20
Percentage is a function whose denominator is 100. 20% means100, the symbol % is short for

percent.
Converting fractions and decimals into percentage
Example (1)
40 65
Express 100 and 100 as a percentage.

Solution
Both of these fractions have a denominator of 100. Therefore, we can write simply
40 65
= 40% and = 65%
100 100

But if you convert a fraction whose denominator is not 100 into a percentage, you can be
done into two ways:
i. Express the fractions as an equivalent fraction having a denominator of 100,
ii. Multiply the fraction by 100 and label the results as a percentage.
Example (2)
Change the following fractions into percentage
2 3 13
1. 2. 3.
10 5 20

Solutions
Method 1:
2 𝑥
1. =
10 100
10𝑥 200
10x = 200 (by cross multiplication)= = = x = 20%
10 10
3 𝑥
2. = 100
5
5𝑥 300
5x = 300 (by cross multiplication) = = = 60%
5 5
13 𝑥
3. =
20 100

36
 20𝑥 1300
20x = 1300 (by cross multiplication) = = = x = 65%
20 20

Method 2:
2 2 200
1. = 10 × 100 = = 20%
10 10
3 3 300
2. = 5 × 100 = = 65%
5 5
13 13 1300
3. = 20 × 100 = = 65%
20 20

Example (3)
Change the following decimal fractions into percentage
1. 0.75 2. 0.3 3. 0.568
Solutions
100 75
1. 0.75 = 0.75 × = = 75%
100 100
100 30
2. 0.3 = 0.3 × = = 30%
100 100
100 56.8
3. 0.568 = 0.568 × = = 56.8%
100 100

Exercise
1. Express the following percentage as fraction in their lowest terms:
a) 6% d) 45% g) 77% j) 75%
b) 35% e) 24% h) 90% k) 50%
c) 80% f) 30% i) 12% l) 25%
2. Express the following fractions as a percentage
15 1 3
a) d) g)
20 4 7
1 5 8
b) e) h)
2 8 10
45 2 12
c) f) 2 3 i) 25
50

3. Convert each of the following percentages into fractions

a) 75% c) 90% e) 78%
b) 40% d) 35% f) 12%
4. 30% of children walk to school. What fraction of children walks to school? Give your
fraction in its simplest form.
5. Only 10% of students in a class have not a mobile telephone. Work out the fraction of
students that have a mobile telephone. Give your fraction in its simplest form

37
 6. Copy and Complete this table

How to express one quantity as a percentage of another

A quantity can be expressed as a percentage of another by writing it as a fraction of a given
quantity and then multiply the fraction by 100 to change it to percentage. Make sure that both
quantities are in the same units.
Examples
1. In an exam a student scored 40 marks out of possible of 50. What percentage is this?
Solution
40 4000
×100 = = 80%
50 50

2. A farmer harvested 150 bags of maize in one season. If he sold 95 bags, what
percentage of his crop does this represent?
Solution
95 9500
×100 = = 63.3%
150 150

Exercise
1. Express the first quantity as a percentage of the second quantity.
a) Sh 2, sh 4.5 c) 30 m, 1 km e) 400 g, 1 kg
b) 45 g, 75 g d) 10 cts, sh 1 f) 5 mm, 2 cm
2. A shop has 4600 books, 20% of the books are novels. How many of the books are
novels?
3. In an examination a boy obtained 24 marks out of 50. What percentage is this?
4. 8 students are missing from a class of 45 students. What percentage of the class is
missing?

38
 5. In a package of 150 oranges, 12 are bad. What percentage is:
a) Bad b) Good
6. Express 40 cm as a percentage of 2.5 m.
Calculating a given percentage of a quantity
Examples
1. Work out 30% of 150.
Solution
30
× 150 = 45
100

2. Hassan invests £1850.The interest rate is 12% per year. How much interest will Colin
receive after 1 year?

Solution
12
12% of 1850 = 100 × 1850 = £222

Exercise
1. Work out a:
a) 40% of 200 d) 5% of 60
b) 20% of 400 e) 25% of 240
c) 50% of 250 f) 20% of 30
2. There are 2400 students in a school. 17% of the students in the school wear glasses.
How many of the students wear glasses?
3. A bank deposit earns 8% interest in one year. Calculate interest earned on a deposit of
£15000.
4. There are 250 shop assistants in a large store. 20% of the shop assistants are male.
How many of the shop assistants are male?
5. Asma scored 65% in a test. The test was out of 40 marks. How many marks did Asma
score?
6. If an employee is late 20% of the time during the month (25 work days), he will be
fired. How many days can an employee be late?
Percentage Increase and Decrease
Examples
1. Ali’s salary is $420 a month. His salary is increased by 5%. Work out his new salary.
Solution
5
Amount increased = 5% of $420 = 100 × $420 = $21

39
 His new salary = $420 +$21= $441
2. A dress which was costing sh70,000 now goes for sh65000. What is percentage
decrease of the dress?
Solution
Amount decreased = sh70, 000 – sh65000 = sh 5000
5000
Percentage decrease = 70 000 × 100 = sh 7.14%

Exercise
1. Hamda earns sh 260,000 as a week wage. She received 4% increase. Calculate her
new weekly wage?
2. The price of a computer is $550. Its price is reduced by 8% in a sale. Work out the
sale price of the computer.
3. A compact disc player normally priced at $ 200 is reduced in a sale by 15%. Calculate
the sale price.
4. The value of a car depreciates by 20% each year. The value of a car when new is $35,
000. Work out the value of the car after 3 year.
5. A deposit of 650 increased by 12%. Calculate the resulting deposit.
6. A market price of a television set was $350. The trader offers an 8% discount. What is
the cash price of the television set?
Reverse Percentage
Sometimes a question will ask you to work backwards and find the original price of
something after the price has increased. Reverse percentages are used when the percentage and the
final number is given, and the original number needs to be found. To calculate reverse percentage take
these steps.
1. If the percentage is an increase then add it to 100, if it is a decrease then subtract it
from 100.
2. Multiply the final number by 100.
Examples
1. After a discount of 10%, the sale price of a coat was $72. What was the price before
the discount?
Solution
100 −10 = 90
72
×100 = 80
90

Thus, the price before discount was $80

40
 2. The price of a new television set is $320. This price includes Value Added Tax (VAT)
at 12%. Work out the cost of the television set before VAT was added.
12+100= 120
320
×100 = 266.7
120

3. A student scored 16 correct answers in a multiple choice exam which represents 40%of the
total question. How many questions were there on the paper?
40% = 16
16
1% = 40

16
100% = 40 × 100% = 40 =

There were 40 questions on the paper.

Exercise
1. After 10% interest has been added, Colette has £900 in her bank account. How much
did she have before interest was added?
2. The price of a new washing machine is $440. This price includes Value Added Tax
(VAT) at 12%. Work out the cost of the washing machine Before VAT was added.
3. In a sale all the prices are reduced by 15%. The sale price of a dress is $30. Work out
the normal price of the dress.
4. A large firm hires 5% more workers which brings its total number of workers to
12 7720. How many workers did the firm have before the increase?
5. In a sale, a computer is priced £555 after a discount of 15%. What was the original
price before discount?
6. A car dealer works out that if he sells a car for $9000, he will make a 25% profit.
How much did he originally pay for the car?
7. A child grows 15% in height in one year and is now 99 cm. How tall was she at the
start of the year?
8. When Simon sold his house for $66 000, he made a profit of 10%. How much did he
pay for the house originally?
9. In a 15% sale, a coat costs £76.50, what was the pre-sale price?
10. Ahmed saves 15% of his wage each month. If he saves $560 000, how much does he earn?
11. Employees at a firm receive a pay increase of 4%. After the pay increase Linda earns £24
960. How much did Linda earn before the pay increase?

41
1.6 Pattern in Mathematics
Number pattern
The multiples of 6 can be given in a row or sequences:
For example 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36,… are number patterns in sequence?
They can also be shown by shading on multiples of 6 as rows as in fig1.6.1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 10
Fig 1.6.1

Extending number patterns

Example (1)
Find the next four terms in sequences
1) 2,5,8,11,14____, _____, ______, ______
2) 2.3, 3.4, 4.5, 5.6, _____, ______, ______, _____
Solutions
1) First, find the common difference between the terms. The common difference in this case
is 3. Therefore, the next term of the sequences is found by adding 3 to 14, and this is
gives 17. The next term is found by adding 3 to 17 and gives 20, and so on. So, the next
four terms are 17, 20, 23, 26.
2) The common difference is 1.1. The next four terms in this sequence are 6.7, 7.8, 8.9, 10.0.

Exercise
1. Find the next two terms of the following sequences.
a) 2, 6, 10, 14, ___, ___ c) 10, 9, 8, 7, ____, ____
b) 1,4,9,16,25, ____, _____ d) 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ____, ____

42
 e) 16, 12, 8, 4, ____, ____ h) 1,2 4, 8, 16, ____, ____
f) 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ____, ____ i) 1, 12, 23, 34, 45, ____, _____
g) 175, 170, 165, `160, ____, j) 1, 6, 36, 216, _____, _____
____
2. What comes next? And what is the rule for the following sequences?
a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ___, _____, c) 2, 5, 9, 14, 20, ___, ____, ____
_____ d) 128, 64, 32, 16, ___, ____, ___
b) 21, 18, 15, 12, ___, ____,
_____
3. Complete the gaps in the following sequences
a) Multiple of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, ………….., 576
b) Multiple of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, …………….., 1024
c) Multiple of 5: 5, 10, 15, 20, ………….., 500
d) Multiple of 9: 9, 18, 27, 36, ………….., 126
e) Multiple of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, ……….., 160
f) Multiple of 10: 10, 20, 30, 40, ………, 800
4. Make on 1 – 100 number squares. Shade all multiples of 4, 6, 7 and 12

Patterns and Graphs

Pattern and graphs are important concept in maths. Graphs are the pictorical representation of
data. Graphs drawn are x and y axis. x and y are inter dependent. We can see that the values
of x and y has some pattern in it. first of all we should know what is pattern.
Pattern: pattern is a way of solving particular mathematical equation.
Example (1)
Find the pattern and draw the graph of the equation y=x+2
Solution
y=x+2 this is an equation, so here value of y is dependent on value of x. If value of x is
changed then value of y will be also changed. If we plug x=1 then y will be 3
When we plug x=2 then y=4
When we plug x=3 then y=5
When we plug x=4 then y=6
When we plug x=5 then y=7
So here value of y increased by 1 when value of x increased by 1.so it follow a particular
pattern that is why it is called pattern.

43
Tables: Table is way of writing a pattern in proper way. Like value of x should place in a
column and corresponding value of y should be in another column. so that it will be easy to
access.

Graph : Graph is the pictorial representation for that equation.The graph for the above table
is as below

Graph pattern is straight line. If we concentrated on x and y values x value is increasing by

one and y value is also increasing by one so there is a particular pattern for the table and
graph formation.
Example (2)
Find the pattern and draw the graph of the equation x+y=3
Solution:
Step 1: First we need to find the x and y points.
Step 2: the given equation is x+y = 3
Step 3: so y = 3-x.
Step 4: Plug x= 1, So, y= 3-1 . Therefore, the value of y is 2.
Step 5: Plug x = 2, so, y= 3-2 .Therefore, the value of y is 1.
Step 6: Plug x = 0, so, y= 3-0 .Therefore, the value of y is 3.
Step 7: Plug x =- 1, so, y= 3-(-1) .Therefore, the value of y is 4
Step 8: Plug x =- 2, so, y= 3-(-2) .Therefore, the value of y is 5

44
Step 9: Now we need to plot the points in graph.

So the ordered pairs are

(1, 2), (2, 1), (0, 3), (-1, 4), (-2, 5)
Now we have to draw these points on the graph
So the graph for the above data is given as follow:

Exercise
Find the pattern and draw the graph of the following equations
1) y = 2x+1 5) y = 2x−10 9) 5x + 2y = 24
2) y = 3x−2 6) y = 7x 10) 7x + 2y = 3
3) y = 5x+4 7) 3x + 4y = 28
4) y = x 8) 5x + 2y = 22

45
Special sequences

There are some number sequences that occur frequently. It is useful to know these as they are
very likely to occur in examinations.

Remember: There is only one even prime number and that is 2.

Exercise
Find the next two terms and the nth term in each of these linear sequences.
1) 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ... 4) 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, ...
2) 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ... 5) 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...
3) 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, ... 6) 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, ...
For the sequence find: (a) the nth term (b) the 100th term.
a) 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ...
b) 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, ...
c) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ...
d) 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, ...
e) 9, 13, 17, 21, ...
f) 6, 11, 16, 21, ...

46
Patterns with shapes
Examples
Here is a sequence made from a pattern of dots

a) Complete the table.

b) How many dots are in the 7th pattern?

c) Which pattern has 62 dots in it?
Solutions
a)

b) the 7th patterns has 23 dots

c) the pattern that has 62 dots is 20th term
Exercise
1. Triangular numbers are found as follows. Find the next four triangular numbers

2. Hexagonal numbers are found as follows. Find the next three hexagonal numbers.

3. Describe the number pattern that the contents follow. The supermarket introduces a
super giant size, which is the next sized bottle in the pattern. How much water is there
in this bottle?

47
 4. These patterns are made from squares.
a) Complete the table below

Pattern number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of squares in each pattern
b) Explain how you worked out the number of squares in patterns 4 and 5.

1.7 Ratio, Rate and Proportion

1.7.1 Ratio
Ratio is a way of comparing two similar quantities. Ratios are used to compare quantities.
Ratios are written using a colon (:) For example if there are 5 boys and 3 girls in a class the
ratio of the number of boys to the number of girls is 5:3.The order of the numbers is
important.
Example (1)
Write each of these ratios in its simplest form:
a) 7 : 14 b) 15 : 25 c) 10 : 4
Solutions
a) Divide both sides by 7, giving
7 14
7:14 = 7 : 7 = 1:2

b) Divide both sides by 5, giving

15 25
15 : 25 = = =3:5
5 5

c) Divide both sides by 2, giving

10
10: 4 = 2
4
= 2 = 5:2

48
Example 2
Write these ratios in the form 1: n.
a) 3 : 12 b) 5 : 6 c) 10 : 42
Solutions
a) Divide both sides by 3, giving
: 12 = 1: 4
b) Divide both sides by 5, giving
5: 6=1: 1.2
c) Divide both sides by 10, giving
10: 42 =1: 4.2
Example (3)
Write these ratios in the form n: 1.
a) 6:3 b) 2:8
Solutions
a) Divide both sides by 3, giving
6:3 = 2:1
b) Divide both sides by 8, giving
1
2:8 = 4 :1 or = 0.25:1

Exercises
1. Write each of these ratios in its simplest form:
a) 2:8 e) 12 : 4 i) 250 : 50
b) 4 : 20 f) 40 : 15 j) 40 : 50
c) 5 : 15 g) 28 : 14 k) 18 : 24
d) 12 : 2 h) 15 : 30 l) 22 : 44
2. Write in the form 1 : n, each of the following ratios:
a) 2 : 6 d) 2 : 14 g) 4 : 11
b) 3 : 9 e) 14 : 28 h) 5 : 16
c) 10 : 35 f) 8 : 32 i) 5 : 17
3. Write in the form n : 1, each of the following ratios: 24 : 6
a) 5 : 10 c) 15 : 2 e) 16 : 50
b) 8 : 14 d) 8 : 5
4. Write 8 m to 60 cm as a ratio in its simplest form.

49
 5. A model car has a length of 6 cm. The real car has a length of 3 m. write down the
ratio of the length of the model car to the length of the real car. Give your ratio in its
simplest form.
6. In a school there are 100 computers. There are 510 students in the school. Write down
the ratio of the number of computers to the number of students. Give your ratio in the
form 1:n
7. On a map, a distance of 5 cm represents an actual distance of 15 km. Write the scale
of the map in the form 1: n.
Proportional parts
Proportion is a comparison of two or more ratios. To divide a quantity into two or more
ratios, find the sum and then required parts by the total of ratios and multiply the quantity.
Examples
1. Divide 250 cm in the ratio 4:6
Solution
4+6 = 10
4 6
× 250 = 100 × 250 = 150
10 10

2. Asma, Bushra and Hakima share 150 sweets in the ratio5:7:3. How many sweets does
each girl get?
Solution
5+7+3 = 15
5 3
Asma = 15 × 150 = 50 Hakima = 15 × 150 = 30
7
Bushra = 15 × 150 = 70

Exercise
1. Divide 180 in the following ratios
a) 3:6 c) 1:4:5
b) 8:10 d) 9:12:15
2. Hassan and Mohamed share 50 cars in the ratio 2: 3. Work out how many cars does
each get.
3. Hassan, Ali and Ahmed are aged 12, 14 and 20 respectively. They share 69000
Somaliland shillings in the ratio of their ages. How much does each get?
4. A box contains two sizes of nails. The ratio of long nails to short nails is 3:9.
Calculate the number of each type, if the total number of nails is 120.

50
 5. A mass of 40 kg is divided into three portions in the ratio 3:4:8. Calculate the mass of
each portion.
6. Ali is 10 years old and Ahmed is 15 years old. They share $300 in the ratio of their
ages. How much money does each boy get?
1.7.2 Rates
Rate is a way of comparing one quantity with another of a different kind. Since ratio compare
quantities in the same kinds but quantities in different kinds may be connected in the form of
a rate.
Example (1)
Find in km/h, the rate at which a car travels if 40 km in 30 min.
Solution
In 30 min the car goes in 40km
40 𝑘𝑚
In 1 min the car goes 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛
40 𝑘𝑚 40 𝑘𝑚 ×60
In 60 min the car goes 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 60 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛
240 𝑘𝑚
= = 80
30 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Therefore, the rate of the car is 80 km/h.

Example (2)
A labourer’s wages is sh. 70000 per eight- hour working day. What is the rate of payment per
hour?
Solution
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑠ℎ.7000
Rate = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 8 ℎ𝑟𝑠

= 8750
Therefore, the rate is 8750 shillings per hour.
Exercise
1. A typist can type 4800 words in one hour. What is her rate of typing per minute?
2. A steel beam 10.6 m long has a mass 62.43 g. what is the density in kg/g?
3. The region has an area of 3040 hectares and a population of 90500. Calculate its
population density. Correcting your answer into three significant figures.
4. A train took two hours to travel a distance of 69 km. what was its average speed?
5. A farmer harvested 158 bags of maize from 2 hectares of his farm. How many bags of
maize he can harvest from 10 hectares if he maintained the rate?
1
6. A car travel 85 km in 12 hrs. Calculate the average speed in km/h.

51
 7. A town has an area of 30 km2 and population of 38500. Calculate the population density
of the town per km2 correct to 2d.p.
1.7.3 Rate of exchange
Exchange rate is a price of one currency in terms of another. Exchange rates are important for
trade because they allow you to compare the cost of imports to that of domestic goods in
common terms. Table 7.1 shows Exchange rate of some neighbor countries.

Example
An Ethiopia traveler takes 2500 Riyal to Somaliland. How many Somaliland shillings can
this be exchange.
Solution
1 R = sh350
2500 R = x
x = 2500 × 350
= sh 875000
Exercise
1. Exchange the following amounts to the nearest Somaliland shillings.
a) $45
b) R 250
c) R4570
d) $305

52
 2. Exchange 8000 000 into the following currencies.
a) Dollar
b) Ethiopian Riyal
c) Kenyan shilling
3. It cost US $500 for an air ticket to USA. How much will a businessman spend in buying the
dollar in Somaliland shillings?
4. How many dollars can be exchanged for 2785 Ethiopian riyal?
5. How many riyal are equivalent to 10 000 Somaliland shillings?

UNIT TWO: ALGEBRA 1

Introduction
Algebra is a branch of mathematics in which symbols, usually letters of the alphabet,
represent numbers or members of a specified set and are used to represent quantities and
to express general relationships that hold for all members of the set.
In a simple
Definition: Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses symbols standing for unknown
quantities in order to determine their values by the operation of Arithmetic.
. In our previous introduction of Algebra in the primary schools , we used the boxes as shown
below :

What is the missing number?

- 2 = 4

OK, the missing number or answer is 6, right, Because 6− 2 = 4.

Well, now we don't use blank boxes, we use a letter (usually an x or y, or any other letter, any
letter is fine). So we write:

x - 2 = 4

It is really that simple. The letter (in this case an x) just means "we don't know this yet", and is
often called the unknown or the variable and by solving we get x = 6 .

2.1: Algebraic Expressions

53
DEFINITION: A mathematical phrase that can contain ordinary numbers, operators like
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and at least one variable like (x or y) to
represent operations is called an algebraic expression. An Expression is a group of terms (the
terms are separated by + or − signs)
Here are some algebraic expressions: 9 , 3x , xy , 3 + ab , x2 - 5 , w + 8 , and etc Such
expressions, we can use with powers as like numbers take powers, for example 6 4 is 6  6  6  6.
The power (or exponent) 4 indicates the base 6 is used a factor four times.
Generally, if “ n “ is a positive integer and “ m “ is a real number, then m n is read as “ m power of n “,
where m is the base and n is the power which means m is multiplied n times.

Given below, are examples of some powers of m:

First degree (power) m1 = m.

Second degree (power) m2 = m x m.
Third degree (power) m3 = m x m x m.
Fourth Degree (power) m4 = m x m x m x m …….. and etc.
Exponents
The exponent (such as the 2 in x2) says how many times to use the value in a multiplication.

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications

Example: y4z2is easier than y × y × y × y × z × z, or even yyyyzz.

TERM
In Algebra a term is either a single number or variable, or numbers and variables multiplied together
and separated by + or − signs.
For example:

A Variable is a symbol or letter used the place of numbers for a number e.g. x or y.

Constant: A number on its own is called a Constant. Sometimes a letter stands in for the
number. In the equation 4x – 7 = 5, 7 and 5 are constants (constant numbers).
Polynomials
54
Definition: A polynomial is a mathematical expression involving a sum of powers in one or more variables
multiplied by coefficients. A polynomial can be one term or the sum of terms.
A Coefficient: is a number used to multiply a variable (4 x means 4 times x or (x + x + x + x), so 4 is a
coefficient) Sometimes a letter stands in for the number:
2
Example: 3x + 5 x + 7
 x is a variable
  3 and 5 are coefficients
 7 is a constant
An Operator is a symbol (such as +, ×, etc) that shows an operation (i.e. we want to do something
with the values).

Like Terms are terms whose variables (and their exponents such as the 2 in x2) are the same. In other
words, terms that are "like" each other. (Note: the coefficients can be different).
Example 1
1
𝑥𝑦 2 , −2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝑥𝑦 2 Are like terms because the variable are all xy2.
3
Example 2
2𝑎, 4𝑎, −12𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.5𝑎 are like terms because they have same variable a.

2.2. Polynomials:
Definition: A polynomial is a mathematical expression involving a sum of powers in one or more
variables multiplied by coefficients. A polynomial can be one term or the sum of terms.
These are polynomials:
1. Monomial (one term expression). like 5xy3
2. Binomial (Two terms expression). 5x –4.
3. Trinomial (three terms expression 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 2 − 3

Like and unlike terms

Like terms: Terms which involve the same letter and the same index (i.e. power) are ‘like terms’
1
Expressions such as 3x, x, 8x, 12x, x are called terms in x. terms with the same variables are called
2

like terms. Like terms can be added and subtracted. In the expressions 3p + 7t – q +4 the variables are
all different and the last term is a constant (number). The four terms are unlike terms. Unlike terms
cannot be added or subtracted

Addition and Subtraction of Monomials:

To add or subtract monomials, use the same rules as with directed (signed) numbers, provided the
terms are alike.

Example

Add 20 a2 b c + 4 a2 b c

55
Solution:

20 a2 b c + 4 a2 b c = (20 + 4) a2 b c = 24 a2 b c

Note that the addition of like terms is done by adding their coefficients (taken with their signs) and
multiplying this sum by the common letter or letters.

Perform the operations indicated:

Example 7 x - 2 x

Solution: 7 x - 2 x = (7 - 2) x = 5 x

Example

10 x2 + 3 x2 - 5 x2

Solution:

10 x2 + 3 x2 - 5 x2 = (10 + 3 - 5) x2 = 8 x

Example

19 w + 21 w - 27 w - (- 4 w)

Solution:

19 w + 21 w - 27 w - (- 4 w) = [19 + 21 - 27 - (- 4)] w = [19 + 21- 27 + 4] w

= 17 w

Multiplying and Dividing Monomials:

(I) Multiplication:
i) To multiply monomials, add the exponents of the same bases.
ii) The coefficients follow the rules of signed numbers.
iii) When monomials are being raised to a power, the answer is obtained by multiplying
the exponents of each part of the monomial by the power to which it is being raised.

56
 ii)  a m 
n
We use i)a m  a n  a mn
1) x 4  x 5  x 4  5  x 9
2) a 3 b 2  a 4 b 4  a 7  b 7
3) p 2  p 7  p 4  p13
4)12 y 4  6 y 2  12  6  y 6  72 y 6
5)  4a 2 b  5a 4 b 5  4  5  a 6 b 6
6)  x 5 
2
 x10

7)  3a 7    3 a 
3 3
 27 a 21
3 7

8)  p 2 q 3 
4
 p 8 q12

9)  3 x 2 y 3 z 4 
4
 81x 8 y12 z16

(II) Division:

i) To divide monomials, subtract the exponent of the divisor from the exponent of the dividend,
having the same base.
ii) Division of coefficients follows the rules of signed numbers.

Exercise

Simplify each of the following expressions:

57
Addition:

In order to add given polynomials, we adopt two steps.

1) Arrange the given polynomials, such that like terms are in one column.

2) Add the coefficients of each column separately.

58
Subtraction:

This is done in two steps:

1) Arrange the given polynomials, such that like terms are in one column.

2) Change the signs of the terms of the polynomial and then add.

Example Add 4 a - 3 b, - 2 a + b, 5 a - 3 b and - 6 a + 4 b

Solution: The required sum

= (4 a - 3 b) + (- 2 a + b) + (5 a - 3 b) + (- 6 a + 4 b)
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 = (4 a - 2 a + 5 a - 6 a) + (- 3 b + b - 3 b + 4 b)

= (9 a - 8 a) + (5 b - 6 b)

= a + (- b) = a – b

Example Subtract

Example What must be added to x2 - x + 1 to obtain x3 + 1?

Solution: From the wording of the problem we understand that the sum of two expressions here is x3
+ 1 of which x2 - x + 1 is One. The other can, therefore, be obtained by taking from x3 + 1 the
expression x2 - x + 1.

Thus we have:

Example What must be subtracted from a3 + 2a2 + a - 2 to get a3 + a + 1?

Solution:

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 Example A person possesses $ 7 ab + 5 bc + 4 ac. He spent at different times $ab + bc , $ ½ ac - ½
bc , $ ab + 2 bc - 3/2 ac and $ 3ab - ½ bc + 2 ac. How many dollars does he possess now?

Solution: In total, he spent

(ab + bc) + (½ ac - ½ bc) + (ab + 2 bc - 3/2 ac) + (3 ab - ½ bc + 2 ac)

= ( ab + ab + 3 ab ) + ( bc + 2 bc - bc ) + ( ½ ac - 3/2 ac + 2 ac ) = 5 ab + 2 bc + ac dollars

The person now possesses

= (7 ab + 5 bc + 4 ac) - (5 ab + 2 bc + ac) = 2 ab + 3 bc + 3 ac dollars.

Exercise:
Remove the Symbols (brackets) of groping and combine like terms
1. −(1 − 𝑥) + 2(𝑥 − 1|)
2. −(𝑦 − 2) + 3(2 − 𝑦)
3. 3 − (𝑥 − 2)
4. (4𝑥 2 − 𝑥) − (3𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
5. −2(𝑥 − 3) + 3(𝑥 − 4)
6. −3(𝑥 − 2) + 2(𝑥 − 3)
7. 6𝑥 − 4[𝑥 − (1 + 𝑥)]
8. 3𝑥 − 2[3𝑥 − (𝑥 + 2)]
9. 3(𝑥 − 1) − 4[𝑥 − 2(𝑥 + 3)]
10. −2(3𝑥 − 1) − 3[2𝑥 − (1 + 𝑥)]
11. 10.5 – 2 – ( 3𝑟 + 4 ) + 𝑟
12. 9𝑥 + (5𝑟 + 2 ) – ( 3𝑟 + 8 )
13. 2𝑎 − ( 7𝑎 + 3 ) + ( 5𝑎 + 6 )
14. 8( 𝑎 + 𝑏 ) – 6 ( 𝑎 + 𝑏 ) + 2𝑎2𝑏2
15. (5𝑥3 + 7𝑥2 – 3𝑥 + 1 ) + ( 3𝑥3 + 5𝑥 − 18 – 4𝑥2
16. ( 𝑏3 – 2𝑏2 + 3𝑏 + 4 ) − ( 𝑏2 – 4𝑏3 + 2𝑏 – 1 )
17. (2𝑎4 + 3𝑥3 + 2 – 5𝑎2 ) + ( 3𝑎2 + 4𝑎3 – 8𝑎4 – 3 )
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18. ( 𝑚2 – 7𝑚3 – 𝑚 – 3 ) – ( 10𝑚3 + 𝑚 + 2 – 𝑚2 )
19. ( 2𝑥3 + 7𝑥2𝑦2 + 10𝑥𝑦3 ) + ( 9𝑥2𝑦2 – 3𝑥2𝑦 )
20. ( 3𝑐2𝑑 + 2𝑐𝑑 + 5𝑑3 ) + ( 𝑎𝑑3 – 7𝑐2𝑑 – 2𝑐𝑑)

multiplication of polynomials
The product of two expressions or more can be found by using the different properties like
commutative, Associative, distributive and the laws of exponents.
Some operations like addition and multiplication has the following properties:
a. Associative …… ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 ).
𝑂𝑟 ( 𝑎. 𝑏). 𝑐 = 𝑎. ( 𝑏. 𝑐 )
b. Commutative …. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎
c. Distributive …… a ( b+ c ) = ab + ac .Multiplication is distributive over addition
Multiplication one term by one term
Examples: 1). (2a) (4)
2). (3a) (2a2)
3). 23 a3 b (b3 c2)

Solutions: 1. (2a) (4) = 4 (2a) = 8a ………….. Commutative.

2
2 (3a) (2a ) = 6 a3
3 2 a b (b c ) = 8a3b4c2
3 3 3 2

Multiplication one term by two terms or more

Example -1 : Multiply 2 x2 ( 4 x + 2 ).
= 2 x2 ( 4x ) + 2 x2 (2 ). … Distributive property over addition.
= 8x3 + 4 x2 …… Associative properties, exponent law
of addition.

Example -2 :
the product of 2x2 ( 4x2 + 2x – 5 ).
Solution: 2x2 ( 4x2 + 2x – 5 )
=2x2 . 4x2 + 2x2 . 2x + 2x2 . (- 5 ) … Distributive property over addition.
=2.4x2. x2 + 2x2 .2x + 2. (- 5) x2… commutative and associative properties.
First exponential law
=8x4 + 4x3 + - 10x2 ……

Multiplication two terms by two terms or more

Example -1 : find the product of these : ( 3x + 3 ) (2x2 + x - 5 ).

Solution: ( 3x + 3 ) ( 2x2 + x - 5 ) = 3x ( 2x2 + x - 5 ) + 3 (2x2 + x - 5 ) .
= 6x3 + 3x2 – 15x +6x2 + 3x – 15.
= 6x3 + 9x2 - 12x - 15 .

Example -2 : work out ( 9y–8 ) ( 4y + 5 ) .

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Solution: ( 9y – 8 ) ( 4y + 5 ) = 36y2 + 45y – 32y – 40 .

= 36y2 + ( 45 – 32 )y - 40
= 36y2 + 13y – 40

Exercise: work out

1. ax(bx2y)
2. a(a+2)
3. ⌠a +5(a +2 ) ⌡- 8
4. 21 - 2⌠8k + 4(3 – k – 1 )
5. X( 3x + 4 ) + 2( x2 – 7x + 6 ) – 3x( 1 – 5x )
6. 4( 5 – 2y – y2 ) – y( y + 6) + 2y( 7 – 8y )
7. y( y – 6 ) – 2y( 7 – 5y ).
8. (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥2 − 3𝑥 + 1)
9. (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
10. 3𝑥(𝑥2 + 4𝑥 − 6)
11. (5𝑥 − 3)(𝑥3 + 4𝑥 − 6)
12. 𝑋(𝑥 + 3) − 3(𝑥2 + 3)
13. 2𝑥(𝑥 − 3) − 2(𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 3)

As you can see from the above example, the product of two expressions is the expression formed
when each term of the first expression is multiplied with the second expression and then the like
terms are added .

Division of polynomials
The associate property can be used to the division of a polynomial and a term to get the sum of
fractions , polynomial and a polynomial and a fraction .
Division by one term
Example 1

9𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
3𝑥 4
3
9𝑥 12𝑥 2 6𝑥
= 4+ − 4
3𝑥 3𝑥 4 3𝑥
3 4 2
= + 2− 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 2

y − 5𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
𝑦
𝑦 5𝑦2 𝑦 3
= − +
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
= 1 − 5y + y 2

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Example 3
18𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
6𝑥 2
4
18𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝑥 2
= 2
+ 2
− 2− 2
6𝑥 6𝑥 6𝑥 6𝑥

1 1 1
= 3𝑥 2 + − − 2
2 6𝑥 3𝑥

Exercise: Simplify these expressions

1. 4
- + 7a2
7a
2. 25x + 15x2 - 30x
3

5x
3. -8xy
3𝑥 5 +𝑥 3 −3𝑥2 +𝑥
4. 6𝑥 3
6𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −𝑥−1
5. 2𝑥 3

21a4 − 14a3 + 7𝑎2

(𝑎)
7𝑎
25𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 − 30𝑥
(𝑏)
5𝑥
16x 3 − 24x 2 y 2 − 64xy 3
8𝑥𝑦

Division by two term

Example: x2 + 6x + 5
x +1
Solution: use the long division.
X +5
x + 1 x2 + 6x + 5
- x2 -x …………………………………………Change the bottom sign & add .
5x + 5
-5x - 5………………… Change the bottom sign & add.
000

Exercise: Simplify
6. 15x2 - x - 6
5x + 3
5. 36a4 + 18a3b - 24a2b2 -6a2
6. 6x2 + 2x - 28
3x + 7
7. – 15x3 + 30x2 + 5 5x3
8. -12a3 - 9a2 +3a 3a

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 9. X2 - 9
X+3
10. X2 - 4 X - 1
11. 12x2 - 4xy - y2
2x - y
12. 8t - 22t2 -5t +12
3

4x + 3
13 .X2 - 12x + 36 ÷ x – 6
14 3X2 + 4x + 8 ÷ 3x + 1
15 4X3 + 10X2 - 6 ÷ 2x + 2
16 9 - 8w -w2
3 +u

17. 3t + 5t - 2t3 -
1 + 2t .

16. 42 - u2
4 +u

17.
(a)4a3a÷6 2 (b)4a 8b ÷2a 3b
(c) x 2 5x 8x ÷x 4
2 (d)8x y ÷4x 6y

I. Square of the sum of two terms

By finding the square of the sum of two terms, follow the following steps : ( a + b ) 2
1. Square the first term.
2. Twice the product of the two terms.
3. Square the last term. a b
4. Add up the results in 1, 2 and 3 .
a a2 ab

Example : Expand ( a + b ) 2 b ab b2
1. a2
2. 2( ab ) = 2ab .
3. b2
therefore , a2 + 2ab + b2 …… the answer .
More examples a. (x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x+ 4
b. (x + 4y) 2 = x2 + 8xy + 16y2
c. (2x - y) 2 = 4x2 - xy + y2
d. (4x - 5)2 = 16x2 - 4x + 25

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Product of the sum and difference of two terms:
The product of the sum and difference of two terms is the square of the first terms minus the square
of the second term. (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

II. Example-1 :Multiply 1 (a+b)(a-b ),

2 ( x + 5 ) ( x– 5 ) = x.x + x(5) + -5(x) – 5(5) = X2 - 25

Their first terms have the same sign , but their last terms are of different signs .
Solution:1. ( a + b ) ( a - b ) = a.a + a ( -b ) + ba + b ( - b )

= a2 - ab + ba - b2

= a2 + a( - b + b ) - b2
= a2 + a( 0 ) - b2 .
= a2 - b2
Example - 2: Similarly, simplify : ( 8t2 + 5 ) ( 8t2 - 5 ) , following the
= 64t4 - 25

Exercise 1:Multiply sing the Foil method .

1. ( x + 3 ) ( x + 3 ).
2. ( 4y + 3 ) ( 3y – x )
3. ( a + 6b ) ( a – 2c )
4. ( n – 1 ) ( n – 2 )
5. ( 1 – 3y ) ( 1 + 3y )
6. ( a + 4 ) ( a – 1 )
7. ( t – 3 ) ( t + 2 )
8. ( x + 5 ) ( x – 5 )
9. ( 2a + 1 ) ( 2a – 1 )
10. ( d + 3 ) ( d – 3 )

11. (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
12. (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3)
13. (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 6)
14. (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
15. (𝑥 + 7)(3𝑥 − 4)
2 2
16. (2𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 3)
17. (𝑎 + 2𝑏)(𝑎 − 3𝑏)
18. (5𝑎 − 3𝑏)(𝑎 + 2𝑏)
19. (2𝑎2 + 3)(4𝑎 + 3𝑏)
20. (𝑚2 + 𝑛2 )(𝑚 + 𝑛)
21. (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 6)
22. (𝑎2 − 1)(𝑎 + 1)
23. (𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)
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 24. (3𝑎 + 4𝑏)(3𝑎 − 4𝑏)
25. (2𝑎 + 3𝑏)(2𝑎 + 3𝑏)
26. (2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 1)
3 3
27. (2 𝑥 + 2)(2 𝑥 − 2)
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
28. (𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑑)(𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑑)

Exercise 2: Multiply the expression

1. (𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 + 2)
2. (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)
3. (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)2
4. (𝑚2 − 1)2 (𝑚 − 2)2
5. (𝑥 − 2𝑦)2
6. (𝑥 − 2𝑦)2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
Exercise 3:Simplify each of the following expressions.
(a) 2x2+ 3x+ 4x2+ 5x (b) x2+ 8x+ 5x+ 10
(c) x2+ 6x+ 4x+x2 (d) x2+x+ 10 +x+ 4x2
(e) 5x2−x−6x2+ 8x (f) 4x2−3y2−x2+y2
(g) 3a24a5 (h) 4x2−7x+ 1 +x2 + 4x−11
(i) x2−y2−x−y+ 2x2−2y2 (j) y2 +y−4 +y+ 4y2
(k) ab+cd+ 4ab (l) xy+xz+xy+ 4xz
(m) 4ab+ 7ab−3ad (n) 4pq−3qr+ 5pq
Exercise 4: Problem Solving: Substitution
1. If distance = speed × time, what is distance when speed = 70 and time = 3 ?
2. If paint = area18, what is paint when area = 45 ?
3. If amount = principal + interest, what is amount when principal = 800 and interest =
80 ?
4. If weight = 6 × (length)2, what is weight when length = 5 ?
5. If radius =7 × area22, what is radius when area = 154 ?

Exercise 5: Remove the brackets in these expressions:

(a) 2(3a – 5) (b) 3(6b + 5c)
(c) 4d(d + 1) (d) 5e (e2 – e + 2)
(e) 3( f 2 – 18f + 4)
Exercise 6: Simplify .
(a) 2(a + 2b) + (a – b) (b) 4(c – d) – 3(c + 2d)
(c) 3(2e + f ) + 2(e – 2 f ) (d) (g – h) – 4 (g + 2h)
(e) 2 j + 3k – ( j – 3k) (f ) 5(p – 2q – r) + 3(p – q + 2r)
(g) 3(s + 8) – 4(2s – 5) (h) x(x – 4) + 3(x – 2)
(i) x(2x + 3) – 4(3x – 1) ( j) x(x2 + 1) – x2(x + 1)

Example – 2 : 4x2 – 9 , this binomial is called “ the difference of two squares “

4x2 = ( 2x)2 and 9 = 32

4x2 – 9 = ( 2x)
2
- 32 = ( 2x + 3 ) ( 2x - 3 )

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 Difference of squares formula:

( a + b ) ( a - b ) = a2 - b2,
Where a is 2x, and b is ± 3.

2 2
Checking : ( 2x + 3 ) ( 2x - 3 ) = ( 2x )2 - (3) = 4x - 9 , So the factors of
4x2 – 9 Are ( 2x + 3 ) and ( 2x - 3 )

Remember these Identities

Here is a list of common "Identities" that can make factoring easier.

1. ( a + b ) ( a – b ) = a2 - b2

( a + b )2 2 2
2. ( a + b ) ( a + b ) = = a + 2ab + b

3. ( a - b ) ( a - b ) = ( a - b )2 = a2 - 2ab + b2

4. a3 + b 3 = ( a + b ) ( a2 -ab +b2 )
3
5. a - b3 = ( a - b ) ( a2 + ab +b2 )
3
6. ( a + b ) = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
3
7. ( a - b ) = a3 - 3a2b + 3ab2 - b3

Simplifying Algebraic Expressions by substitution

Substitution means to replace the letters in an algebraic expression with numbers .Example-1: If
a= 4, b= 7 and c = 3, calculate:

( a). 6 - b (b). 2a - b (c). ab (d). a ( b – c )

Solutions:

( a). 6 - b =6- 7= -1 (b). 2a - b = 2(4) - 7 = 8 – 7 = 1

(c). ab = 4 x 7 = 28 . (d). a ( b – c ) = 4 ( 7 - 3 ) = 4( 4 ) = 16 .

Example-2: if x, a = 4, y,b = 7 , t = 3, n = 2, m,r = S, c = 5 , Then Evaluate .

5x + 3y - 2z
= 5x4+3x7–2x3
= 20 + 21 – 6
= 35

Exercise 1: 3. Ifa= 7,b= 5,c=–3 andd= 4, calculate:

(a) 2(a + b) (b) 4(a – b)
(c) 6(a – d) (d) 2(a + c)
(e) 5(b – c) (f ) 5(d – c)
(g) a(b + c) (h) d(b + a)
(i) c (b – a) ( j) a(2b – c)
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 (k) d (2a – 3b) (l) c (d – 2)

Exercise 2:ifx, a= 4, y,b = 7 , t = 3, n = 2, m,r = S, c = 5 , evaluate the

followingexpressions.
1. -9n -n -3m
2. 3ab -2ac +4ab
3. 2a -4b +3ab -5a +2b
4. 8x -9y -3xy - 2y -x +4xy
5. 2r -3s -t +3t +3s

Factoring
Numbers have factors:

And expressions ( like x2+ 4x + 3 ) also have factors:

Factor :The factor will try to rewrite an expression as a product of smaller expressions.

Factoring
Factoring is the opposite of expanding. It puts brackets into the algebraic expression.
Find the highest common factor of each term. Put this factor on the outside of the brackets and divide
it into each team. 18b + 12c = ?
(The highest common factor of 18 and 12 is 6 )
= 6 ( 3b + 2c )

Expand :
Removing the brackets of an algebraic expression is called expanding. Everything inside the brackets
is multiplied by the term outside i.e. 5(c + d ) = 5c + 5d (Everything inside the brackets is multiplied
by five).

Example: Expand this expression(x + 6 ) ( x + 3 )

= x(x + 3 ) + 6 (( x + 3 )
2
= x + 3x + 6x + 18 .
2
= x + 9x + 18 .

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Exercise :(1). Expand each of the following expressions by multiplying out the brackets:
1. 3(x + 6)
2. 4(x + 2)
3. 3(x – 1)
4. 4(2x + 5)
5. 6(3x – 5)
6. 7(2x – 5)
7. 6(4 – 2x)
8. 9(5x + 10)
(2) Expand.
(a) 4(a + b) (b) 3(3m + 2) (c) 6(2g + h)
(d) 4(3y + z) (e) 2(4a + 7c) (f ) 2(5d + 12)

(g) b(8d + b) (h) 2x(4 + 3y) (i) 2a(4k + 3c)

( j) xy(3a + x) (k) 4(3r –5t) (l) 6( f – 4h)

(m) w(10–3w) (n) 9(4g – q) (o) 8k(4p – 7)

Factorization
Factoring by grouping
𝒎𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒙 + 𝒏𝒚
𝒎(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚) 𝒏(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚)
Definition: Factoring (called " Factorizing " ) is the process of finding the factors or Finding whatto
multiply together to get an expression.
Factoring is also the opposite of Expanding:
When a number is divided by another number with no remainder, the divisor is a factor of the
dividend, as the dividend is a multiple of the divisor or quotient .

Exercise : Factorize the following.

1. 5x+ 15 2. 6x+ 18 3. 5x–25 4. 7x+ 35 5. 42x+ 15

6.3x² +2x 7. 5x² + 10x 8.6x- 3x² 9. 21x² + 14x 10. xyz+ 3yz

11. 5xyz+ 20uxy 12.7xy+ 12xz 13. 5xyz+ 20uxy 14. 7xy+ 12xz 15. 4pq- 8qr
Factorizing the following
1. 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6
2. 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 6
3. 15𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 4
4. 12𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 15
5. 𝑚2 − 6𝑚 − 6𝑚 + 36
6. 9𝑎2 + 12𝑎𝑏 + 12𝑎𝑏 + 16𝑏2
7. 6𝑐 2 + 2𝑐𝑛 − 3𝑐𝑛 − 𝑛2
8. 6𝑚2 − 8𝑚𝑛 − 9𝑚𝑛 + 12𝑛2
9. 1 + 𝑥 + 9 + 𝑎𝑥
Common Factor
Example : 30 ÷ 6 = 5 , 6 is a factor of 30 and 30 is a multiple of 6 and 5 .

70
In the previous example we saw that 2y and 6 had a common factor of 2 , But to do the job properly
make sure you have the highest common factor, including any variables .
Example -1 : factor 3y2 + 12y
Firstly, 3 and 12 have a common factor of 3.
So you could have: 3y2 + 12y = 3( y2 + 4y ), But we can do better : 3y2 and 12y also share the
variable y.
Together that makes 3y:
3y2 is 3y × y
12y is 3y × 4.
2
So, the factors of the 3y + 12y = ( 3y ) ( y + 4 ).

Check:: 3y ( y + 4 )

= 3y × y + 3y × 4 3y2 + 12y .

HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR ( H.C.F ).

he Highest Common Factor (H.C.F) of two or more numbers is the largest number that divides
evenly into both numbers.
In other words the H.C.F is the largest of all the common factors.

Simplifying fractions.

Example: The common factors of 12 and 18 are 1, 2, 3 and 6.

The largest common factor is 6, so this is the H.C.F. of 12 and 18.

FINDING THE H.C.F. OF BIG NUMBERS

For larger numbers and expressions you can use the following method:
1. Find all prime factors of both numbers.
2. Write both numbers as a multiplication of prime numbers.
3. Find which factors are repeating in both numbers and multiply them to get H.C.F .

Example: Find the Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) of 240 and 924.

Solution: Finding all prime factors of 240:

We will start with the smallest prime number and we will divide 240 into it . We will do the same
with the result (or quotient), and we will keep dividing by prime numbers until we have 1 as a
quotient. Each time we write the prime factor to the right and the quotient below:

Finding the prime factors of 240

240 | 2 2 is a factor of 240; 240 divided by 2 is 120

120 | 2 2 is a factor of 120; 120 divided by 2 is 60

60 | 2 2 is a factor of 60; 60 divided by 2 is 30

30 | 2 2 is a factor of 30; 30 divided by 2 is 15

71
 15 | 3 3 is a factor of 15; 15 divided by 3 is 5

5 | 5 5 is a factor of 5; 5 divided by 5 is 1

240 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5

Finding all prime factors of 924:

924 | 2 2 is a factor of 924; 924 divided by 2 is 462

462 | 2 2 is a factor of 462; 462 divided by 2 is 231

231 | 3 3 is a factor of 231; 213 divided by 3 is 77

77 | 7 7 is a factor of 77; 77 divided by 7 is 11

11 | 11 11 is a factor of 11; 11 divided by 11 is 1

924 =2 x 2 x 3 x 7 x 11

Hence , Multiply the factors which repeat in both numbers to get the H.C.F, therefore
the Highest Common Factor of 240 and 924 is 2 x 2 x 3 = 12

72
Example Expand (3x + 4) (2x + 1)

Solution:

(3x + 4) (2x + 1) =3x (2x + 1) + 4(2x + 1) = 6x2+3x + 8x + 4

=6x2+11x + 4

73
74
75
Exercise
Expand the following
1. 3x(4x2- 5x + 5)
2. (x + y)(x + y + z)
3. 8a(5a + 3b)
4. ( 3x + 3 ) (2x2 + x - 5).
5.

76
DIVISION:

Consider 20  4 = 5 ; here 20, which is the number divided, is called the ‘ Dividend’ ; 4
which is the number that divides is called the ‘ Divisor ’ ; and 5 which is obtained as a result
of the division is called the Quotient.

Thus if p  q = r, p is dividend, q the divisor and r the quotient. If there is no remainder, the
division is exact.

(I) Thus dividend = divisor  quotient.

However there is another division, in which there is a remainder,

e.g. 21  4 gives 5 as quotient and 1 as the remainder. Hence the division is not exact.

(II) Therefore, dividend = divisor  quotient + remainder

The Law of signs in division be restated as:

1) Like signs produce a + sign

2) Unlike signs produce a - sign

Case I Division of a polynomial by a monomial

77
78
79
.

80
Exercise
Simplify
15 x 2  x  6 x3  y 3
a. l.
5x  3 x 2  xy  y 2
36a 4  28a3b  24a 2 b2 x2  9
b. m.
6a 2 x3
6 x 2  2 x  28 2 x 2  3x  2
c. n.
3x  7 x 1
12 x3  6 x 2  9 x  7
d.
3x  2
27 x3  8 y 3
e.
3x  2 y
f. x 2  12 x  36  x  6
g. 3x 2  4 x  8  3x  1
h. 4 x3  10 x 2  6  2 x  2

i. 4a 8b ÷2a 3b

j. 8x y ÷4x 6y

36a3b2  28a3b 2
k.
4ab

81
Algebra (Expansion and factorisation)
The study of algebra is vital for many areas of mathematics. We need it to manipulate
equations, solve problems for unknown variables, and also to develop higher level
mathematical theories.
In this chapter we consider the expansion of expressions which involve brackets, and the
reverse process which is called factorisation.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

Consider the expression 2(x+3). We say that 2 is the coefficient of the expression in the
brackets. We can expand the brackets using the distributive law:

The distributive law says that we must multiply the coefficient by each term within the
brackets, and add the results.

With practice, we do not need to write all of these steps.

82
THE PRODUCT (a + b) (c + d)
Consider the product (a + b) (c + d).
It has two factors, (a + b) and (c + d).
We can evaluate this product by using the distributive law several times.
(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d)
= ac + ad + bc + bd

83
84
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

85
PERFECT SQUARES EXPANSION

86
Once again, we have the square of the first term, twice the product of the first and last terms,
and the square of the last term.

87
FURTHER EXPANSION
In this section we expand more complicated expressions by repeated use of the expansion
laws.
Consider the expansion of (a + b) (c + d + e):

Notice that there are 6 terms in this expansion and that each term within the first bracket is
multiplied by each term in the second.

88
89
COMMON FACTORS
Some Algebraic terms are contains the products of a number and variables. For example, 6c
and 4x2y , 8m2n3p and etc . In the same way in chapter one the whole numbers have factors,
and variables are also made up of factors. For example, 60 we can write as 2  2  3  5, we
can write 2xy2 as 2  x  y  y. the highest common factor of a group of numbers, we express
the numbers as products of prime factors. The common prime factors are then found and
multiplied to give the highest common factor (HCF).We can use the same technique to find
the highest common factor of a numbers or variables

90
91
FORISING WITH COMMON FACTORS

FACTORISE FULLY
Notice that 4a + 12 = 2(2a + 6) is not fully factorised as (2a + 6) still has a common factor
of 2 which could be removed. Although 2 is a common factor it is not the highest common
factor. The HCF is 4 and so 4a +12 = 4(a+ 3) is fully factorised.

92
93
94
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES FACTORISATION

95
96
PERFECT SQUARES FACTORISATION

97
EXPRESSIONS WITH FOUR TERMS

98
FACTORISING x2 + bx + c

factorise x2 +7x+10 into (x+…)(x+…), we seek two numbers which add to 7, and when
multiplied give 10.
These numbers are +2 and +5, so x2 + 7x+ 10 = (x + 2)(x +5)

With practice, you should be able to perform factorisations like this in your head.

99
100
SPLITTING THE MIDDLE TERM
In this section we will consider quadratic trinomials of the form ax2 + bx + c where a a  1

101
102
 Expressions, identities, equations and formulae
We know that 3x- 6 is called an expression. The expression 3x - 6 can be factorised to give
3(x - 2).
3x- 6 = 3(x_2) is called an identity because the left-hand side, 3x- 6, says the same as the
right-hand side, 3(x - 2). Another example of an identity is 5x = x + 4x.
Also we know that 3x – 6 = 0 is called an equation, which can be solved to find the value of
x. P = 3x - 6 is called a formula. The value of P can be worked out if the value of x is known.
A formula has at least two letters.
Example1
Here is a mixture of some terms and some signs.

Using some of the above, write down an example of

a. an expression
b. an identity
c. an equation
d. a formula
Solution
a 4m - n...An expression does not have an = sign.
b 4m = 5m - m...An identity is true for all values of the letter.
1
c 5m = 2+ m...An equation can be solved. In this case the solution is m 
2
d n= 5m + 2...A formula must have at least two letters and an = sign. Here n is the
subject of the formula.
1. Write down whether each of the following is an expression or an identity or an equation or a
formula.
a. 4x = x + x + x + x
b. y =Ax
c. 3m+ 2m = 5m
d. y -3 = 2
e. 5s+ t
bh
f. A=
2
g. x2 + 4x = 3
h. p3 - q2
i. C = 3r - 2s

103
j. 6(y - 4) = 6y – 24
k. c + c + d + d + d = 2c + 3d
l. q2 + q – 3 = 0
2. Here is a mixture of some terms and some signs.

3.
4. Using some of the above, write down an example of

a. an expression
b. an identity
c. an equation
d. a formula

2.2 Solving Equations

Many problems in mathematics can be solved by using equations. We convert the worded
problem into an algebraic equation by representing an unknown quantity with a variable such
as x. We then follow a formal procedure to solve the equation, and hence find the solution to
the problem.
A linear equation is an equation which contains a variable which is not raised to any power
other than 1.

2 x 1
For example, 3x + 4 = 2, x  1  6 , and  8 , are all linear equations.
3 4
SIDES OF AN EQUATION
The left hand side (LHS) of an equation is on the left of the = sign.
The right hand side (RHS) of an equation is on the right of the = sign.

THE SOLUTIONS OF AN EQUATION

104
The solutions of an equation are the values of the variable which make the equation true,
i.e., make the left hand side (LHS) equal to the right hand side (RHS).
In the example 3x + 7 = 13 above, the only value of the variable x which makes the equation
true is x = 2.

MAINTAINING BALANCE
The balance of an equation is maintained provided we perform the same operation on both
sides of the equals sign. We can compare equations to a set of scales.

Adding to, subtracting from, multiplying by, and dividing by the same quantity on both sides
of an equation will maintain the balance or equality.
When we use the “=” sign between two algebraic expressions we have an equation which is
in balance. Whatever we do to one side of the equation, we must do the same to the other side
to maintain the balance.
Compare the balance of weights:

We perform operations on both sides of each equation in order to isolate the unknown. We
consider how the expression has been built up and then isolate the unknown by using
inverse operations in reverse order

Solving Linear Equations (x on one side)

In a linear equation the unknown variable is to the power 1.

105
 e.g. x + 7 = 5 is a linear equation (x is to the power 1)
x2 + 7 = 5 is not a linear equation (x is to the power 2)
Solving a linear equation means finding the unknown value. To solve a linear equation,
reorganise it so that the unknown value is by itself on the left hand side of the ‘equals’ sign.
Example 1
Solve these equations:
(a) x + 2 = 8
(b) x – 4 = 3
(c) 3x = 12
x
(d) 7
2
(e) 2x + 5 = 11
(f) 3 – 2x = 7
Solution
(a) To solve this equation, subtract 2 from each side of the equation:
x+2=8
x+2–2=8–2
x=6
(b) To solve this equation, add 4 to both sides of the equation:
x–4=3
x–4+4=3+4
x=7
(c) To solve this equation, divide both sides of the equation by 3:
3x = 12
3x 12
3x  7  
3 3
x  4
(d) To solve this equation, multiply both sides of the equation by 2:
x
7
2
x
2  72
2
 x  14
(e) The equation must be solved in two stages. First, subtract 5 from both sides:
2x + 5 = 11
2x + 5 – 5 = 11 – 5
2x = 6
Then, divide both sides of the equation by 2:

106
 2x 6

2 2
x  3
(f) First, subtract 3 from both sides:
3 – 2x = 7
3 – 2x – 3 = 7 – 3
–2x = 4
Then divide both sides by (–2):
2 x 6

2 2
x  3
Exercise 10
Solve these for x.
1. 5x = 20 5 19. x + 9.7 = 11.1
10. 3 
2. 36 = 3x x 20. 13.1 = 17.9 + x
3. x + 5 = 20 11. 20 - x = 5 21. 13.085 - x = 12.1
4. 3 = 36 + x 12. 36 = 3 - x 22. 17 = 6.9 - x
5. x - 5 = 20 13. 5x = 12 34
23. 5
6. 36 = x - 3 14. 26 = 4x x
15. x - 3.8 = 9.7 44.1
7.
x
 20 24. 7 
5 16. 11.6 = x - 7.9 x

x x
8. 3  17. 3.8 =
36 7
36 x
9. 3  18.  2.7
x 8
Exercise 10*
Solve these for x, giving each answer correct to 3 significant figures.
1. 23.5 + x = 123.4 x
2. 34.5 = x + 167.8
8.  34.8
0,93
3. 7.6x = 39 67
4. 50.2 = 4.7x 9. 7.89 
5. 39.6 = x + 1.064 x
6. x - 0.987 = 3.6
0.234
7. 45.7 
x 10. 5
12.7 x
Solving Linear Equations (x on both sides)
Example 2
Solve these equations:
(a) 3x + 2 = 4x – 3
(b) 2x + 7 = 8x – 11

107
 Solution
These equations contain x on both sides. The first step is to change them so that x is on only
one side of the equation. Choose the side which has the most x; here, the right hand side.
(a) Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation:
3x + 2 = 4x – 3
3x + 2 – 3x = 4x – 3 – 3x
2=x–3
Then add 3 to both sides of the equation:
2=x–3
2+3=x–3+3
5=x
So x =5
(b) First, subtract 2x from both sides of the equation:
2x + 7 = 8x – 11
2x + 7 – 2x = 8x – 11 – 2x
7 = 6x – 11
Next, add 11 to both sides of the equation:
7 + 11 = 6x – 11 + 11
18 = 6x
Then divide both sides by 6:
18 6 x

6 6
3 x
x  3
Exercise 11
1. Solve these equations:
(a) x + 2 = 2x – 1 (k) 3x + 82 = 10x + 12
(b) 8x – 1 = 4x + 11 (l) 6x – 10 = 2x – 14
(c) 5x + 2 + 6x – 4 (m) 2x + 4 = 10
(d) 11x – 4 = 2x + 23 (n) 3x + 2 = 14
(e) 5x + 1 = 6x – 8 (o) 4x + 5 = 1
(f) 3x + 2 + 5x = x + 44 (p) 6x + 9 = 29
(g) 6x + 2 – 2x = x + 23 (q) 12x - 8 = -32
(h) 2x – 3 = 6x + x – 58
(i) 3x + 2 = x – 8
(j) 4x – 2 = 2x – 8

108
 Solving Linear Equations (with brackets)
Example 3
Solve:
(a) 5(x – 3) = 35
(b) 6(x + 7) = 50
Solution
(a) 5(x – 3) = 35
Expanding brackets gives: 5x – 15 = 35
Adding 15 to both sides gives: 5x = 50
Dividing by 5 gives: x = 10
(b) 6(x + 7) = 50
Expanding brackets gives: 6x + 42 = 50
Subtracting 42 from both sides gives: 6x = 8
8
x
6
Dividing by 6 gives:
2
1
6
Exercise 12
1. Solve these equations:
(a) 2(x + 6) = 14 (e) 2(x + 7) = 19
(b) 5(x – 8) = 40 (f) 3(x – 4) = 11
(c) 3(x + 5) = 12 (g) 5(x – 4) = 12
(d) 7(x + 4) = 42 (h) 10(x + 7) = 82
2. Solve these equations:
(a) 5(2x – 7) = 8 (c) 3(2x + 1) = 30
(b) 3(3x + 6) = 27 (d) 8(2x – 12) = 24
3. Solve the following equations:
(a) 4(7 – x) = 20 (d) 5(7 – 3x) = 20
(b) 3(9 – x) = 15 (e) 2(10 – 3x) = 17
(c) 6(5 – 2x) = 18 (f) 6(9 – 5x) = 4
4. Solve the following equations:
(a) 2(x + 1) = 6(x – 3) (c) 5(x + 4) = 2(10x + 1)
(b) 3(x + 4) = 11x (d) 4(7 – x) = 5(x + 2)
5. Solve these for x.
(a) 3(x - 2) - 2(x + 1) = 5
(b) 4(x - 1) - 3(x + 2) = 26
(c) 3(2x + 1) - 2(2x - 1) = 11

109
(d) 9(x - 2) - 3(2x - 3) = 12
(e) 2(5x - 7) - 6(2x - 3) = 0
(f) 3(3x + 2) - 4(3x - 3) = 0
(g) 4(3x - 1) - (x - 2) = 42
(h) 2(2x - 1) - (x + 5) = 5
(i) 4(3 - 5x) - 7(5 - 4x) + 3 = 0
(j) 5(3x - 2) - 9(2 + 4x) - 7 = 0
Exercise 12*
Solve these for x.
1. 3x + 8 = 7x - 8 8. 3x + 5 = 8 - x
2. 8x - 3 = 4x - 9 9. 15x - 4 = 10 - 3x
3. 7x - 5 = 5x + 1 10. - 2x - 8 = 10 - 5x
4. 9x - 13 = 6x + 10 11. 5(x + 1) = 4(x + 2)
5. 5x + 7 = 9x + 1 12. 7(x + 2) = 6(x + 3)
6. 11x - 5 = 6x - 3 13. 8(x + 5) = 10(x + 3)
7. 4x + 3 = 7 - x 14. 9(x + 4) = 12(x + 2)
15. 3(x -5) = 7(x + 4) - 7
16. 4(x - 3) = 8(x - 5) = 12
17. 3.1(4.8x - 1) - 3.9 = x + 1
18. 5.6(3.4x - 2) + 5.2 = x + 1
19. 8.9(x - 3.5) + 4.2(3x + 2.3) = 4.7x
20. 6.4(2x - 0.9) + 3.3(x + 4.1) = 6.8x
x x
21. If  1 is twice as large as  3 what is the value of x?
3 4
22. 5(x - 3) - 4(x + 1) = - 11
23. 9(x - 2) - 7(x + 1) = -15
24. 4(3x + 5) - 5(2x + 6) = 0
25. 3(5x - 4) - 3(2x - 1) = 0
26. 3(3x + 1) - 8(2x - 3) + 1 = 0
27. 5(6x + 2) - 7(3x - 5) - 72 = 0
28. 2 2(x + 3) - 6(2x - 4) + 108 = 0
29. 23(x - 2) - 5(3x - 2) + 74 = 0
30. 7(5x - 3) - 10 = 2(3x - 5) - 3(5 - 7x)

110
 Solving Equations with Fractions
More complicated fractional equations can be solved by:
 writing all fractions with the lowest common denominator (LCD) and then
 equating numerators.

111
 UNKNOWN IN THE DENOMINATOR
If the unknown appears as part of the denominator, we still solve by:
 writing the equations with the lowest common denominator (LCD) and then
 equating numerators

Exercise

112
 Writing Linear Equations
Example 4
Guled thinks of a number and adds 7 to it. She then multiplies her answer by 4 and gets 64.
(a) Write down an equation that can be used to calculate the number with which Heebaan
started.
(b) Solve your equation to give the number.

Solution
(a) Start with x
Add 7 to give x + 7
Multiply by 4 to give 4(x + 7)
This expression equals 64, so the equation is 4(x + 7) = 64
(b) 4(x + 7) = 64
Expanding brackets gives 4x + 28 = 64
Subtracting 28 from both sides gives 4x = 36
36
x
Dividing by 4 gives 4
x9
Exercise 13:
1. A rectangle has sides of length 3 m and (x + 4) m. Find the value of x, if the area of the
rectangle is 18 m2.

2. Kaize chooses a number, adds 7, multiplies the result by 5 and gets the answer 55.
(a) If x is the number Kaize first chose, write down an equation that can be used to determine the
number.
(b) Solve the equation to determine the value of x.
3. The following flow chart is used to form an equation:

(a) Write down the equation.

(b) Solve the equation to find the value of x.

113
4. The diagram below shows three angles on a straight line:

(a) Write down an equation and use it to find x.

(b) Write down the sizes of the two unknown angles and check that the three angles shown
add up to 180°.
5. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 477. What are the numbers? (Let the first number be
x.)
6. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 219. What are the numbers? (Let the first number
be x.)
7. Find x and the size of each angle in this triangle.

8. The area of a triangle is given by the formula A = 0.5bh. If A = 12.2 and h = 6.1, find b.
9. Freddie the frog is climbing up a well. Every day he climbs up 3 m but some nights he falls
asleep and slips back 4 m. At the start of the sixteenth day, he has climbed a total of 29 m. On
how many nights was he asleep?

114
10. The area of a trapezium is given by the formula A 5 0.5h (a + b). If A = 10.8, a = 2.1 and h =
4.8, find b.
11. The formula for converting degrees Fahrenheit (F) to degrees Celsius (C) is F = 32 + 1.8C.
Find C when F is 5.
12. The formula for summing an arithmetic progression is S = 0.5n (2a + (n - 1) d).
If a = 8, n = 20 and S = 255, find d.
13. A father is three times as old as his son. In 14 years’ time, he will be twice as old as his son.
How old is the father now?
14. Lauren is shooting at a target at a fair. If she hits the target she receives 50p, but if she
misses she has to pay 20p for the shot. After 15 shots, Lauren finds she has made a profit of
£1.20. How many hits has she had?
15. Aidan is doing a multiple-choice test with 20 questions. He scores 3 marks for a correct
answer and loses 1 mark if the answer is incorrect. Aidan answers all the questions and scores
40 marks. How many questions has he got right?

115
2.3 Simultaneous linear equations
Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations
Simultaneous linear equations
• Simultaneous means occurring at the same time.
• When a point belongs to more than one line, the coordinates
of the point satisfy all equations. The equations of the lines are
called simultaneous equations. An example is shown at right.
• A system of equationis a set of two or more equations with
the same variables.
• To solve simultaneous equations is to calculate the values
of the variables that satisfy all equations in the system.
• Any two linear graphs will meet at a point, unless they are parallel.
• At this point, the two equations simultaneously share the same x‐ and y‐coordinates,
which are referred to as the solution.
• Simultaneous equations can be solved graphically or algebraically.
Graphical solution
• The solution to a pair of simultaneous equations can be found by graphing the two
equations and identifying the coordinates of the point of intersection.
• An accurate solution depends on drawing an accurate graph.
• Graph paper or graphing software can be used.

116
117
Exercise
1. Use the graphs to find the solution of the simultaneous equations.

2. For the following simultaneous equations, use substitution to check if the given pair
of coordinates is a solution.

3. Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.

118
Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution
• There are two algebraic methods that are commonly used to solve simultaneous
equations.

• They are the substitution method and the elimination method.

Substitution method
• The substitution method is particularly useful when one (or both) of the equations is
in a form where one of the two variables is the subject.
• This variable is then substituted into the other equation, producing a third equation
with only one variable.
• This third equation can then be used to determine the value of the variable.

119
Exercise
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method.

2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations using the substitution method.

120
Understanding
3. A small farm has sheep and chickens. There are twice as
many chicken as sheep, and there are 104 legs between the sheep
and the chickens. How many chickens are there?

4. Use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.

5. Use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations for
x and y in terms of m and n.

Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination

• The elimination method is an algebraic method to solve
simultaneous equations without graphing.
• If two balanced equations contain the same variables, the
equations can be added or subtracted to eliminate one of the
variables. For example, the equations 2x + y = 5 and x + y = 3 are
shown at right on balance scales. If the left‐hand side of the
second equation is subtracted from the left‐hand side of the first
equation, and the right‐hand side of the second equation is
subtracted from the right‐hand side of the first equation, the
variable y is eliminated, leaving x = 2. Another way to represent
this situation is:

121
In this example, the variable is eliminated by subtraction to reveal the value of x. The value
of y can then be calculated by substituting x = 2 into either equation. 2(2) + y = 5  y = 1

• If a variable is not eliminated when the equations are simply added or subtracted, it
may be necessary to multiply one or both equations by some number or numbers so that when
the equations are added, one of the variables is then eliminated.
• If two equal quantities are multiplied by the same number, the results remain equal.

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123
Note: Equation [1] could have been multiplied by −4 (instead of by 4), then the two equations
added (instead of subtracted) to eliminate y.

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Exercise
1. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by adding equations to eliminate
either x or y.

2. Solve the following pairs of equations by subtracting equations to eliminate either x

or y.

3. Solve each of the following equations using the elimination method.

4. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.

UNDER STAND ING

5. Solve the following simultaneous equations using an appropriate method.

Problem Solving
6. Use the method of elimination to solve

7. Use an appropriate method to solve

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 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
• There are many practical applications of simultaneous equations, some examples of
which are shown below.
• When solving practical problems, the following steps can be useful.
 Define the unknown quantities using appropriate pronumerals.
 Use the information given in the problem to form two equations in terms of these
pronumerals.
 Solve these equations using an appropriate method.
 Write the solution in words.
 Check the solution.

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Exercise
1. Qadaafi received better results for his Maths test than for his English test. If the sum of
his two marks is 163 and the difference is 31, find the mark for each subject.
2. Bouni buys 30 nuts and bolts to finish a project. If each nut costs 100 shillings, each bolt
costs 200 shillings cents and the total purchase price is SL SH 4200, how many nuts and how
many bolts does she buy?
3. Find two numbers whose difference is 5 and whose sum is 11.
4. The difference between two numbers is 2. If three times the larger number minus twice
the smaller number is 13, fi nd the two numbers.
5. One number is 9 less than three times a second number. If the fi rst number plus twice the
second number is 16, fi nd the two numbers.
6. A rectangular house has a perimeter of 40 metres and the length is 4 metres more than the
width. What are the dimensions of the house?
7. Ibrahim has 5 lemons and 3 oranges in his shopping basket. The cost of the fruit is SL SH
35, 000. Kawther, with 2 lemons and 4 oranges, pays SL SH 21,000 for her fruit. How much
does each type of fruit cost?

REASONING
8. If the perimeter of the triangle in the diagram is 12 cm and the length of the rectangle is 1
cm more than the width, find the value of x and y. Show your working.

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2.4 INEQUALITIES
Using Inequality Signs
What are inequality signs?
An inequality is a mathematical sentence that states that one quantity is greater than or less
than another in value.
These signs are used:

Exercise

128
Showing inequalities on a number line

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 Solving linear inequalities
Inequalities between two expressions
 An equation is a statement of equality such as x = 2; an inequation is a statement of
inequality between two expressions such as x < 2 (x is less than 2).
 The solution to a linear equation is a single point on a number line, but the solution to
an inequation is a portion of the number line. That is, there are an infinite number of solutions
to an inequality.
 The following table shows examples of four types of simple inequalities and their
corresponding representation on a number line.
 Note that an open circle placed over the 2 indicates that 2 is not included; that is, 2
does not satisfy the inequality. A closed or solid circle indicates that 2 is included; that is, it
does satisfy the inequality.

Solving inequalities
 The following things may be done to both sides of an inequality without affecting its
truth.
- A number can be added or subtracted from both sides of the inequality.

- A number can be multiplied or divided by a positive number.

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 Care must be taken when multiplying or dividing by a negative number.

 When solving inequalities, if both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative

number, then the inequality sign must be reversed.
For example, 6 > 2 implies that –6 < –2.

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Exercise
1. Solve each of the following inequalities.

132
2. Solve each of the following inequalities. Check your solutions by substitution.

3. Solve each of the following inequalities.

4. S
olve
each of
the following inequalities.

5. Solve each of the following inequalities.

6. Solve each of the following inequalities.

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7. When solving the inequality −2x > −7 we need to:

8. Solve each of the following inequalities.

9. Solve each of the following inequalities.

Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

 A solution to a linear inequality is any ordered
pair that makes the inequality true.
 When graphing a linear inequality on a
Cartesian plane, the solution is a region on one side of
the line called a half plane.

 There are an infinite number of solutions to a linear inequality. For example, some of
the solutions to the inequality x + y < 16 are (5, 1), (8, 7) and (0, −2), whereas the point (9,
10) is not a solution.
 To indicate whether the points on a line satisfy the inequality, a specific type of
boundary line is used.

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  The required region is the region that contains the points that satisfy the inequality.
 Shading or no shading is used to indicate which side of the line is the required region,
and a key is shown to indicate the region.

 Consider the line x = 2. It divides the Cartesian plane into two distinct regions or
half‐planes.

 The region on the left (shaded yellow) contains all the points whose x‐coordinate is
less than 2, for example (1, 3), so this region is given the name x < 2.
 The region on the right (shaded purple) contains all the points whose x‐coordinate is
greater than 2, for example (3, –2), so this region is given the name x > 2.
 There are three distinct parts to the graph:
 the boundary line, where x = 2
 the yellow region, where x < 2
 the purple region, where x > 2

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Exercise
1. Sketch a graph of each of the following regions.

2. Determine which of the points A (0, 0), B (1, −2) and C (4, 3) satisfy each of the
following inequalities.

3. Sketch the graphs for the regions given by each of the following inequations.

4. a The shaded region satisfying the inequality y > 2x − 1 is:

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137
2.5 Quadratics

A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax2 +bx+c = 0 where a, b, and c are
constants, a  0.
A quadratic function is a function of the form y = ax2 + bx + c, a  0. P

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

To solve quadratic equations we have the following methods to choose from:
 factorise the quadratic and use the Null Factor law:
If ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0.
 complete the square
 use the quadratic formula
 Graphically

For example, consider x2 - 3x+ 2 = 0.

When x = 2, x2 - 3x + 2 = (2)2 - 3(2) + 2
= 4- 6 + 2
=0
So, x = 2 is a root of the equation x2 - 3x + 2 = 0.
SOLVING BY FACTORISATION
Step 1: If necessary, rearrange the equation so one side is zero.
Step 2: Fully factorise the other side.
Step 3: Use the Null Factor law: If ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0.
Step 4: Solve the resulting linear equations.

Caution: Do not be tempted to divide both sides by an expression involving x.

If you do this then you may lose one of the solutions.

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For example, consider x2 = 5x.

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SOLVING BY ‘COMPLETING THE SQUARE

As you would be aware by now, not all quadratics factorise easily. For example, x2 + 4x + 1
cannot be factorised by simple factorisation. In other words, we cannot write x2 + 4x + 1 in
the form(x - a)(x - b) where a, b are rational.
An alternative way to solve equations like x2 + 4x+ 1 = 0 is by ‘completing the square’.
Equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be converted to the form (x + p) 2 = q from which
the solutions are easy to obtain.

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If the coefficient of x2 is not 1, we first divide throughout to make it 1.

THE QUADRATIC FORMULA

141
In many cases, factorising a quadratic equation or completing the square can be long or
difficult. We can instead use the quadratic formula

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THE DISCRIMINANT OF A QUADRATIC

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145
UNIT THREE: GEOMETRY 1
3.0 Introduction
DEF: Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the properties of various
geometrical figures. The geometry which treats the properties and characteristics of various
P
geometrical shapes with axioms or theorems, without the help of accurate measurements is
known as theoretical geometry. The study of geometry improves one’s power to think
logically.
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. The word geometry in the Greek
language translates the words for "Earth" and "Measure". The Egyptians were one of the
first civilizations to use geometry. The Egyptians used right triangles to measure and survey
land. In our modern times, geometry is used to in fields such as engineering, architecture,
medicine, drafting, astronomy, and geology.

3.1 Points and Lines

The two simplest objects in geometry are points and lines.
A point is something that is not very wide or high and is usually used in geometry as a
marker of a position. Points are usually labelled with a capital letter. Some examples of
points are shown in Figure 3.1. A line is formed when many points are placed next to each
other. Lines can be straight or curved, but are always continuous. This means that there are
never any breaks in the lines. The endpoints of lines are labelled with capital letters.
Examples of two lines are shown in Figure 3.1.

Lines are labelled according to the start point and end point. We call the line that starts at a
point A and ends at a point B, AB. Since the line from point B to point A is the same as the
line from point A to point B, we have that AB = BA. The length of the line between points A
and B is AB. So if we say AB = CD we mean that the length of the line between A and B is
equal to the length of the line between C and D. In science, we sometimes talk about a vector
and this is just a fancy way of saying the we are referring to the line that starts at one point

146
and moves in the direction of the other point. We label a vector in a similar manner to a line,
with AB referring to the vector from the point A with length AB and in the direction from
point A to point B. Similarly, B~A is the line segment with the same length but direction
from point B to point A. Usually, vectors are only equal if they have the same length and
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same direction. So, usually, AB  BA
A line is measured in units of length. Some common units of length are listed in Table 3.1.

3.2 Angles and Parallel Lines

Angles
An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point. The point at which two lines meet
is known as a vertex. Angles are labelled with a  on a letter, for example, in Figure 12.3, the
angle is at 𝐵̂. Angles can also be labelled according to the line segments that make up the
angle. For example, in Figure 3.2, the angle is made up when line segments CB and BA meet.
So, the angle can be referred to as ∠ CBA or ∠ ABC. The ∠ symbol is a short method of
writing angle in geometry.
Angles are measured in degrees which is denoted by ◦

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Measuring angles
The size of an angle does not depend on the length of the lines that are joined to make up the
angle, but depends only on how both the lines are placed as can be seen in Figure 3.3. This
means that the idea of length cannot be used to measure angles. An angle is a rotation around
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the vertex. We can also use the word angle for the amount of turn, for example , the figure
3.3b below shows how the hands of a the clock move between 9 o’clock and 10 o’clock

Both hands turn. In one hour the amount that each hand turns is different. The minute hand
makes one complete turn, or one revolution (Figure 3.3c).
1
The hour hand turns of a revolution (Figure 3.3d). This
12
example shows that just as we can measure length, so we can
measure angle. To avoid fractions, one revolution is divided
into 360 equal parts. Each part is called a degree. We use
symbol 0 for degree 1 revolution = 360 degrees or 3600
1
10 = of a revolution
3600
Example 1
What is the angle between the hour hand and the minute hand of a
clock at 1 o’clock?
The angle between the hands is the amount that one hand must turn to

1
reach the position of the other (Fig. 3.4a). That is of a
12
revolution.
1 1
Angle between hands = of a revolution = of 3600  300 .
12 2

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Note: that the size of the angle does not depend on the size of the hands. At 1 o’clock the
angle between the minute hand and the hour hand is 300 whether on a watch or on a clock
(Fig. 3.4b)
Again notice from Figure 3.4c that 3300 would also be a correct answer to Example 1. The
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minute hand turn through 3300 if it went the other way round: 3300 +300 = 3600
Exercise
1. Complete this table

2. Find the angle between hour hand and the minute hand of a clock at the following
times given your answers both in revolutions and in degrees.
5 o’clock 6 o’clock 7 o’clock10 o’clock
3. Fine the angle between the hour hand and the following times, give your answer in
degrees
1
a. pass 2
2
1
b. pass 2
4
1
c. pass8
2
1
pass10
d. 4

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Naming angles
When lines OA and OB meet at the point O (Fig. 3.4), we say
that angle AOB or angle BOA is the angle between them.
ˆ is short form for angle AOB .Note that O, the middle
AOB
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letter, is the vertex of the angle. The lines OA and OB are the
arms of the angle
If OA is fixed and OB can turn, we get angles of different sizes.
ˆ is less than
Some of these have special names. In Fig. 3.5 AOB
90° AOB is an acute angle

ˆ = 900, AOB
In Figure 3.6, AOB ˆ is a right angle or quarter turn.

There are many examples where lines meet at right angles. A

right angle is often shown on diagram by drawing a small
square at the vertex of the angle.
ˆ is greater than 900 but less than 1800 AOB
In Figure 3.7 AOB ˆ

is an obtuse angle.

ˆ = 1800 = 2 right angles. AOB

In Figure 3.7, AOB ˆ is straight is

straight angle or half turn.

In both the diagrams in Figure 3.9,

ˆ is greater than 1800 but less
AOB
ˆ is a reflex angle
than 3600. AOB

Important:
Angles are described by their size or degree measure. The different types of angle are
summarized in the following table:

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Measuring and drawing angles

Using a Protractor
A protractor is a simple tool that is used to
measure angles. A picture of a protractor is
shown in Figure 3.4.

Method:
Using a protractor
1. Place the bottom line of the protractor along one line of the angle.
2. Move the protractor along the line so that the centre point on the protractor is at the
vertex of the two lines that make up the angle.
3. Follow the second line until it meets the marking on the protractor and read off the
angle. Make sure you start measuring at 0◦.
Example 1
Measure the angles ABC, DEF and GHI in the diagrams below.

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Acute angle ABC is 35° and obtuse angle DEF is 145°. To measure reflex angles, such as
angle GHI, it is easier to use a circular protractor if you have one. Note the notation for
angles. Angle ABC, or ∠ ABC, means the angle at B between the lines AB and BC.

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Exercise
1. Use a protractor to draw angles of the following sizes.
a. 30° e. 20°
b. 60° f. 45°
c. 90° g. 75°
d. 10°

153
2. Use a protractor to measure the size of each marked angle.

3. Draw angles with the following sizes.

a. 3200 c. 2600 e. 3450
b. 1900 d. 2100 f. 3180

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While working through Activity above you may have discovered some facts about the angles
formed when lines meet or cross.
Adjacent angles
When two angles lie beside each other and have a
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common vertex and a common arm, we say they
ˆ
adjacent to each other. in Fig. 3.12 AOB is
ˆ .
adjacent BOC

When a straight line stands on another straight

line, two adjacent angles are formed. The sum of the
two adjacent angles is 1800, in Figure 3.13
ˆ  BOC
AOC ˆ  1800

Vertically opposite angles

When two straight lines intersect, they form
four angles. The two angles opposite each
other are said to be vertically opposite. In
Figure 3,14

Angles meeting at a point

When a number of lines meet at appoint they will
form the same number of angles. The sum of the
angles at a point is 3600.
ˆ  BOC
In Figure 3.14 AOB ˆ  COD
ˆ  DOA
ˆ  3600 .

Calculating the sizes of the angles

The above facts make it possible to calculate the sizes of angles in given figures.
Example 6
In Figure 3.15 AOB and COD are straight lines.
ˆ =
BOD ˆ = 720. Calculate the
620 and BOE
other angles in the figure.
Solution
ˆ  6200 (Vertically opposite angles to BOD
AOC ˆ )

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 ˆ  1800  620  1180 (Adjacent angles on straight line AOB)
AOD
ˆ  3600  (620  620  1180  770 ) (Sum of angles at O)
COE
3600  3190  410
 Complementary angles P
0 0
Complementary angles are angles that add up to 90 . If the sum of two or more angles is 90 ,
we say that they are complementary angles, i.e. x  y  900 we say that x and y are
complements to each other.
 Supplementary angles
Supplementary angles are that add up to 1800. If angles a  b  1800 . Then a and b are
supplements to each other. e.g. 300 and 1500.
Example 7
In the figure alongside ABC  900 .find the value x and hence
calculate the size of angle ABC

Angles ABC and CBD are complementary angles.

2x + 3x = 900
5x = 900  x = 180  ABD  3  1800  540

Example 8
Use the diagram below to find x. Find the size of angle x in the diagram.

Solution
The angle pair above is supplementary so their sum is 180 degrees. Use the angle addition
postulate to find x.
3x + 20 + x + 20 = 180
4x + 40 = 180  4x + 40 - 40 = 180 - 40  4x = 140

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 4 x 180

4 4
 x  350
Example 9
Find the value of x in the diagram. P

Solution
These angles are around a point, so they must add up to 360°.
Therefore,
x + x + 40° + 2x – 20° = 360°
4x + 20° = 360°
4x = 340°  x = 85°
Exercise
Calculate the size of the angle marked x in each of these examples.

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19. Calculate the value of x in each of these examples.

20. Calculate the value of x in each of these examples.

21. Calculate the value of x first and then calculate the value of y in each of these examples.

Parallel lines
Definition: Two lines are parallel if they lie on the same plane and do not intersect (meets)
Parallel lines remain the same distance apart at all times. The symbol is used to denote
parallel lines. In Figure 3.16, l m .

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Angle Pairs Created with a Transversal
Definition: transversal is any line that intersects two or more lines in the same plane but at
different points.
In Figure 3.17, line t is a transversal.
P

Corresponding angles and alternate angles

Parallel lines are always the same distance apart. They never meet. In diagrams, arrows are
used to show that lines are parallel. In the diagram, a straight line crosses two parallel lines.
CORRESPONDING ANGLES
If two parallel line are cut by a transversal so, the pair of corresponding angles are congruent
The F shape formed corresponding angles can be helpful in recognising them.

Other pairs of corresponding angles have been shaded in the diagrams below.

ALTERNATE ANGLES
If two parallel line are cut by a transversal so, the pair of alternate angles angles are
congruent. In the diagram, a straight line crosses two parallel lines.
The shaded angles are called alternate angles and are equal to each
other.

The Z shape formed by alternate angles can be helpful in recognising them.

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Another pair of alternate angles has been shaded in this diagram.

Example1
Write down the letter of the angle which is
a. corresponding to the shaded angle(y),
b. Alternate to the shaded angle(y).

Solution
a. Angle q is the corresponding angle to the shaded angle. (Notice that they form Shape).
b. Angle s is the alternate angle to the shaded angle. (Notice that they form Shape).
Example2
a. Find the size of angle x. Give a reason for your answer.

Solution
a. x = 78° (Alternate angles).
Example3
a. Find the size of angle p and Give a reason for your
answer.
b. Find the size of angle q.
Give a reason for your answer.
Solution
a. 180° - 67° = 113° p = 113°
The sum of the angles on a straight line is 180°.
q = 113° (i.e. q = p=1130 because corresponding angles.

160
Exercise
In this exercise, the diagrams are not accurately drawn.
1. Write down the letter of the angle which is
a. corresponding to the shaded angle(1),
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b. Alternate to the shaded angle (1).

2. Write down the letter of the angle which is

a. corresponding to the shaded angle(2),
b. Alternate to the shaded angle (2).
In Questions 3–5, find the sizes of the angles marked with letters and state whether the pairs
of angles are corresponding or alternate.

In Questions 6–14, find the sizes of the angles marked with letters.
Give reasons for your answers.

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You should have discovered that the three angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

Triangles

162
Triangle is any two dimensional figure with three sides and three angles

Classification of triangles
Triangles can be classified either according to their sides or according to their angles.
All of each may be of different or the same sizes; any two sides or angles may be of
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the same size; there may be one distinctive angle.

The types of triangles classified by their sides are the following:

Equilateral triangle: A triangle with all three sides equal in measure. In Figure 3.18,
the slash marks indicate equal measure.

Isosceles triangle: A triangle in which at least two sides have equal measure (Figure
3.19).

Scalene triangle: A triangle with all three sides of different measures (Figure 3.20).

The types of triangles classified by their angles are the following:

■ Right triangle: A triangle that has a right angle in its interior (Figure 3.21)

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■ Obtuse triangle: A triangle having an obtuse angle (greater than 90° but less than
180°) in its interior. Figure 3.22 shows an obtuse triangle.

■ Acute triangle: A triangle having all acute angles (less than 90 °) in its interior
(Figure 3.23).

■ Equiangular triangle: A triangle having all angles are in equal measure (Figure
3.24).

Because the sum of all the angles of a triangle is 180°, the following theorem is easily
shown.
Theorem: Each angle of an equiangular triangle has a measure of 60°.
This shows that the angles in this triangle add up to 180° but it is not a proof

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The angles on a straight line equals to 180° and so the angles in this triangle add up to 180°.

The sum of the angle of a triangle is 180°.

Example 1
Work out the size of angle x.

Solution
X + 720+ 570 = 1800 (The sum of the angle of a triangle)
72° + 57° = 129° ………………. (Add 72° and 57°)
180° - 129° = 51°…. (Subtract the result from 180°, as the angle sum of a triangle is 180°.)
x = 51°……. (State the size of angle x.)
Sometimes the fact that the angle sum of a triangle is 180° and other angle facts are needed
Example2
Work out the size of
a. angle x b angle y.
Give reasons for your answers.

Solution
a 67° + 60° = 127° b 180° - 53°= 127° y = 127°
180° - 127 = 53°
x = 53°
Sum of angles on a straight line is 180°.
The sum of the angles of a
triangle is 180°.

Exercise

165
In this exercise, the triangles are not accurately drawn.
In Questions 1–12, find the size of each of the angles marked with letters and show your
working.

Equilateral triangles and isosceles triangles

Example3
Work out the size of a angle x b angle y.
Give reasons for your answers.

Solution
a x = 41°……………….. (Isosceles triangle with equal angles opposite equal sides)

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b 41° + 41° = 82°
180° - 82° = 98° ……. (Angle sum of triangle is 180°)
y = 98°
Example 4
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Work out the size of angle x.
Give reasons for your answer.
Solution

180° - 146 = 34°……. (Angle sum of triangle is 180°)

34° ÷2 = 17°…. (Isosceles triangle with equal angles opposite equal sides)
x =17°
Exercise
In this exercise, the triangles are not accurately drawn.
In Questions 1–12, find the size of each of the angles marked with letters and show your
working.

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Quadrilaterals

The angles at a point add up to 360° and so this shows that the angles in this quadrilateral add
up to 360°.
The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.

To prove this result, draw a diagonal of the quadrilateral.

The diagonal splits the quadrilateral into two triangles.
The angle sum of each triangle is 180°.
So the angle sum of the quadrilateral is 2×180° = 360°.

Example 5
Work out the size of angle x.

Solution
76° + 118° + 980 = 292°……. (Add 76, 118 and 98)
360° - 292° = 68°… (Take the result away from 360, as the angle sum of a quadrilateral is
360°.)
x = 68°……….. (State the size of angle x.)

168
Example 6

g. Write down the size of angle x.

h. Work out the size of angle y. P
Give a reason for each answer
Solution
a. x =75°... (Where two straight lines cross, the opposite angles are equal.)
b. 121°+ 72°+ 75°= 268°….( Angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°)
60° - 268°= 92° y =92°

Exercise
In this exercise, the quadrilaterals are not accurately drawn.
In Questions 1–12, find the size of each of the angles marked with letters and show your
working.

13 The diagram shows a kite. Work out the value of x.

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Angles in polygons

170
Polygons
A polygon is any two dimensional shape bounded or enclosed by three or more straight lines.
Some polygons have special names.
A 3-sided polygon is called a triangle.
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A 4-sided polygon is called a quadrilateral.
A 5-sided polygon is called a pentagon.
A 6-sided polygon is called a hexagon.
An 8-sided polygon is called an octagon.
A 9-sided polygon is called nonagon
A 10-sided polygon is called a decagon.
To find the sum of the angles of a polygon, split it into triangles. For example, for this
hexagon, draw as many diagonals as possible from one corner.
This splits the hexagon into four triangles.
The angle sum of a triangle is 180° and so the sum of the angles of a
hexagon is 4 ×180°= 720°. Sometimes, these angles are called
interior angles to emphasise that they are inside the polygon.

Using this method, the sum of the interior angles of any polygon can be found.

The number of triangles into which the polygon can be split up is always two less than the
number of sides.
In general

The sum of interior angles of n- sided polygon is given by: (n-2)×1800

Example8
Find the sum of the angles of a 12-sided polygon (dodecagon).

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Solution
12 - 2 = 10 ……………… (Subtract 2 from the number of sides to find the number of
triangles.)
10 ×180 = 1800……. (Multiply the number of triangles by 180.)
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The sum of the angles= 1800°……….. (State the sum of the angles in degrees.)
Alternative method

Sum of the interior angles =  n  2   1800 , n  12 =

12  2   1800
10  1800  18000

Exercise
1. Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of these quadrilaterals.

REGULAR AND IRRIGULAR POLYGONS

 A polygon with all its sides the same length and all its angles the same size is called a
regular polygon. So a square is a regular polygon, because all its sides are the same
length and all its angles are 90°,
 A polygon with all its sides different length and all its angles are of different in size is
called an irregular polygon so a rhombus is not a regular polygon.

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Although its sides are all the same length, its angles are not all the same size.
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Here are three more regular polygons.

Example 9
Find the size of each interior angle of a regular decagon.
Solution
10 - 2 = 8… (Subtract 2 from the number of sides to find the number of triangles.)
8 ×180 = 1440 (Multiply the number of triangles by 180 to find the sum of all 10 interior
angles.
1440 ÷10 = 144… (All 10 interior angles are the same size. So divide 1440 by 10)
Each interior angle is 144°… (State the size of each interior angle.)
Example 10
The diagram shows a regular 9-sided polygon (nonagon) with
centre O.

a. Work out the size of

i angle x ii angle y.
b. Use your answer to part a( ii ) to calculate the size of each interior angle of the
polygon.

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Solution
a. i x =360° ÷9 (Each corner of the polygon could be joined to the centre O to make 9
equal angles at O. The total of all 9 angles is 360°, as altogether they
make a complete turn.)

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(40° is the angle at the centre of a regular 9-sided polygon.)

x =40° ………… State the size of angle x.

ii 180° - 40° = 140° The sum of the angle s of a triangle is 180° and so the sum of the two
base angles is 140°.

 140° ×2 = 70°  y = 70°. The triangle is isosceles and so the two base angles are equal.

b. 2 × 70° = 140°
Because the polygon is regular, it has nine lines of symmetry and each
interior angle is twice the size of each base angle of the triangle.

Each interior angle is 140°.

Exercise
In this exercise, the polygons are not accurately drawn.
1. Find the sum of the angles of a 15-sided polygon.
2. Find the sum of the angles of a 20-sided polygon.
3. A polygon can be split into 17 triangles by drawing diagonals from one corner. How
many sides has the polygon?
In Questions 4–9, find the size of each of the angles marked with letters and show your
working.

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10 The diagram shows a pentagon.
All its sides are the same length.
a Work out the value of g.
b Is the pentagon a regular polygon?
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Explain your answer.

11 Work out the size of each interior angle of

a a regular pentagon b a regular hexagon c a regular octagon.
12 Work out the size of each interior angle of a regular 15-sided polygon.
13 Work out the size of each interior angle of a regular 20-sided polygon.
14 Work out the size of the angle at the centre of a regular 12-sided polygon.
15 The angle at the centre of a regular polygon is 60°. How many sides has the polygon?
16 The angle at the centre of a regular polygon is 20°.
a How many sides has the polygon?
b Work out the size of each interior angle of the polygon.
17 a Work out the angle at the centre of a regular octagon.
b Draw a circle with a radius of 5 cm and, using your answer to part a , draw a regular
octagon inside the circle.
Exterior angles
A polygon’s interior angles are the angles inside the polygon.
Extend a side to make an exterior angle, which is outside the
polygon. At each vertex (corner), the interior angle and the
exterior angle are on a straight line and so their sum is 180°.
Interior angle + Exterior angle = 180°
The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360°.

To show this, imagine someone standing at P on this

quadrilateral, facing in the direction of the arrow. They turn
through angle a, so that they are facing in the direction PQ, and
then walk to Q. At Q, they turn through angle b, so that they are
facing in the direction QR, and then walk to R.

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At R, they turn through angle c, so that they are facing in the direction RS, and then walk to S.
At S, they turn through angle d. They are now facing in the direction of the arrow again and
so they have turned through 360°.The total angle they have turned through is also the sum of
the exterior angles of the quadrilateral.
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So a + b + c + d = 360°
The same argument can be used with any polygon, not just a quadrilateral.
Example 11
The sizes of four of the exterior angles of a pentagon are 67°, 114°, 58° and 73°.
Work out the size of the other exterior angle.
Solution
67° + 114° + 58° + 73° = 312°… (Add the four given exterior angles.)
360° - 312° = 48°……. (Subtract the result from 360)
Exterior angle = 48°… (State the size of the exterior angle.)
Example 12
The size of each interior angle of a regular polygon is 150°.Work out
a. the size of each exterior angle,
b. the number of sides the polygon has.

Solution
a. 180° - 150° = 30° At a corner, the sum of the interior angle and the exterior
angle is 180°.So subtract 150° from 180°.

b. Because the polygon

360 is
÷30regular,
= 12...all the exterior angles are 30°.
Their sum is 360° and so divide 360 by 30

Exercise
1. At a vertex (corner) of a polygon, the size of the interior angle is 134°. Work out the
size of the exterior angle.
2. At a vertex of a polygon, the size of the exterior angle is 67°. Work out the size of the
interior angle.
3. The sizes of three of the exterior angles of a quadrilateral are 72°, 119° and 107°.
Work out the size of the other exterior angle.
4. The sizes of five of the exterior angles of a hexagon are 43°, 109°, 58°, 74° and 49°.
Work out the size of the other exterior angle.
5. Work out the size of each exterior angle of a regular octagon.

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6. Work out the size of each exterior angle of a regular 9-sided polygon.
7. For a regular 24-sided polygon, work out
a. the size of each exterior angle,
b. the size of each interior angle
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8. For a regular 40-sided polygon, work out
a. the size of each exterior angle,
b. the size of each interior angle.
9. The size of each interior angle of a regular polygon is 168°.Work out
a. the size of each exterior angle,
b. the number of sides the polygon has.

3.3 Plane shapes

Naming Shapes
You have already met many 2-D shapes; here are some with which you should already be
familiar:

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Example 1

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What is the name of the 2-D shape with 4 sides and with opposite angles equal?

Solution
The shape has to be a parallelogram.
Example 2
Draw accurately:
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(a) a rhombus with sides of length 4 cm and one angle 120°.
(b) a kite with sides of length 3 cm and 4 cm, and smallest angle 60°. Measure the size of
each of the other angles.
Solution
(a)

(b) Note that the smallest angle, 60°, must be between the two longest sides. The other
angles are approximately 108°, 108° and 84°.

Exercise
1. What could be the name of the 2-dimensional shape with 4 sides, which has all
angles of equal sizes?
2. What is the name of a 6-sided, 2-dimensional shape which has sides of equal lengths?
3. Draw a parallelogram with sides of lengths 3 cm and 4 cm and with smallest angle equal to
60.
4. Can a 4-sided, 2-dimensional shape have 4 sides of equal lengths, and not be a square?
5. Can a 4-sided, 2-dimensional shape have 4 angles of equal size, and not be a square?
6. Name all possible 4-sided, 2-dimensional shapes that have at least 2 sides of equal
lengths.

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3.4 Pythagoras theorem
Pythagoras was a famous mathematician in Ancient Greece. The theorem which is named
after him is an important result about right-angled triangles.
 Pythagoras’ Theorem relates the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle to
the lengths of the other two sides. P

The hypotenuse is always the longest side; it is always

the side opposite the right angle.

The diagram opposite shows a right-angled triangle. The length

of the hypotenuse is 5 cm and the other two sides have lengths 3
cm and 4 cm.

In this diagram, a square, A, has been drawn on the 3

cm side. Area of square A = 3  3
= 9 cm2

In this diagram, a second square, B, has been drawn on the 4 cm

side.
Area of square B = 4  4 = 16 cm2
Squares A and B together have total area:
Area A + Area B = 9 +16 = 25 cm2
Finally, a third square, C, has been
drawn on the 5 cm side.
Area of square C = 5  5 = 25 cm2
We can see that
Area A + Area B = Area C
We now look at right angles triangles
with sides
a, b and c, as shown opposite.
Area A = a × a = a2
Area B = b × b = b2
Area C = c × c = c2
So,
Area A + Area B = Area C
Gives us the formula for all right-angled triangles

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Example 1
Verify Pythagoras’ Theorem for the right-angled triangle opposite.
Solution

Exercise
1. Which side is the hypotenuse if each of the following right-angled triangles:

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2. Using the method shown in Example 1, check Pythagoras’ Theorem for the right
angled triangles below:

Calculating the Length of the Hypotenuse

Pythagoras’ Theorem states that, for a right-angled triangle,
c 2 = a2 + b2
With this result it is very easy to calculate the length of the
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle.

Example 1
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle in which the
other two sides are of lengths 12m and 5m.

Solution
Let h be the length of the hypotenuse.
By Pythagoras’ Theorem:
h 2  122  52  h2  144  25
h 2  169
h  169
 h  13
Exercise
1. Calculate the length of the hypotenuse of each of these triangles:

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Calculating the Length of the Other Sides (Legs)
Example 1
Calculate the length of the side marked x in the following triangle:

Solution
By Pythagoras’ Theorem:
x2 + 242 = 262  x2 + 576 = 676
x2 = 676 – 576  x2 = 100
x  100
 x  10
Exercise
1. Calculate the length of the side marked x in each of the following triangles:

PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES
The simplest right angled triangle with sides of integer length is the 3-4-5
triangle.

The numbers 3, 4, and 5 satisfy the rule 32 + 42 = 52.

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Other examples are:{5, 12, 13}, {7, 24, 25}, {8, 15, 17. }
Example3
Show that 5, 12, 13 is a Pythagorean triple.
Solution
We find the square of the largest number first. P
2
13 = 169
and 52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169
 52 + 122 = 132
So, 5, 12, 13 is a Pythagorean triple

Example 4
Find k if 9, k, 15 is a Pythagorean triple
Solution
Let 92 + k 2 = 152 Pythagoras
 81 + k 2 = 225
 k 2 = 144
k = 144 as k > 0
 k = 12

Exercise
1. Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to determine which of the sets of number below are
Pythagorean triples:
(a) 15, 20, 25 (c) 11, 22, 30
(b) 10, 24, 26 (d) 6, 8, 9
2. Determine if the following are Pythagorean triples:
(a) { 8, 15, 17 }
(b) {6, 8, 10}
(c) { 5, 6, 7}
(d) {14, 48, 50}
(e) { 1, 2, 3}
(f) {20, 48, 52}

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3.5 SOLID SHAPES
Introduction
Three-dimensional shapes, or solids, have length,
breadth and height (or thickness). In other words, they P
take up space in all directions. An example is the cube,
shown in Figure 3.5.1.

One face has been shaded. A cube has 6 faces altogether, all of them squares. The line where
two faces meet is called an edge; the cube has 12 edges. Edges meet at a vertex, or corner;
the cube has 8 vertices.
The cuboid, or rectangular box, shown in Figure 3.5.2 has the
same numbers of faces, edges and vertices as the cube but its
faces are rectangular rather than square.

There are several categories of three-dimensional shapes. A prism is a solid with a constant
cross-section. That is, if you cut through a prism parallel to one of its ends, you get the same
shape all along its length. This shape is called the cross-section of the prism. Both a cube and
a cuboid are examples of prisms. The cross-section of a prism must be a polygon and these
polygons are joined by parallelograms (often rectangles). A prism is usually defined in terms
of the shape of its cross-section. Two prisms are shown in Figure 3.5.3.

Insight
A cylinder has a constant circular cross-section. However, although it is not a prism – as a
circle is not a polygon – you can treat it as a prism when you work out its volume (see form
two book).
The term pyramid probably evokes thoughts of the square-based pyramids built over 4000
years ago by the Ancient Egyptians. In fact, the base may be any shape but, whatever shape

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the base is, lines drawn from the edge of the base must meet at a point, called the apex. If the
apex is vertically above the centre of the base, the pyramid is called a right pyramid. A
pyramid is usually defined in terms of the shape of its base, which is a polygon; the other
faces are triangles which meet at the apex. A pyramid with a triangular base is called a
tetrahedron; if each face is an equilateral triangle, it is a regular tetrahedron. Two pyramids
are shown in Figure 18.4 overleaf.
P

Other common three-dimensional shapes are a cone and a sphere, like a ball, is circular in
every direction (Figure 3.5.5, above). If every face of a solid is a polygon, the solid is called a
polyhedron. Of the solids illustrated so far, a cube, a cuboid, a triangular prism,
a hexagonal prism, a square-based pyramid and a tetrahedron are polyhedral but a cylinder, a
cone and a sphere are not.
If all the edges of a solid are the same length and all its faces are the same shape and all its
angles are the same, it is called a regular solid. The cube and the regular tetrahedron are the
only regular solids illustrated so far
If all the edges of a solid are not the same length and all its faces are not the same shape and
all its angles are not the same, it is called an irregular solid
There is an interesting relationship between the number o faces (F), the number of vertices
(V) and the number of edges (E) of a polyhedron. Expressed as a formula, it is

F+V=E+2
This result is often known as Euler’s theorem. It may have been known to Archimedes (c.
225 bc), but Descartes, in about 1635, was the first to state it in this form. The Swiss
mathematician Leonard Euler proved the result in 1752.

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Exercise

1. Identify each figure. Be as specific as possible.

P

2. A figure has one circular face, no edges, and no vertices. What kind of figure is it?
3. A figure has one pair of parallel sides that are circular. What kind of figure is it?
4. Decagons are polygons that have ten sides. How many faces does a decagonal prism
have?
5. A hexagon has six sides. How many faces does a hexagonal prism have?
6. A heptagon has seven sides. How many faces does a heptagonal prism have?

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 7. Count the number of faces, edges, and vertices in each figure.

Nets
Many of the 3-D shapes that you come across can be made from nets. A net is a flat shape
that can be folded into a 3-D shape.

Example 6
Sketch the net for each of these shapes.
a. cube
b. square-based pyramid
Solution
a. This is a sketch of a net for a cube.

b. This is a sketch of a net for a square-based pyramid.

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 Exercise
1. Sketch three nets for the same cuboid so that each net is different.
2. Draw, on squared paper, an accurate net for each of these cuboids.

3. Draw an accurate net for each of these pyramids. For each pyramid,
the base is a rectangle and the sloping edges are all the same length.

4. The shape on the right is a triangular prism. Its ends are

isosceles triangles and its other faces are rectangles. Draw an
accurate net for this prism.
5. Sketch the nets of these shapes.

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6. Six nets are shown below. List the nets that would make a cube.

7. The diagram shows the net of a solid.

What is the name of the solid?

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3.6 Scale and Drawing
Reading scales
You will come across scales in a lot of different places. For example, there are scales on
thermometers, car speedometers and weighing scales. It is important that you can read scales P
accurately.

There are two things to do when reading a scale. First, make sure that you know what each
division on the scale represents. Second, make sure you read the scale in the right direction,
for example some scales read from right to left. Also, make sure you note the units, if given,
and include them in your answer.
Example 1
Read the values from the following scales.

Solution
a. The scale shows 7. This is a very straightforward scale. It reads from left to right and
each division is worth 1 unit.
b. The scale shows 34 kg. The scale reads from left to right and each division is worth 2
units.
c. The scale shows 130 mph. The scale reads from right to left and each division is
worth 10 units. You should know that mph stands for miles per hour. This is a unit of speed
found on most British car speedometers.

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Exercise
1. Read the values from the following scales. Remember to state the units if they are
shown.

2. Copy (or trace) the following dials and mark on the values shown.

3. A pineapple was weighed. A pineapple and an orange were weighed

together.

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a. How much does the pineapple weigh? Give your answer in kilograms.
b. How much does the orange weigh? Give your answer in grams.

Scale drawings and maps

Scale drawings and scale models are drawings and models of places and objects. The lengths
and distances in scale drawings and models are shorter than in the actual places and objects
but the proportions and angles stay the same. The scale of drawings and models may be given
in various ways, for example ‘1 cm represents 2 m’ and ‘1 cm to 1 km’. Scales are sometimes
given as ratios.

Example 1
Tom uses a scale of 1 : 250 to make a model of an aeroplane.
a. The wing length of the model is 6 cm. Work out the wing length of the real
aeroplane.
b. The length of the real aeroplane is 40 m. Work out the length of the model.
Solution
.The scale is 1 : 250, so every 1 cm on the model represents 250
a. 6  250 = 1500 cm.
cm on the real aeroplane. To find lengths on the real aeroplane,
multiply lengths on the model by 250
1500  100 = 15 m.
Change 1500 cm to metres.

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 The wing length of the real aeroplane is 15 m.
b. 40  100 = 4000 cm…… The model will be smaller than the aeroplane,
so change 40 m to centimetres.
4000  250 = 16 cm
The length of the model is 16 cm. To find lengths on the model, divide lengths on the real aeroplane by 250
P

Maps are scale drawings. Map scales may also be given in various ways including ratios.

Example 2
The scale of a map is 1: 100 000
Work out the real distance that 6.4 cm on the map represents.
Solution
1: 100 000 1 cm on the map represents a real distance of 100 000 cm.
6.4  100 000 = 640 000… To find real distances, multiply lengths on the map by 100 000
The real distance is 640 000 cm
640 000  100 = 6400 m
6400  1000 = 6.4 km... Change 640 000 cm to kilometers using 1m = 100 cm and 1 km = 1000 m.
Exercise
1. Jimale uses a scale of 1 : 100 to draw a plan of a room to scale. On the scale
drawing, the length of the room is 5.6 cm.What is the real length of the room?
2. Kawsar makes a scale model of a rocking horse. She uses a scale of 1: 5 The rocking
horse is 125 cm high. How high will her scale model be?
a. On a map, 1 cm represents 2 km.What distance on the map will represent a real
distance of
b. 10 km c. 22 km d. 7 km?
3. On a map, 1 cm represents 5 km.Work out the real distance between two towns, if
their distance apart on the map is
a. 2 cm b. 3.1 cm c. 8.4 cm
4. The scale of a map is 1: 50 000. On the map, the distance between two towns is 4.2
cm. Work out the real distance between the towns. Give your answer in kilometres.
5. The scale of a map is 1 : 100 000 Work out the distance on the map between two towns, if
the real distance between the towns is
a. 6 km
b. 10.5 km

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6. The scale of a model aeroplane is 1 : 72
a. The length of the model aeroplane is 93 cm. Find, in metres, the real length of the
aeroplane.
b. The wingspan of the real aeroplane is 32.4 m. Find, in centimetres, the wingspan of the
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model.
7. A scale model of a car is 12 cm long. The length of the real car is 4.8 m. Find, as a ratio,
the scale of the model.
8. A plan of a house is drawn to scale. A room with a real length of 6 m is 24 cm long
on the plan. Find, as a ratio, the scale of the plan.
9. The distance between two towns is 6 km. On a map, the distance between the towns
is 30 cm. Find, as a ratio, the scale of the map.
COMPASS POINTS AND BEARINGS
Figure 3.611 is photograph of a magnetic compass. The
magnetic compass is used for finding direct. It has a magnetic
needle which always points in the direction of north.

Points of the compass

Figure 3.62 shows the main points of the compass.There are 4
main points, or directions: North (N), South (S), East (E) and West
(W). There are 4 secondary directions: north-east (NE), south-west
(SW) and north-west (NW). The angle between the directions N
and E is 900. NE is the direction mid-way between N and E. thus
the angle between N and NE is 450.
Compass Bearings
Figure 3.63 shows two compasses placed at points A and B. The
pointers of both compasses point northwards (N). the compass at B
is in a direction NW of A. we say the bearing of B from A is NW.
similarly, the compass at A is in a direction SE of B. the bearing of
A from B is SE.

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Exercise (oral). In each of the diagrams in fig. 24.25, state (a) the bearing of B from A (b)
the bearing of A from B.

Three – Figure Bearings

Figure 3.65 (a) shows the plan of a tree, a round house, a well and a flag-pole. Imagine you
are standing at A with a compass. The compass bearing of the tree from A in N. the compass
bearing of the well from A is NE. it is not possible to give an exact compass bearing for the
round house and flag-pole.
Figure 3.65 (b) shows that the direction of the round house from A makes an angle of 370
with north. Instead of using the directions, N, NE, E, etc. we can give the bearing of the
round house as a three -figure bearing. The three-figure bearing of the round house from A
is 0370.

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Figure 3.615(c) shows that the direction of the flag-pole from A makes an angle of 2460 with
north. The three-figure bearing of the flag-pole is 2460. Three-figure bearings are given as the
number of degrees from north, measured in a clockwise direction. Any direction can be given
as a three-figure bearing. Three digits are always given. For angles less than 1000, zeros must
P
be written in front of the digits. For example, the direction east is given as a bearing of 0900.
The three-figure bearing of north is 0000 or 3600.
Exercise
1. (a) Mark a point 0 on a piece of cardboard. With 0 as center, draw round a protractor.
If necessary, move the protractor so as to make a complete circle with 0 as center. Use the
protractor to mark off the circle in 300 intervals as show in Figure 3.66 (a) cut out the circle.
The circle is a compass face.
(b) Cut a point from a thin strip of cardboard. Push a drawing pin through the center of the
compass which can be used for estimating the sizes of three-figure bearings (Figure 3.66
(c)).

2. For this exercise, take the front of your classroom to be

north. Place your model compass so that N points towards the
front of your classroom.
(a) turn the pointer and estimate the bearings of the four corner
of the room to the nearest 100. See Figure 3.617.
(b) estimate the bearings of the following :
(i) the centre of the door
(ii) the centre of each window
(iii) the teacher’s chair
(iv) the friend who is closest to you

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Calculating bearings
Example 6
In Figure 3.618, find the three-figure bearing of A, B, C and D from X. The arrow N shows
ˆ = 630. The arrow N shows the
the direction north. NAX
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ˆ = 1800 – 350 = 1450. The bearing of B
direction north. NXB
ˆ Clockwise = 1800 + 750 = 2250. The
from X is 2550. NXC
ˆ Clockwise = 3600 – 520 =
bearing of a C from X is 2550. NXD
3080. The bearing of D from X is 3080.

Example 7
If the bearing of X from Y is 2470, find bearing of Y from X. The question gives the bearing
ˆ is 2470, clockwise from the line YN1. Mark a point X
of Y. Sketch a line YX such that N1YX
on this line. From X, draw a line pointing north (Figure 3.70(a)).
ˆ is the bearing of Y from X.
The two lines pointing north are parallel. Angle N 2 XY
There are many ways of finding the angle. Figure 3.619 (b) and (c) show two ways. The
bearing of Y from X is 0670.

Note that when making sketches, it’s usually to take the top of the page as a north.

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Exercise

1. For each sketch in Figure 3.619, state the three-figure bearing of B from A.
2. In Figure 3.621, find the bearings of A, B, C and D from X. P

3. In the diagram in Figure 3.622, calculate, (i) the bearing of A from B (ii) the bearing
of B from A.

Surveying
Bearing and distance method
To survey an area means to take measurements to that a scale
drawing of the area can be made. Figure 3.623 (a) shows a
sketch that a student made while surveying a classroom block
and tree.
The student has measured the bearings and distances of the
tree and two corners of the classroom block from a point p.

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thus, for the tree, (1180, 15m) means that the tree is on a bearing of 1180 and a distance 15 m
from P. he shas also measured the width of the classroom block.
Figure 3.624 (b) is a scale drawing of the tree and the classroom block.
Method : P is any point . a line pointing north is drawn from P. lines are drawn on bearings
P
030o, 0700 and 1180 from P . these are shown dotted in fig. 3.624 (b) distances of 18 m, 30 m
and 15 m are marked on these lines repectively. These give the positions of the front corners
of the classroom block and the center of the tree. The rest of the classroom block is drawn,
using the fact that it is 10 m wide.

Exercise

1. By taking measurements on Figure 3.624 (b), find

(a) The actual length of the classroom block,
(b) The actual perpendicular distance of the tree from the classroom block.
2. Figure 3.625 is a sketch and notes from a survey of three trees, A, B and C. choose a
suitable scale and draw an accurate plan of the three trees. Hence find the distance and
bearing of A from C.

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Example 8
A girl starts from A and walks 3 km east to B. she walk on a bearing 1520 from B. she
reaches a point C. find the distance and bearing of C from A.

Example 9

Town M is 116 km on a bearing 0270 from town L. how far north of L is M? how far west of
M is L?
Make a scale drawing of the data (Figure 3.627). K is the point which is due north of L and
due west of M.LK represents the distance that M is north of L.
By measurement, LK = 5.2 cm
The true distance LK = 5.2 x 20 km = 104 km
MK represents the distance that L is west of M.
By measurement, MK = 2.6 cm
The true distance MK = 2.6 x 20 km = 52 km
Thus, M is approximately 104 km north of L and L is approximately 52 km west of M.

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Exercise 24
Answer each question by making a scale drawing. Always make a rough sketch first.

1. A boy starts at A and walks 3 km east to B. he then walks 4 km north to C. find the
distance and bearing of C from A. P
2. An airplane flier 400 km west, then 100 km north. Find its distance and bearing from
its starting point.
3. A road starts at a college and goes due north for 2 000 m. it then goes 2 000 m on
bearing 0400and ends at market. How far is the market from the college? What is the
bearing of the market from the college?
4. Point E is 450 km due south of point K. a lake is due west of E and on a bearing 2250
from K. find the distances between (a) the lake and E (b) the lake and K.
5. A ship is 3 km due east of a harbour. Another ship is also 3 km from the harbour but
on a bearing 0420 from it.
(a) Find the distance between the two ships.
(b) Find the bearing of the second ship from the first ship.

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3.7 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
The position of any point in the number plane can be specified in terms of an ordered pair
of numbers (x, y), where: x is the horizontal step from a fixed point or origin O, and y is the
vertical step from O. Once the origin O has been given, two perpendicular axes are drawn.
The x-axis is horizontal and the y-axis is vertical. The number plane is also known as either: P

 the 2-dimensional plane, or

 the Cartesian plane, named after Ren´e Descartes. In the diagram, the point P is at (a,
b).
a and b are referred to as the coordinates of P. a is called the x-coordinate, and b is called
the y-coordinate

PLOTTING POINTS
To plot the point A (3, 4):
 start at the origin O
 move right along the x-axis 3 units
Then move upwards 4 units. To plot the point B (5, -2):
 start at the origin O
 move right along the x-axis 5 units
 Then move downwards 2 units.
To plot the point C (- 4, 1):
 start at the origin O
 move left along the x-axis 4 units
 Then move upwards 1 unit.

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 QUADRANTS
The x and y-axes divide the Cartesian plane into four regions referred to as quadrants. These
quadrants are numbered in an anti-clockwise direction as shown alongside.

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Exercise
1. State the coordinates of the points
J, K, L, M and N:

2. On the same set of axes plot the following points:

a. P(2, 1) c. R(-3,-1) e. T(-4, 0) g. V(-5, -3)
b. Q(2, - 3) d. S(-2, 3) f. U(0, -1) h. W(4, -2)
3. State the quadrant in which each of the points in question 2 lies.
4. On different sets of axes show all points with:
a. x-coordinate equal to - 2 d. y-coordinate equal to 0
b. y-coordinate equal to -3 e. negative x-coordinate
c. x-coordinate equal to 0 f. positive y-coordinate
g. negative x and y-coordinates
h. positive x and negative y-coordinates
Example 2
What are the co-ordinates of the points marked on the following grid:

Solution
The co-ordinates are:
A. (8, 7) C. (–10, –6)
B. (9, –5) D. (–5, 9)

206
Example 3
The co-ordinates of the corners of the shape are (2, 4), (4, 1), (2, –2), (–2, –2), (–4, 1) and (–
2, 4).
(a) Draw the shape.
P
(b) What is the name of the shape?

Solution
Exercise
1. (a) Plot the points with co-ordinates (–1, 4), (2, 5), (5, 4) and (2, –1).
(b) Join these points, in order to form a shape.
(c) What is the name of the shape?
2. The co-ordinates of three corners of a square are (3, 1), (–1, 1) and (3, –3). What are the
co-ordinates of the other corner?
3. The co-ordinates of three corners of a rectangle are (–1, 6), (–4, 6) and (–4, –5). What
are the co-ordinates of the other corner?
4. A shape has corners at the points with co-ordinates (3, –2), (6, 2), (–2, 2) and (–5, –2).
(a) Draw the shape.
(b) What is the name of the shape?

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Plotting Points on a Straight Line and graphs on straight lines
In this section we plot points that lie on a straight line, and look for relationships between the
co-ordinates of these points.
Example 1
P
(a) Plot the points with co-ordinates: (1, 2), (2, 3) (3, 4) (4, 5) and (5, 6).
(b) Draw a straight line through these points.
(c) Describe how the x and y co-ordinates of these points are related.
Solution
(a) The points are plotted below:

(b) A straight line can be drawn through these points.

(c) The y co-ordinate is always one more than the x co-ordinate, therefore we can write y = x
+1
Example 2
(a) Plot the points with co-ordinates: (0, 0), (1, 3), (3, 9) and (5, 15).
(b) Draw a straight line through these points.

208
 (c) Write down the co-ordinates of two other points on this line.
(d) Describe how the x and y co-ordinates are related.

(c) The points (2, 6) and (4, 12) also lie on the line (there are many others).
(d) The y co-ordinate is three times the x co-ordinate. This is written as
y = 3x.
Example 3
(a) Complete the table below for y = 2x + 1.

(b) Use the information in the table to plot the graph with equation
y = 2x + 1.
Solution
(a) .

(b) The points (–2, –3), (–1, –1), (0, 1), (1, 3) and (2, 5) can then be plotted, and a
straight line drawn through these points.

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 P

Example 4
Draw the graph of the line with the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
The table shows how to calculate the co-ordinates of some points on the line.

The points with co-ordinates (–3, –2), (–2, –1), (–1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3 and (3, 4) can then
be plotted and a line drawn as shown:

Exercise
1. (a) Copy and complete the following table for y = x – 2:

210
(b) Draw the line with equation y = x – 2.
2. Draw the line with equation y = 2x – 1. P
3. Sketch the line 2y = 3x – 4
4. (a) Copy and complete the following table for y = 2x + 3:

(b) Draw the line with equation y = 2x + 3.

3.8 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

Constructing triangles
There are three ways of constructing a triangle. Which one you use depends on what
information you are given about the triangle
All three sides known
EXAMPLE 1
Construct a triangle with sides that are 5 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm long.
 Step 1: Draw the longest side as the base. In this case, the base will be 6 cm, which you
draw using a ruler. (The diagrams in this example are drawn at half-size.)

Step 2: Deal with the second longest side,

in this case the 5 cm side. Open the compasses
to a radius of 5 cm (the length of the side), place the
point on one end of the 6 cm line and draw a short
faint arc, as shown here.
 Step 3: Deal with the shortest side, in this case
the 4 cm side. Open the compasses to a radius
of 4 cm, place the point on the other end of the
6 cm line and draw a second short faint arc to intersect the first arc, as shown here.

211
 P

 Step 4: Complete the triangle by joining each end of the base line to the point where
the two arcs intersect.

Note: The arcs are construction lines and so are always drawn lightly. They must be left in an
answer to an examination question to show the examiner how you constructed the triangle.
Two sides and the included angle known
Example 2
Draw a triangle ABC, where AB is 6 cm, BC is 5 cm and the included angle ABC is 55°.
(The diagrams in this example are drawn at half-size.)
 Step 1: Draw the longest side, AB, as the base. Label the ends of the base A and B.

 Step 2: Place the protractor along AB with its centre on B and make a point on the
diagram at the 55° mark

 Step 3: Draw a faint line from B through the 55° point.

From B, using a pair of compasses, measure 5 cm along this line.
 Label the point where the arc cuts the line as C.

212
 Step 4: Join A and C and make AC and CB into bolder lines.

Note: The construction lines are drawn lightly and left in to demonstrate how the triangle has
been constructed.
Two angles and a side known
When you know two angles of a triangle, you also know the third.
Draw a triangle ABC, where AB is 7 cm, angle BAC is 40° and angle ABC is 65°.
 Step 1: As before, start by drawing the base, which here has to be 7 cm. Label the
ends A and B.

 Step 2: Centre the protractor on A and mark the

angle of 40°. Draw a faint line from A through this
point.

 Step 3: Centre the protractor on B and mark

the angle of 65°. Draw a faint line from B

through this point, to intersect the 40° line
drawn from A. Label the point of
intersection as C.

 Step 4: Complete the triangle by

making AC and BC into bolder lines.

213
Exercise
1. Draw the following triangles accurately and measure the sides and angles not given in
the diagram.

2. a) Draw a triangle ABC, where AB = 7 cm, BC = 6 cm and AC = 5 cm.

b) Measure the sizes of ∠ ABC, ∠ BCA and ∠ CAB.
3. Draw an isosceles triangle that has two sides of length 7 cm and the included angle of
50°.
a) Measure the length of the base of the triangle.
b) What is the area of the triangle?
4. A triangle ABC has ∠ ABC = 30°, AB = 6 cm and AC = 4 cm. There are two different
triangles that can be drawn from this information.

5. Construct an equilateral triangle of side length 5 cm.

a) Measure the height of the triangle.
b) What is the area of this triangle?
6. Construct a parallelogram with sides of length 5 cm and
8 cm and with an angle of 120° between them.
a) Measure the height of the parallelogram.
b) What is the area of the parallelogram?

214
Bisectors
To bisect means to divide in half. So a bisector divides something into two equal parts.
 A line bisector divides a straight line into two equal lengths.
 An angle bisector is the straight line that divides an angle into two equal angles.
P
To construct a line bisector
It is usually more accurate to construct a line bisector than to measure its position (the midpoint of the
line).
 Step 1: Here is a line to bisect.

 Step 2: Open your compasses to a radius of about three-quarters of the length of the
line. Using each end of the line as a centre, and without changing the radius of your
compasses, draw two intersecting arcs.

 Step 3: Join the two points at which the arcs intersect. This line is the perpendicular
bisector of the original line.

To construct an angle bisector

It is much more accurate to construct an angle bisector than to measure its position.
 Step 1: Here is an angle to bisect.

 Step 2: Open your compasses to any reasonable radius that is less than the length of the
shorter line. If in doubt, go for about 3 cm. With the vertex of the angle as centre, draw an arc
through both lines.

215
 Step 3: With centres at the two points at which this arc intersects the lines, draw two
more arcs so that they intersect. (The radius of the compasses may have to be increased to do P

this.)

 Step 4: Join the point at which these two arcs intersect to the vertex of the angle.

This line is the angle bisector.

To construct an angle of 60°
It is more accurate to construct an angle of 60° than to measure and draw it with a protractor.
 Step 1: Draw a line and mark a point on it.

 Step 2: Open the compasses to a radius of about 4 centimetres. Using the point as the
centre, draw an arc that crosses the line and extends almost above the point.

 Step 4: Join the original point to the point where the two arcs intersect.
 Step 5: Use a protractor to check that the angle is 60°.

216
To construct an angle of 300
1
300 = 2
of 600 to construct an angle of 300first construct an angle of 600 and then bisect it .this is
shown in figure

Use protractor to check the data

To construct an angle of 900

Given a point B on straight line AC

It is required to construct a line BR through such that angle RBA = RBC = 900
(a) With center B and any radius draw arcs to cut AC at P and Q .

(b) with center P and Q and equal radii , draw arcs to cut each other at R

(c) Join BR is perpendicular to AC Thus angle RBA = RBC = 900 use protractor to check this
result

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To construct an angle of 450
1
450 = 2
of 900to construct an angle of 450First construct an angle of 900and then bisect it

To construct a perpendicular from a point on a line

This construction will produce a perpendicular from a point A on a line.
 Open your compasses to about 2 or 3 cm. With point A as centre, draw two short arcs
to intersect the line at each side of the point.

 Now extend the radius of your compasses to about 4 cm. With centres at the two
points at which the arcs intersect the line, draw two arcs to intersect at X above the line.
• Join AX.

AX is perpendicular to the line.

Note: If you needed to construct a 90° angle at the end of a line, you would first have to
extend the line. You could be even more accurate by also drawing two arcs underneath the
line, which would give three points in line.

218
To construct a perpendicular from a point to a line
This construction will produce a perpendicular from a point A to a line.
 With point A as centre, draw an arc which intersects the line at two points.
 With centres at these two points of intersection, draw two arcs to intersect each other
P
both above and below the line.
 Join the two points at which the arcs intersect. The resulting line passes through point
A and is perpendicular to the line.

Examination note: When a question says construct, you must only use compasses – no
protractor. When it says draw, you may use whatever you can to produce an accurate
diagram. But also note, when constructing you may use your protractor to check your
accuracy.

Exercise
1. Use ruler and compasses only this
1) Construct angles 900 and 450
2) Construct angles 1350
3) Construct a square with sides each 83 mm long
4) Construct a rectangle measuring 7.4cm by 10.3cm
5) Construct an isosceles Triangle with the equal sides 9cm long and the angle between them
0
45
2. Use ruler and compasses only
(a) Construct an angles of 600.300.150
(b) Construct an angles of 1200.1050
(c) Construct an equilateral triangle with sides of length 7.2cm
(d) Draw a circle of radius 5cm
(e) Construct radii at 600intervals in the circle
(f) Hence construct regular hexagon
(g) How long are the sides of the hexagon

219
Concurrent lines
Three or more lines are concurrent if they all pass through the same point.

The three lines are concurrent at P.

Circumscribed circle
The circumscribed circle or circumcircle of triangle is a circle which passes through the vertices of
the triangle. A circum circle can be drawn for any triangle.

To construct circumscribed circle

Example 1

Construct a circle which passes thruogh A, B, and C

a) Construct the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC to meet at O.

b) With centre O and radius OA or OB or OC draw a circle which

passes through A, B, and C,

The construction of the circumcircle example 1 use the fact that the perpendicular bisector of chord
of circle passes through its center the perpendicular bisector of three sides of any triangle are
congruent. The point of concurrency O is called the circum centre of the triangle. the length OA or
OB or OC is the circum radius of triangle
Inscribed circle
The inscribed circle or en circled of a triangle is circle
in side triangle which just touches it is three sides; the
figure below shows a triangle and its inscribed circle

220
To construct an inscribed circle
Example 2

Construct the circle which touches AB, BC, and CA internally

a) Construct the bisectors of angle A and angle B. let them meet at I as shown in the figure
below

b) se a ruler and set-square to construct the perpendicular from I to BC at L

c) With center I and radius IL, draw the circle which touches AB, BC, and CA

Since I Lies on bisector of A, it is equidistant from AB and BC. Similarly I is equidistant from BA
and BC. Since I is equidistant from all three sides of  ABC. It follows that the circle with centre I
and radius IL will just touch all three sides of  ABC. The bisector of internal angles of triangle is
concurrent. Their point of concurrency is called incentre of the triangle.

221
3.9 Similarity: similar figures enlargement
Both photographs show the same picture but in different size. We say that the pictures are
similar to each other. Figure 3.91 shows further examples of similar shapes.

Notice that the pairs of shapes in Figure 3.91 are the same but different sizes. Figure 3.92
shows two rectangles; ABCD and PQRS.
ABCD has a shape like that of an envelope.
PQRS has a shape like that of a ruler.
Although the shapes are both rectangles they are
not similar. PQRS is long and thin, but ABCD is
not.
Example 1

a) Measure the length and breadth of the flags in fig. 3.2(b).

b) Find the ratio length: breadth for each flag.
c) What do you notice?

Solution

a) Large flag: length = 20 mm, breadth = 10 mm

small flag: length = 10 mm, breadth = 50 mm
length 20
Large flag :  2
breadh 10
b)
length 10
Small flag :  2
breadh 5

222
 c) The ratio of the corresponding sides of each figure is the same 2 .

Example 2

a) Measure the lengths of all the sides of both shapes in fig. 3.4. what do you notice?
P
b) Measure the angles of the shapes in fig. 3.4.
c) Are the two shapes similar? Give reasons.

Solution

a) In both shapes, the sides are 2 cm each. Both shapes have sides of the same length.
b) Each angle in the first shape = 1080. in the second figure there are two angles of 1140,
two angles of 900 and one angle of 1320.
c) The shapes are not similar. Although the sides in both figures are equal length, their
angles are different.

Notice, the triangles are similar even thought one of the triangles has turned
Exercise 1
.around.

1. (a) Measure the heights of the cuboids in Figure 3.91 (a) on the previous page and
find the ratio of the two heights.
(b) Measure the widths of the cuboids in Figure 3.91 (a) find the ratios of the two
widths.
2. Measure the angles of the triangles in Figure 3.91 (c).What do you notice?
3. Use a ruler to find the ratio longest side: shortest side for each of the triangles in
Figure 3.91(c). What do you notice?
4. (a) Write down the sizes of the angles of ABCD and PQRS in Figure 3.92. What do
you notice?

223
 𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑄
(b) Use a ruler to find the ratio and the ratio for the rectangles in Figure
𝐵𝐶 𝑄𝑅

3.92.what do you notice?

5. (a) Measure the length and breadth of (i) this text book, (ii) your desk top. Are the two
shapes similar?
P
(b) If the two shapes are not similar, make a scale drawing of a shape that is similar to
the two shape of your desk top.
6. Look at each pair of diagrams in Figure 3.94. Say whether they are similar or not. Use
measurement to help you if you are not sure.

3.10 Similar Triangles

Figure 3.95 shows two similar triangles ABC and DEF.
Notice that: Aˆ , Bˆ , Cˆ in ABC are equal to Dˆ , Eˆ , Fˆ in DEF respectively.
The two triangles are equiangular. This means that the angles of one are equal to the angles
are triangles of the other. Equiangular triangles are always similar. This is true even if one
of the triangles is turned round as in Figure 3.96.

224
 P

Corresponding sides
In both Figures 3.95 and 3.96 AB is opposite C and DE is opposite F . Since C =
F , we say that AB corresponds to side DE, side BC corresponds to side EF and,
similarly, side CA corresponds to side FD.

Notice that corresponding sides are opposite equal angles. This can be checked by making
a tracing of the smaller triangle and sliding it within the larger triangle, as in Fig 3.97

In general: two triangles are said to be that they are similar if

 They are equiangular(i.e. they have equal angles)

 Their corresponding sides are in proportion.(i.e. The ratio of their corresponding sides
are equal).

Example 3
In Figure 3.98, ABC , KLM and XYZ are
similar. Write down the sides in KLM and

225
XYZ that correspond to sides AB, BC and CA in ABC .

Exercise 2
In each pair of triangles state the sides that correspond to sides AB, BC and CA in ABC .

Naming Similar Figures

Take care to name similar figures with the letters in the correct corresponding order. For
example, if GHK is similar to ABC then, since the letter are in corresponding order, side
GH of the first triangle corresponds to side AB of the second, HK to BC to AC. It is not
necessary to draw the triangles.

Notice4 that if two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another, then
Example
the third
Calculate theangles must
missing be equal,
angles in thesince the sum
triangles the angles of any triangle is 1800.
ofin
given
Figure 3.10. Hence, show that the triangles are
similar, naming them with their letters in correct
corresponding order.

226
 P

Notice the order of the letters in the answer to example 4. The order corresponds to the
equal angles in the triangles, and is not necessarily in alphabetical order.
Exercise

Exercise
1. Look at the pairs of triangles given in Figure 3.99. For each pair, name the triangle that
is similar to ABC , giving the letters in the correct order.
2. Show that the pair of triangles in Fig 3.11 is
similar, naming them with their letters in the
correct corresponding order.

Exercise
1. If DEF is similar to QRP , which side corresponds to
(a) DE,
(b) FE,
(c) PQ,

227
(d) DF?
2. Rectangle ABCD is similar to rectangle NOPM. Name the line that corresponds to
(a) side BC,
(b) side MN,
P
(c) diagonal AC,
(d) diagonal MO,
(e) side AD
3. Two similar triangles are such that sides FE and GE in the first correspond to sides KM
and LM in the second respectively.
Complete the statement: EFG is similar to  ….
Ratio of corresponding lengths
In Figure3.12 ABC is similar to DEF .
Since the two triangles are alike in everything
but size, it can be said that DEF is a scale
drawing of ABC . Thus, if AB is of DE, then
2 2
BC is of EF and CA is of FD. Hence AB
3 3

and DE. BC and EF, CA and FD are all in the

ratio 2: 3.
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴 2
i.e. = 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐹𝐷 = 3
𝐷𝐸

It is quite common to use small letters for the lengths of sides of a triangle. For example, side
BC as opposite A: its length is α unit. Thus,
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑎
= 𝑑 = 𝑒 = 3 . Also, since 𝑓 = 𝑑
𝑓

Multiplying both sides by f d

𝑐 𝑎
𝑥 𝑓𝑑 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝑓𝑑  cd = af
𝑓

Divide both sides by ad

𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑓 𝑐 𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐶𝐴 𝐹𝐷
= 𝑎𝑑  𝑎 = 𝑑 i.e. = . Similarly 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐹𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐷𝐸 .
𝑎𝑑 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐴𝐵

These results can be seen more easily by taking an example with numbers. See Fig. 3.13.
If AB, BC and CA are 12, 10 and 8 cm
2
respectively. Then, since AB is of DE, etc,
3

DE, EF and FD are 18, 15 and 12 cm

respectively.

228
 𝐴𝐵 12 6
Hence 𝐵𝐶 = 10 = 5 and
𝐷𝐸 18 6 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸
= = 5 ∴ 𝐵𝐶 =
𝐸𝐹 15 𝐸𝐹
𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐶𝐴 𝐹𝐷
Similarly 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐹𝐷 and 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐸 .
P
Example 5
In Fig. 3.14, show that the two triangles are
similar. Name the triangles, giving the letters in
corresponding order. Hence calculate BC and
RQ.
Solution
B = 1800 – 490 – 1090 = 220
R = 1800 - 220- 1090 = 490
Since the triangles are equiangular, they are similar. A corresponds to R, B to P and C to Q.
hence ABC is similar to RPQ thus:
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶
= 𝑅𝑄 = 𝑃𝑄
𝑅𝑄
15 6 𝐵𝐶 3 6 3 𝐵𝐶
25
= 𝑅𝑄 = 20
 5
= 𝑅𝑄 and 5 = 20

 3RQ = 30 and 5BC = 60

 RQ = 10 cm BC = 12 CM
Example 6
In Figure 3.15, calculate MN and MY.

Solution
Since YZ MN, XYZ = XMN and XZY = XNM
(corresponding angles). Thus XYZ and XMN are
equiangular and similar. Thus:
𝑋𝑌 𝑋𝑍 𝑌𝑍 10 9 6 10 3 6 3
= 𝑋𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁  𝑋𝑀 = 12 = 𝑀𝑁  = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =4
𝑋𝑀 𝑋𝑀 𝑚𝑛
1
 3XM = 40 and 3MN = 24  XM = 133 cm and MN = 8
1
YM = 33 cm and MN = 8.

Exercise

229
1. Construct triangles ABC and PQR as in Figure 3.16. so that
Bˆ  Qˆ  350 , Cˆ  Rˆ  800 and QR= 10 cm

Measure AB, AC, PQ , PR and complete the following

BC 8
  0.8 :
QR 10
AB
 ___  ;
PQ
AC
 ___ 
PR

2. Construct triangles with angles as in Figure 3.17, but with BC = 6 cm, QR = 9 cm.
Measure AB, AC, PQ, PR and complete the following in decimal form.
AB PQ
a)  ;  
BC 6 QR 9
AC PQ
b)  ;  
BC 6 QR 9
AB PQ
C)  ; _
AC QR
3. In Figure 3.17, state why triangles ABC and ADE
are similar. If AB = 8 cm, AC = 9 cm, BC = 6 cm,
AD = 12 cm, calculate AE and DE.

Similar plane shapes and solid shapes

For triangles to be similar it is sufficient that their corresponding angles should be equal.
However, Figure 3.92 and 3.93 on the previous pages show that for all other plane shapes to
be similar, their corresponding angles must be equal and the ratio of corresponding sides
must be constant.
Example 7

230
Rectangle ABCD is similar to rectangle WXTZ. AB = 4 cm and WX = 5 cm. if BC = 9 cm,
calculate the length of XY.
Solution
Assume that the letters of the rectangles are given in corresponding order.
P
WX 5
The ratio 
AB 4
XY 5
The ratio must also be .
BC 4
XY 5 5 9 45 1
Hence   XY  cm  XY   11 cm
BC 4 4 4 4
For two solids to be similar their corresponding angles must also be equal and the ratio of the
lengths of the corresponding edges must be constant.
Example 8
A match box is in the shape of a cuboid 6 cm wide and 2 cm high. Matchboxes are packed in
a similar box. A cuboid 45 cm wide. Calculate the length and height of the box.
Solution
Comparing the widths of the matchbox and packing box:
Width of packing box 45cm 15
 
Width of matchbox 3cm 1
Each edge on the packing box is 15times the corresponding edge on the matchbox.
Length of box = 15  6 cm = 90 cm
Height of box = 15  2 cm = 30 cm
Exercise

1. Figure 3.18 shows to sets of rectangles. Use a

ruler to find which set contains rectangles that
are similar to each other.

2. Rectangles ABCD and PQRS are similar. CD

= 3 cm and RS = 5 cm. if AD = 12 cm, calculate the length of PS.
3. Rectangles ABCD and WXYZ are such that AB = 5 cm, BC = 15 cm, WX = 8 cm, XY =
18 cm. Is ABCD similar to WXYZ? Give reasons .
4. A cuboid is 4 cm long, 7 cm wide and 10 cm high. A similar cuboid is 25 cm high.
Calculate its length and width.

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5. Milk powder is sold in similar cylindrical tins. The small tins are 12 cm high and 10 cm
in diameter. If the radius of the large tin is 7.5 cm, calculate its height.
6. State whether the following are true or false.
a. All equiangular triangles are similar. e. All rectangles are similar.
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b. All isosceles triangles are similar. f. All cubes are similar.
c. All equilateral triangles are similar. g. All cuboids are similar.
d. All squares are similar.
Enlargement, scale factor
Figure 3.19 shows a method of drawing a
A1 B 1 C1 which is similar to a given ABC .

Given ABC , choose any point O, O can be

anywhere; in Figure 3.19 O is outside ABC
.From O, draw lines through A, B, and C. The
point A1 is on OA extended such that

OA1  3OA . Similarly B1 and C1 are such that

OB1  3OB and OC1  3OC . Join A1 B1C1 .

A1 B 1 C1 is similar to ABC . We say that

A1 B 1 C1 is an enlargement of ABC . O is the center of enlargement. . in Figure 3.19 ,

OA1 OB1 OC1

   3.
OA OB OC
OA1 OB1 OC1
The fraction    3 is the scale of enlargement. In this case, the scale factor
OA OB OC
is 3. The sides of A1 B 1 C1 are three times longer than the corresponding sides of ABC

A1 B1 B1C1 C1 A1
.check this by measuring corresponding sides in Figure 3.19. Thus:    3.
AB BC CA
Example 9
In fig. 3.2, rectangle OXYZ is enlarged to rectangle
OX’Y’Z’ where O is the center of enlargement.
a) If OX = 2 cm and XX/= 1 cm, find the scale
factor of the enlargement.
b) Hence find OZ/, given that OZ = 5 cm.

Solution

232
 a) OX/ = 2 cm + 1 cm = 3 cm
𝑂𝑋′ 3
Scale factor = =2
𝑂𝑋
3 1
b) OZ/ = OZ x scale factor = 5 x 2 cm = 7 2 cm

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Exercise
1. On graph paper, draw a square ABCD an
points X and Y as shown in Figure 3.21.
enlarge the square,
i. By scale factor 3 with center of
enlargement at X,
ii. By scale factor 2 with center Y,
1
iii. By scale factor 1 2 with center A.

2. In Figure 3.22, APQR is an enlargement of

ABCD.
i. Which point is the center of the
enlargement?
ii. Use measurement to find the scale
factor of enlargement.

3. In Figure 3.23,  OAB is enlarged to  OA/ B/.

i. Which point is the center of the enlargement?
ii. If OB = 3 cm and BB/ = 2 cm, find the scale
factor.
iii. If AB = 2 m, calculate the length of A/B/
4. The coordinates of the vertices of  ABC are A (1, 1), B (3, 1), C (1, 4).
i. Choose a suitable scale and draw  ABC on graph paper.
ii. With the origin (0, 0) as center of the enlargement, enlarge  ABC by scale
factor 2.
iii. Write down the coordinates of A, B’, C’, the vertices of the enlargement.
1 1
5. The rectangle A(3,32) , B(2,3) , C(3,1) , D(4, 12) is enlarged to rectangle A/(2,5) ,

B/(0, 3) , C/(2, -1) , D/(4,0).

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 i. Choose a suitable scale and draw these rectangles on graph paper.
ii. Find the scale factor and the coordinates of the center of the enlargement.

Example 10
Figure 3.24 shows that k can be fractional, P
positive or negative.
 ABC is the original triangle.
 A1B1C1: K = 2 the enlargement is
bigger than ABC
1
 A2B2C2: K = the enlargement is bigger
2

than ABC
1
 A3B3C3: K = -1 a negative scale factor
2

means that the enlargement is on the other

side of the center of enlargement from
ABC .
Example 11
In Figure 3.25 P/Q/ is an enlargement of PQ with
center O.
a) If OP = 5 cm and OP/ = 2 cm fin the scale
factor of the enlargement.
b) If PQ = 3 cm, calculate P/Q/.

Solution
𝑂𝑃′ 2
a) Scale factor = =5
𝑂𝑃

b) P/Q/ = scale factor x PQ

2 6
= 5 𝑥 3𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚
5

Exercise
1. Make a copy of Fig. 3.21 on the previous page on graph paper. Enlarge square
ABCD,
1
a) By scale factor -2 with center of the enlargement X,
4
b) By scale factor 5 with center Y.
1
c) By scale factor -12 with center A.

234
 2. In Fig. 3.26 the P is an enlargement of the d. use measurement to find the scale
factor of the enlargement.
3. The coordinates of the vertices of PQR are P (0, 2), Q (4, 6), R (8, 1).
a) Choose suitable scale and draw PQR on
P
graph paper.
b) With the point (4, 4) as center of enlargement,
1
enlarge PQR by scale of factor 2 .

c) Write down the coordinates of the vertices of

the enlargement, P Q R  .
4. In Figure 3.27, rectangle B is an enlargement of rectangle A with O as the center of
the enlargement.

a) If OX = 8 cm and OX’ = 10 cm, find the

scale factor of the enlargement.
b) If the diagonals of rectangle A are 12 cm
long, calculate the length of the diagonals
of rectangle B.
c)
5. Square A(-2.-1), B(1,-1), C(1,-4), D(-2,-4) is enlarged to square A’(4,1), B’(3,1),
C’(3,2), D’(4,2).
a) Choose a suitable scale and draw these squares on graph paper, labeling the
vertices carefully.
b) Hence find the scale factor and the coordinates of the center of the enlargement.

3.11 CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

Triangles that are the same size and the same shape are called congruent triangles.
Each triangle has six parts - 3 angles and 3 sides. To be congruent, all six corresponding parts
of the two triangles must be congruent.
(Note: When sides of the triangle are congruent, you can mark them with small ‘‘tic’ when
angles of the triangles are congruent, you can mark those with small arcs drawn in the
angles.)

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ABC  EFG This statement is called your triangle congruency statement. The order of
the letters is important because it tells us which angles and sides are congruent in the two
triangles.
In this case the corresponding congruent angles and sides are as follows:

Congruence Transformations - You can slide, rotate and flip triangles. Their size and shape
will not change.
Example1

1. I
d
e
n
t
i
fy the congruent triangles in each figure (write a triangle congruency statement).

Solution
a) JKL  MLK
b) XYW  TUW
(Note: These are sample answers, the order of the letters may vary. However, you MUST
have the corresponding congruent angles matching up in your statement.)
Example 2
Name the corresponding congruent angles and sides if CAT  RAT .
Solution

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C  D CA  RA
A  A AT  AT
T  T CT  RT
**Simply match the first letter of the first triangle with the first letter of the second triangle,
P
etc. .
Example 3
Use the given information to solve for x.
a) ABC  DEF , AB = 14, BC = 12, AC = 18, and DF = 6x- 12, find x.
Solution
You can draw the triangles and label the corresponding parts.

DF corresponds to AC. Therefore, 6x.- 12 .=18 . When you solve that equation x = 5.

b) ABC  DEF , mA = 50, mE = 75, mF = 3x + 4, find x.

Solution
Again, you can draw the triangles and label the corresponding parts.

Since the triangles are congruent, the corresponding angles are congruent and we can
transfer the measures from one triangle to another. You can solve the problem in two ways:
One way would be to add all of the angles in one triangle up and equal them to 180:
50 + 75 + 3x + 4 = 180. Solve and x = 17.
The second method would be to figure out that mF must be 55 degrees. So set up the
equation. 3x + 4 = 55. Solve and x = 17.
Exercise
1. Write a triangle congruence statement for the given triangles.

237
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2. Complete if GHI  PQR

3. Use the given information to solve for x:

Proving Triangles Congruent

Proving all six corresponding parts of triangles congruent can be time- consuming. we have
five shortcuts for proving triangles congruent.

SSS- Side-Side-Side
This is the easiest way to spot! It’s when all the three sides of one triangle are congruent
(equal) to all three sides on another triangle

SAS- Side-Angle-Side
This is when you have two sides of one triangle congruent to two sides of another triangle
and the angles between the two pairs of sides are also congruent

238
ASA- Angle-Side-Angle
This is when you have two angles of one triangle congruent to two angles of another triangle
and the sides in between the two angles are also congruent.

Notice that the congruent sides are between the two angles…just like the ASA, the S is
between the two A’s
AAS- Angle-Angle-Side (also known as SAA, but rarely called that)

This is when you have two angles of one triangle congruent to two angles of another triangle
and a side NOT BETWEEN the two angles also congruent.

Notice where the congruent side is this time … it’s beside the congruent angles and not
between them.
RHS- Right angle- Hypotenuse- Side
Only right triangles have a hypotenuse, so this only works in right triangles. It’s when right
angle, hypotenuse and a side of a triangle is congruent to the right angle, hypotenuse and a
side of another triangle

Examples
For questions 1- 10, determine if the triangles are congruent by SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS or HL.
If the triangles are not congruent by one of these methods write ‘none’

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For 7 - 10, use the figure to the left. You will need to mark the given information on the
figure.

Solutions
1. SSS (Mark common side)
2. ASA (The 2 pairs of parallel lines give you 2 pairs of alternate interior angles - mark
them and the common side and you should see the congruence)
3. none - no AAA congruence
4. HL
5. none - no SSA congruence
6. SAS (Mark common side at bottom of figure)
7. AAS
8. none - no AAA
9. SAS
10. HL

Exercise
I. Determine if the triangles are congruent by SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS or HL. If the triangles
are not congruent by one of these methods write ‘none’

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For 12 - 15, use the figure to the left. You will need to mark the given information on the
figure.

II. Match the five figures with the congruence statements and congruence theorems.

241
3.12 Area and volumes of similar figures

Areas of similar shapes

The diagram shows a square of side 1 cm and a square of side 2 cm.
P
2
Area of the square of side 1 cm = 1 cm
Area of the square of side 2 cm = 4 cm2

When lengths are multiplied by 2, area is multiplied by 4

The diagram shows a cube of side 1 cm and a cube of side 2 cm.
Surface area of the cube of side 1 cm = 6 x 1 cm2 = 6 cm2
Surface area of the cube of side 2 cm = 6 x 4 cm2 = 24 cm2
.

Again, when lengths are multiplied by 2, area is multiplied by 4

The diagram shows a square of side 1 cm and a square of side 3 cm.

Area of the square of side 1 cm = 1 cm2
Area of the square of side 3 cm = 9 cm2

When lengths are multiplied by 3, area is multiplied by 9

In general, for similar shapes,

For example, if the lengths of a shape are multiplied by 5, its area is multiplied by 52, that is
25
Example
Quadrilaterals P and Q are similar.
The area of quadrilateral P is 10 cm2.
Calculate the area of quadrilateral Q.

242
Solution
Work out length of side in Q to find the number by which lengths have been
length of corresponding side in P

multiplied, that is, find the scale factor.

12 P
4
3
42 = 16. Square the scale factor to find the number by which the area has to be multiplied.
10 cm2 x 16 = 160 cm2 Multiply the area of quadrilateral P by 16 to find the area of
quadrilateral Q.
Example
Cylinders R and S are similar.
The surface area of cylinder R is 40 cm2
Calculate the surface area of cylinder S.

Solution

Work out length of side in Q to find the number by which lengths have been
length of corresponding side in P

multiplied, that is, find the scale factor.

35
 2.5
14
2.52 = 6.25 Square the scale factor to find the number by which the area has to be multiplied.
40 cm2 x 6.25 = 250 cm2 Multiply the surface area of cylinder R by 6.25 to find the surface
area of cylinder S.
If the areas of two similar shapes are known, the scale factor can be found.
For example, if two similar shapes T and U have areas 5 cm2 and 320 cm2, the area of shape
320
T has been multiplied by  64
5
So, if the scale factor is k, then k2 = 64 and k = √64 = 8
Example
Pentagons V and W are similar.
The area of pentagon V is 40 cm2 and the area of
pentagon W is 90 cm2
Calculate the value of.
a. x

243
b. y
Solution
90 area of W
 2.25 Work out area of V
to find the number by which the area has been multiplied.
40
K2 = 2.25. This number is (scale factor) 2 P

K = √2.25 = 1.5 the scale factor is the square root of this number.
a. X = 8 x 1.5 = 12 multiply the 8 cm length on V by the scale factor to find the
corresponding length x cm on W.
b. Y x 1.5 = 18 the length y cm on V multiplied by the scale factor gives the
corresponding length 18 cm on W.
18
Y = 1.5 = 12 Divide 18 by the scale factor to find the value of y.

Exercise
1. Quadrilaterals P and Q are similar. The area of
quadrilateral P is 20 cm2.
Calculate the area of quadrilateral Q.

2. Cuboids P and Q are similar. The surface

area of cuboid P is 72 cm2. Calculate the surface
area of cuboid Q.

3. Cones P and Q are similar. The surface area of

cone Q is 64 cm2.
Calculate the surface area of cone P.

244
4. Pyramids P and Q are similar. The surface area of pyramid Q is 64 times the surface
area of pyramid P.
Calculate the value of
a. x
P
b. y.

Volumes of similar solids

The diagram shows a cube of side 1 cm and a cube of side 2 cm.
Volume of the cube of side 1 cm = (1 x 1 x 1) cm3 = cm3.
Volume of the cube of side 2 cm = (2 x 2 x 2) cm3 = cm3.

When lengths are multiplied by 2, volume is multiplied by 8

The diagram shows a cube of side 1 cm and a cube of side 3 cm.
Volume of the cube of side 1 cm = (1 x 1 x 1) cm3 = 1 cm3.
Volume of the cube of side 2 cm = (3 x 3 x 3) cm3 = 27 cm3
When lengths are multiplied by 3, volume is multiplied by 27
In general, for similar solids,

For example, if the lengths of a shape are multiplied by 5, its volume is multiplied by 5 3, that
is 125.
Example
Cuboids R and S are similar.
The volume of cuboid R is 50 cm3.
Calculate the volume of cuboid S.
Solution
24
=4
6

43 = 64

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50 cm3 x 64 = 3200 cm3
Example
Cylinders T and U are similar.
The volume of cylinder T is 250 cm3. P
The volume of cylinder U is 432 cm3.
Calculate the value of h.

Solution
432
= 1.728
250

k3 = 1.728
3
k = √1.728 = 1.2
h = 35 x 1.2 = 42

Exercise
1. Cuboids P and Q are similar.
The volume of cuboid P is 20 cm3.
Calculate the volume of cuboid Q.

2. Cones P and Q are similar.

The volume of cone Q is 40 cm3.
Calculate the volume of cone P.

UNIT FOUR: TRIGONOMETRY

Objectives: by the end of this lesson  use tan, sin and cos of angles 45o, 60o,
students should be able to and 30o to solve problems
 prove Pythagoras’ theorem  apply trigonometrical methods to

246
  recognize and use Pythagoras' Theorem in solve problems in two dimensions
two dimensions  understand and use sine, cosine and tangent
 compare degrees and minutes by converting of acute angles to determine lengths and
degree to minutes and vice versa angles of a right-angled triangle

P
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with triangles. In particular, it considers
the relationship between their side lengths and angles.
We can apply trigonometry in engineering, astronomy, architecture, navigation, surveying,
the building industry, and in many other branches of applied science.

4.1 Degrees and minutes

Angles are usually measured to the nearest degree. However, it is possible to calculate with
angles that contain fractions of a degree. There are 60 minutes in 1 degree.
(These different minutes from those used for measuring time.)

Example 1
Find the value of
(a) 150 56  80 23 (b) 260 48  150 59
Solution
(a)

Method 2
56’ + 23’ = 10 19’
Write down 19’ and carry 10
(b)

Method: 59’ cannot be subtracted from 48’; write 260 48’as 250 and add 60’ to 48’ giving 250
108’ in top line. With practice it is not necessary to write down every step when adding or
subtracting degree and minutes.

247
Example 2
P
(a) 0
Change 26.8 to minutes. (b) Express 53 27 to degrees
0

4.2 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

A right angled triangle is a triangle which
has a right angle as one of its angles.
The side opposite the right angle is called
the hypotenuse and is the longest side of the
triangle. The other two sides are called the
legs of the triangle.

248
Around 500 BC, the Greek mathematician
Pythagoras discovered a rule which connects the
lengths of the sides of all right angled triangles. It
is thought that he discovered the rule while
P
studying tessellations of tiles on bathroom floors.
Such patterns, like the one illustrated, were
common on the walls and floors of bathrooms in ancient Greece.
PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

In geometric form, Pythagoras’ theorem is:

In any right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
on the other two sides.

There are over 400 different proofs of Pythagoras’

theorem. Here is one of them: On a square we draw 4
identical (congruent) right angled triangles, as illustrated.
A smaller square is formed in the centre.

Suppose the legs are of length a and b and the hypotenuse

has length c.

Example 1
Find the length of the hypotenuse in:

Solution

249
The hypotenuse is opposite the right angle and has length x cm.
x 2  3 2 22

x 2  3 2 22
x 2  9  4  x 2  13
P
 x  13  as x > 0
 the hypotenuse is about 3.61 cm long.
Example 2
Find the length of the third side of this triangle:

Solution
The hypotenuse has length 6 cm.
x 2  5 2  62 Pythagoras
x 2  25  36
x 2  11
 x  11  as x > 0
 the third side is about 3.32 cm long.
Example 3
Find x in surd form:

Solution

250
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Example 4
Calculate the length of the side XY of this triangle.
Solution
In this triangle

YZ2 =XY 2 + XZ2

142 =XY 2 + 62
196=XY 2 + 36
XY 2 =160
XY  160
 XY=12.6911064cm
Example 4
Find the value of y, giving your answer correct to
3 significant figures.

Solution
In triangle ABC, the hypotenuse is x cm.
x 2 = 52 + 12  Pythagoras
x 2 = 26
 x = 26 as x > 0
In triangle ACD, the hypotenuse is 6 cm.
y 2 + ( 26) 2 = 62 Pythagoras
y 2 + 26 = 36
y 2 = 10
 y = 10 as y > 0
 y  3.16
Exercise
1. Find the length of the hypotenuse in the following triangles, giving your answers correct
to 3 significant figures:

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2. Find the length of the third side these triangles, giving your answers correct to 3
significant figures:

3. Find x in the following, giving your answers in simplest surd form:

4. Find the value of any unknowns, giving answers in surd form:

5. Find x, correct to 3 significant figures:

Problem Solving
Many practical problems involve triangles. We can apply Pythagoras’ theorem to any triangle
that is right angled, or use the converse of the theorem to test whether a right angle exists.

252
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4.3 Using Trigonometric Ratios with Right-Angled Triangles

Defining Trigonometric Ratios

253
A Trigonometric Ratio describes the relationship between the size of one angle and the
lengths of two sides in a right angle triangle. In this section, three trigonometric ratios are
used.
They are:
P
sine (shortened to sin)
cosine (shortened to cos)
tangent (shortened to tan)
The three sides of a right-angled triangle have special names.

1. The adjacent side is the side that joins both

the angle and the right angle.
2. The opposite side is opposite the angle.
3. The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right
angle and is the longest side in the triangle.
Using these definitions, we can write down the
trigonometric functions:

Example 1
Label the sides of these right-angled triangles:

Solution
Label the hypotenuse (longest) side first, then label the other two sides.

254
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Example 2
Write the three trigonometric ratios for these right-angled triangles.

Solution
1. Label the sides.

2. Use SOHCAHTOA to write the three ratios.

Exercises:
1. Label the sides of these right-angled triangles:

255
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2. Write the three trigonometric ratios for these triangles:

Estimating Trigonometric Ratios

Example 2
Estimate the sin, cos and tan of 30°, using an accurate
drawing of the triangle shown.
Solution
The triangle below has been drawn accurately, and
the sides measured.

Here, hypotenuse = 11.6 cm, adjacent = 10 cm and

opposite = 5.8 cm, so:

256
You can obtain more accurate values of sin 30, cos 30and tan 30by using a scientific
calculator. The sin , cos and tan calculator keys convert the trigonometric ratio back into the
–1 –1 –1

angle: sin 0.5 = 30

–1

P
Warning: When you use a scientific calculator, always check that it is dealing with angles in
degree mode.
Example 3
(a) Measure the angle marked in the following triangle:

(b) Calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of this angle.

Solution
(a) In this case the angle can be measured with a protractor as 37.
(b) Here we have
opposite = 6 cm
adjacent = 8 cm
hypotenuse = 10 cm

Exercise
1.

257
 (a) Draw three different right-angled triangles that each contain a 60° angle.
(b) Use each triangle to estimate sin 60°, and check that you get approximately the same
value in each case.
(c) Estimate a value for cos 60°
P
(d) Estimate a value for tan 60°.
2.
(e) Draw a right-angled triangle that contains an angle of 50°.
(f) Use this triangle to estimate:

i. cos 50° ii. sin 50° iii. tan 50°

3. (a)Draw a right-angled triangle which contains a 45angle.
(b) Explain why sin 45= cos 45and state the value of tan 45.
4. (a) Copy and complete the following table, giving you values correct to 2 significant
figures.Draw appropriate right-angled triangles to be able to estimate the values.

(a) Use the sin, cos and tan keys on your calculator to check your values.
5. A student says that the sine of an angle is 0.5. What is the angle?
6. If the cosine of an angle is 0.17, what is the angle? Give the most accurate answer you
can obtain from your calculator and then round it to the nearest degree.
7. What are the values of:
(a) cos 0° (c) sin 90° (e) tan 0°
(b) sin 0° (d) cos 90° (f) tan 90°
8. Use your calculator to obtain the following, correct to 3 significant figures:
(a) sin 82° (b) cos 11° (c) sin 42°

258
 (d) tan 80° (e) tan 52° (f) tan 38°
9. Use your calculator to obtain the angle θ, correct to 1 decimal place, if:
(a) cos θ = 0.3
(b) sin θ = 0.77
P
(c) tan θ = 1.62
(d) sin θ = 0.31
(e) cos θ = 0.89
(f) tan θ = 11.4

259
10. A student calculates that cos θ = 0.8.
(a) By considering the sides of a suitable right-angled triangle, work out the values of sin
θ and tan θ.
(b) Use a calculator to find the angle θ.
P
(c) Use the angle you found in part (b) to verify your answers to part (a).
Calculating the Length of a Side
In this section we use the trigonometric ratios to calculate the lengths of sides in a right-
angled triangle.

Example 1
Calculate the length of the side marked x in this triangle:

Solution
This question uses the opposite side and the hypotenuse. These two sides appear in the ratio
for sin θ:

Example 2
Calculate the length of the side AB of this triangle.

260
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Solution
Side AB is the opposite side and side BC is the adjacent side, ∴ use the formula:

Example 3
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse of this triangle:

Solution
The trigonometric ratio that links the adjacent side and the hypotenuse is the cosine ratio.

Exercise

261
1. Use the ratio for sine to work out the length of the side marked x in each of the
following triangles. In each case, give your answer correct to decimal place.

2. Use the ratio for cosine to find the length of the adjacent side in each of the following
triangles. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.

3. Calculate the length of sides indicated by letters in each of the following triangles.
Give each of your answers correct to 3 significant figures.

262
 P

4. Calculate all the lengths marked with letters in the following triangles.
Give each of your answers correct to 2 decimal places.

5. A ladder, which has length 6 m, leans against a vertical wall. The angle between the
ladder and the horizontal ground is 65°.
(a) How far is the foot of the ladder from the wall?

263
 (b) What is the height of the top of the ladder above the ground? In each case, give your
answer to the nearest centimetre.
6. A boat sails 50 km on a bearing of 070°.
(a) How far east does the boat travel?
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(b) How far north does the boat travel? In each case, give your answer to a sensible level
of accuracy.
Calculating the Size of an Angle
In this section we use trigonometry to determine the sizes of angles in right-angled triangles.
On your scientific calculator are buttons labeled sin–1, cos–1 and tan–1. Use these to calculate
the angles in the problems which follow:

Example 1
Calculate the angle θ in this triangle:
Solution
The given lengths are the adjacent and opposite sides, therefore use the tangent ratio:

Example 2
Calculate the angle marked θ in this triangle:

264
 P

Solution
The lengths given are the adjacent side and the hypotenuse. Therefore use the cosine ratio:

Example 3
A rectangle has sides of lengths 5 m and 10
m. Determine the angle between the long
side of the rectangle and a diagonal.

Using the tangent ratio gives:

Exercise:
1. Giving your answers, where necessary, correct to 1 decimal place, use your calculator
to obtain θ if:

265
(a) sin θ = 0.8 (c) tan θ = 1 (e) cos θ = 0
(b) cos θ = 0.5 (d) sin θ = 0.3 (f) tan θ = 14
2. Use the tangent function to calculate the angle θ in each of the following diagrams. In
each case, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
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3. Use sine or cosine to calculate the angle θ in each of the following triangles. In each
case, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

4. As an aeroplane travels 3000 m along a straight flight path, it rises500 m.

Calculate the angle between the flight path of the aeroplane and the horizontal. Give
your answer to a sensible level of accuracy.
5. A weight hangs from two strings as shown in the diagram.

266
 Calculate the angle between the two strings, giving your answer to the nearest degree.
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6. The diagram shows the cross-section of a shed. Calculate the angle θ between the roof
and the horizontal. Give your answer to the nearest degree

7. A ladder of length 6 m leans against a wall. The foot of the ladder is at a distance of 3
m from the base of the wall. Calculate the angle between the ladder and the ground.
Trigonometric ratios of 300, 450, and 600
Tan, Sin and Cos of 450
In Figure 4.1 ABC Is right angled triangle at B and AB = BC= 1 unit

 AC   12  12
2

 AC  2
Since AB = BC = Ĉ (Isosceles  )
But Aˆ  Cˆ  900 (Sum of angles of  )
ˆ  Cˆ  450
A
1 1
tan 450  1 , sin 450  , cos 450 
2 2
Any triangle with angles of 450 , 450 , 900 has sides whose lengths are in the ratio 1:1: 2
For example, in Figure 4.1(a) JK = 5 cm, therefore KL = 5 cm and JL = 5 2 cm.
In Figure 4.1(b), MN =7 cm.
MP 1
cos 450  
7 2
7
MP  cm
2
7
Similarly NP= cm
2

267
Hence MP and NP are found by dividing MN by 2 .

Tan, Sin Cos of 600 and 300

In the Figure 4.3 ABC is an equilateral triangle with sides of two units in length. AD is an
altitude .
BC = DC = 1 unit ( AD bisects BC)

In ABC
AB 2  AD 2  BC 2 (Pythagoras’ theorem)

22  AD 2  12
AD 2  22  12  AD 2  4  1
 AD  3
 AD  3units

Since B̂ =600 ( in equilateral  )

268
 3
tan 600   3
1
3
sin 600 
2
1
cos 600  P
2
ˆ = 300 (Sum of angles of ABD )
Since BAD
1
tan 300 
3
1
sin 300 
2
3
cos 300 
2
Any triangle with angles of 300, 600, 900 has sides whose lengths are in the ratio 1: 3 : 2
For example, in Figure 4.4,
(a) If QS = 3 cm, then QR = 6 cm and RS = 3 3cm

(b) If TV = 8 cm, then UV = 4 cm and RS = 4 3cm

269
 XZ
(c) tan 300 
YZ
1 XZ
 
3 5
5
 XZ  cm P
3
XZ 1
sin 300  
XY 2
 XY  2  XZ
5 10
 2 cm  cm
3 3
5 10
Notice that XZ : ZY : XY  :5:
3 3
 5 : 5 3 :10
1: 3 : 2

Example 5
In Figure 4.5, if BC = 4 cm, find AD.

Solution
Either. Using the ratio of the sides of the s :
In ABC with angles 300, 600, 900, if AC = 4 cm , then AC = 4 3cm then AD =

4 3cm  2  4 6cm
Or
Using trigonometrical ratios of 600 and 450.
In ABC ,

270
 AC
tan 600 
BC
AC
 3  AC  4 3cm
4
In ACD , P
AC
sin 450 
AD
1 4 3
   AD  4 3  3
2 AD
 AD  4 6cm
Example 6
In Figure 4.6, if PX = 24 cm, find PQ.

Solution
Method 1
Using the ratios of the sides of the s :
In PXY with angles 450, 450, 900, If PX = 24 cm then XY = 24 cm
In QXY with angles 300, 600, and 900
If XY = 24 cm, then
24
QX  cm
3
24
PQ  24cm  cm
3
 1 
 24 1   cm
 3
Method 2
Using trigonometric ratios of 450 and 600:
In PXY ,
XY XY
tan 450  1
PX 24
 XY  24cm
In QXY

271
 XY 24
tan 600   3
QX QX
24
 QX 
3
 1 
PQ  24 1   cm....asbefore
P
 3

IMPORTANT:

Exercise
Find the exact value of the unknown in:

Solving Problems using Trigonometric Ratios

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that is used in engineering, architecture, surveying,
navigation and astronomy.
Example 1
A and B are points on two hilltops. The distance from A to C is 6 km.

The height of A is 2900 m and the height of B is 3650 m. find the angle of elevation from A
to B.

Solution

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 P

The known side lengths are the opposite and adjacent sides. Therefore use the tangent ratio:

Exercise
1. Ramps help people going into buildings. A ramp that is 10 m long must not have a height
greater than 0.83 m.
(a) Here are the plans for a ramp:

Is this ramp too high?

You must show calculations to explain your answer.
(b) Here are the plans for a different ramp.

How long is the base of this ramp?

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You must show your calculations.
(c) The recommended gradient of a ramp is 1 in 20.

What angle gives the recommended gradient?

You must show your calculations.

2. A ladder that is leans up against a building rests 30 feet from the base of the building.
Find the length of the ladder if the angle of elevation formed from the ladder and the
ground is 650.
3. A 12 foot rope secures a row boat to a pier that is 5 ft above the water. What is the angle
of formed by the rope and the water? (Angle  )

274
UNIT FIVE: FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS

5.1 Sales and Currencies Conversions

5.2 Commission and Discount
5.3 Wages and Salaries P

Introduction
Financial Mathematics is the application of mathematical methods to the solution of problems
in finance.

5.1 Conversions of Sales and Currencies

Sales are activities related to selling or the amount of sold goods or services in a given time
period for a lot more money than it is worth, while Currencies are the money that is used in a
particular country at a particular time.
5.1.1 Profit and Loss
Profit is the positive gain remaining for a business after all costs and expenses have been
deducted from total sales.
When selling price is more than cost price, there is a profit.
(i) Profit = selling price - cost price i.e. profit = S.P. - C.P.
(ii) Selling price = cost price + profit i.e. S.P. = C.P. + profit
(iii) Cost price = selling price - profit i.e. C.P. = S.P. - profit
Example (1)
Aisha bought a digital camera at Sh200,000 Somaliland and sells it at Sh250,000 Somaliland
shilling. Find her actual profit and selling price.
Solution
Profit = selling price - cost price
= sh250,000 – sh200,000
= sh50,000
Selling price = cost price + profit
= sh200,000+ sh50,000
= sh250,000
Example (2)
Ahmed bought a laptop for $8,000 and spent $500 on its spares. He later sold it for $9,500.
Find the profit

275
Solution:
Cost price includes the overhead expenses also.
Therefore, C.P. = $8,000 + $500 = $8,500 and S.P. = $9,500
Since, S.P. > C.P., there is a profit
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Profit = S.P. - C.P. = $9,500 - $8500 = $1,000
Example (3)
A stationary buy a radio for Sh110,000 Somaliland and sells it at a profit of 14%. Find her
actual profit and selling price.
Solution:
14
Profit = 14% of Sh500 = 100 × 𝑆ℎ110000
1540000
= 𝑆ℎ = Sh15400
100

Selling price = Sh110000+Sh15400 = Sh125400

Exercise
1. Find the actual and percentage profit for the following cost and selling prices.

2. A woman buys a cow for 4950000 Somaliland shillings. She sells it for 6000000
Somaliland shillings. What is the profit?
3. A trader bought some hats for $38 each. She sold them at a 30% profit. What was the
profit and selling price?
4. A man bought an article for $10.50 and sold it for $12 what is the profit.
5. An article was sold for $480 at a profit of 20%. Find the profit and cost price of the
article.
6. A bicycle is bought for Sh22000000 and sold for Sh45000000 find the profit and
selling price at which it should be sold to make a profit of 16%.
7. Hamza bought pens at $ 120 a dozen. He sold it for $ 15 each. What is his profit
percent

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Loss
Loss: is a decline in money.
When selling price is less than cost price, there is a loss.
(i) Loss = cost price - selling price i.e. loss = C.P. - S.P.
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(ii) Selling price = cost price - loss i.e. S.P. = C.P. - loss
(iii) Cost price = selling price + loss i.e. C.P. = S.P. + loss
Example (1)
A boy bought a second hand bicycle for $3700. After one year he sold it for $3500. Find the
loss.
Solution
Here the cost price (C.P.) of the bicycle is $3700 and the selling price (S.P.) of the bicycle is
$3500. Since the selling price of an article is less than its cost price; it is sold at a loss.
Loss = cost price (C.P.) - selling price (S.P.)
= $3700 - $3500 = $200
Example (2)
A hat bought for Sh35000 and sold for Sh28000 what is the loss percent.
Solution
Actual loss = Sh35000 – Sh28000 = Sh7000
7000
Loss as a fraction of cost price = 35000
7000
The percentage loss is 35000 x100 = 20%

Exercise
1. A TV was bought for Sh18, 950 Somaliland and sold at a loss of Sh4780 Somaliland.
Find the selling price.
2. A second hand car was sold for $ 1900, at a loss of $ 85. Find the cost price of the car.
3. A man bought a second hand cycle for $ 1000. He spent $ 80 in repairs and $ 175 in
repainting. He then sold it to Ahmed for $ 900. How much did he lose?
4. Omer bought a camera for $1800 and sold it for $1500. Calculate his loss percent.
5. Osman bought a car for $40000. He spent $3000 on repairs and $500 on other things.
He sold the car for $25000. Find his loss percent.
6. A shopkeeper buys scientific calculators in bulk for $4o each. He sells them for $15
each.
Calculate the loss on each calculator in dollars, and as a percentage of the cost price.
7. A school bookshop sells an outdated biology text book for $49.35, making a 6% loss.

277
 What was the cost price of the book, and what is the cash value of the loss?

5.2 Commission and Discount

A commission is an amount of money that a salesperson earns by making a sale or fee
charged for services rendered. For example, a real estate agent will charge a commission on
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the selling price of a house and a financial advisor will charge a commission for managing a
portfolio of investments. Commissions are generally stated in the form of percentages.
Commission = Rate of Commission × Amount of Sales
Example (1)
Fatuma makes money by commission rates. She gets 17% of everything she sells. If Fatuma
sold $37000 worth of items this month, what is her commission?
Solution
Commission = Rate of Commission × Amount of Sales
17
= 17% × $37000 = 100 × $37000 = $6290

Example (2)
Ahmed makes 750000 Somaliland shilling a month plus some money by commission rates.
He gets 6% of everything he sells. If Ahmed sold 990000 Somaliland shilling worth of items,
what is his commission?

Solution

Example (3)
A gallery charges a commission of 6.5% for selling a painting. If they sold a painting for
$180 000, how much did the owner receive?

Commission = 6.5% × 180 000

6.5
= 100 × 180 000
= $11 700

278
Hence the owner receives $180 000 − $11 700 = $168 300.
This can also be calculated as 93.5% ×180 000
Suppose that the gallery received $3640 commission for the sale of a painting. What was the
selling price of the painting?
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This is a reverse process, so
Selling price = commission ÷ 6.5%
= 3640 ÷ 0.065 = $56 000.
Exercise
1. An insurance salesperson is paid 3% commission. How much does she receive if she
sells a policy worth $25,000?
2. Maryam wants $2,500 for each leasing transaction. For each transaction, she earns
15% of her client's monthly rent. How much must her client's rent be for her to earn
2,500 Somaliland shilling?
3. Mohamed, an art dealer, earns 25% commission of the dollar value of the art pieces
that he sells at the Harawa Gallery. Mohamed earns Sh10, 800 this month. What is the
total dollar value of the art that he sells?
4. Samiya is a salesperson at an electronic store. She earns 2% commission on her total
sales. What would be her commission if she sold a $2950 plasma television set?
5. A man sells tickets for a population concert. He gets Sh10 for every 5 tickets. How
much he will get for selling 285 tickets?
6. zakaria is used car salesman earns a 4% commission on every vehicle he sells. One
day he sold a car for $9995. What was the amount of his commission?
7. A rent collector’s commission is 4.5% of his taking. In one month he collects Sh8527
in rent. How much money does he get?
8. An electric goods salesman gets 8cts in the shilling commission. He sells 20 radios at
sh960 each and 2 television sets at sh17990 each. How much commission does he
get?
Discount
Discount is a reduction to a basic price of goods or services or to offer for sale or sell at a
reduced price.
List price: Regular price of an item
Sale price: The reduced cost of an item.
Discount rate: Percent that the price is reduced

279
To find a sale price, use the following formulas
Sale price = List Price − Discount Price
Discount = List Price × Discount Rates
Example (1)
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The list price of a magazine is marked at Sh8000. A discount is allowed and the magazine
sold at Sh5000. Calculate the percentage discount
Solution
Actual price = Sh8000
Selling price = Sh5000
Discount = Sh8000 - Sh5000 = Sh3000
3000
Percentage discount = 8000 × 100 = 37.5%

Example (2)
Find the sale price for an item that has a list price of 100 dollars and a discount rate of 25%.
Solution
Discount= $100 × 25%
25
=100× 100 =25

Sale price = List Price - Discount Price = $100 - $25 = $75

Exercise
1. Find the discount price in each of the following.
a) 20% discount is given on a cost of Sh550.
b) 12% discount is given on a cost of Sh750.
c) 19% discount is given on a cost of Sh900.
2. Find the sale price of an item that has a list price is 24 dollars and a discount rate of
50%.
3. Find the sale price of an item that has a list price is 27 dollars and a discount rate of
33.3%.
4. Muna bought the following goods from the supermarket:
3 kg of sugar at Sh2000
8 loaves of bread at Sh3600
3 sacks of water at Sh250
a) How much did she pay, for the goods?

280
 b) How much would she have paid for the goods if she had been allowed a 10%
discount?
5. The selling price of a table is Sh500000. The salesman gives a 25% discount for cash.
What is the discount price?
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5.3 Wages and Salaries
A wage is monetary compensation paid by an employer to an employee in exchange for work
done. The wage is a hourly- based payment given to the labor for the amount of work
finished in a day. Wages is best associated with employee compensation based on the number
of hours worked multiplied by an hourly rate of pay.
Example (1)
Consider the table below:

Calculate the wages of Safia, Asia and Farah.

Wages: Rate of pay per hour × Number of hours worked
Safia’s wage = Rate of pay per hour × Number of hours worked
= Sh7000 × 8 = Sh56000
Asia’s wage = Rate of pay per hour × Number of hours worked
= Sh5000 × 12= Sh60000
Farah’s wage = Rate of pay per hour × Number of hours worked
= Sh9500 × 15= Sh142500
Example (2)
If an employee working in an assembly plant might work 40 hours during the work week. If
the person's hourly rate of pay is $15, what does the employee’s wage?
Solution
Employee’s wage = Rate of pay per hour × Number of hours worked
= $15 × 40 = $600

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Example (3)
Complete the following by calculating the regular pay, overtime rate, overtime pay, and gross
pay.

Solution
40 hours × $11.50 = $460 {Step 1: regular earnings}
$11.50 × 1.5 = $17.25 {Step 2: overtime rate}
4.75 hours × $17.25 = $81.94 {Step 3: overtime earnings}
$460 + $81.94 = $541.94 {Step 4: gross pay}
Therefore the completed table is:
Regular Regular Regular Overtime Overtime Overtime Gross
Hours Hourly Rate Pay Hours Rate (1.5) Pay Pay
40 $11.50 $460 4.75 $17.25 $81.94 $541.94
Example (4)
Sumaya worked a 40 hour week at a local restaurant. If Sumaya earns $10.85 per hour and on
average is tipped 10% of the meals served, what were her earnings for the week if she served
$2150 worth of meals?
Solution
Regular earnings = 40 hours × $10.85 = $434
10
Other service = $2150 × 100 = $215

Total earnings = $434 + $215 = $649

Exercise
1. If an employee had worked only 30 hours during that week. If the employee’s hourly
rate of pay is Sh2000 Somaliland, what does the employee’s wage?
2. Maryam worked 40 regular hours in a week at $7.95 per hour and in the same week
she worked 5 overtime hours at time and a half. Calculate Maryam’s gross pay for the
week.
3. Ali takes a taxi to the train station. The fare is $14.65. He wants to give the driver a
15% tip. How much tip should he give the driver?
4. Hodan served a meal that cost her customers Sh55580 Somaliland. She expects a 20%
tip. How much did she expect?

282
 5. Lula wants to tip the waiter at a restaurant 20% of the $26.50 bill that she received.
How much should she leave in total?
6. Mousa works in a sports shop and gets a basic pay of $4·50 per hour. If he worked 35
hours last week, how much was he paid?
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7. Salma works as a radiographer. Her hourly rate of pay is $14·50. She worked for 30
hours last week. How much did she earn?
8. Hafza’s pay slip last week showed he earned Sh3220 Somaliland. He knew he had
worked for 35 hours. Calculate Hafza’s hourly rate.
9. Omer is a dental nurse and earned $330 last week. He worked for 40 hours. What is
Omer’s hourly rate of pay?
10. Mahdi works as a shop assistant for More Stores. She is paid $8216 per year.
Calculate Hazel’s weekly wage.
Salaries
Salary is a fixed amount paid to the employees at regular intervals for their performance and
productivity or a fixed pay that an individual draws for the work done by him on an annual
basis.
Example (1)
Suppose your gross pay was $190 for a week in which you worked 10 hours. Calculate your
hourly salary and annual salary?
Solution
Gross pay = $190
Total hours worked

$190
Hourly salary = = $19
10

Total hours worked in a weak = 40 hours

Amount earned per hour = $19
Weekly salary = $19 × 40 hours
= $760
Total number of weeks in year = 52 weeks
Annual salary = Weekly salary × Total number of weeks in year
= $760 × 52 weeks
= $39520

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Example (2)
Suppose in one month you worked 30 hours the first week, 25 hours the second week, 35
hours the third week and 40 hours the fourth week. Find the average weekly hours. If you
earn Sh5600 Somaliland shillings per hour, then calculate your annual salary
P
Solution
30 + 25 + 35 + 40
Weekly hours = = 32.5.
4

Weekly salary = Sh5600 x 32.5 hours

= Sh182, 000
Total number of weeks in year = 52 weeks
Annual salary = Weekly salary × Total number of weeks in year
= Sh182, 000 × 52 weeks
= Sh 9,464,000
Exercise
1. Saynab’s monthly pay at the Art Shop is $584. Calculate her annual pay.
2. Mohamed is a consultant at a privately owned hospital. He is paid 7250 Somaliland
shillings per month. Calculate Mohamed’s annual pay.
3. Farah has a part-time job as a milk boy. He is paid Sh3850 per week. Calculate
Farah’s pay for a year.
4. Ahmed earns Sh25800 monthly salary as a train driver. Calculate his salary per year.
5. An employee receives a bonus at the end of each quarter based on her salary for the
year. If she earns 1,800 per month, and her bonus is 3.5% of her yearly salary. What is
total money received by the employee?
6. If Bushra’s salary is $350 per week and she works 40 hours, what does she earn per
hour?
7. Adem makes a base monthly salary of $1500. As a vendor, he must sell $19000 worth
of items per month. He also makes a 6% commission on all sales beyond the monthly
quota. If Adem sold $26600 worth of items this month, what is his total salary for the
month including base salary and commission to the nearest dollar?

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UNIT SIX: STATISTICS 1

6.1 Collection Data

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6.2 Averages
6.2.1 Ungrouped Data
6.2.2 Grouped Data

Introduction
Statistics is the science of collecting, describing, and interpreting data. Statistics is the study
of how to collect, organizes, analyze, and interpret numerical information from data. There
are two types of statistics, Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics. Descriptive
Statistics: collection, presentation, and description of sample data. Inferential Statistics:
making decisions and drawing conclusions about populations.

6.1 Collecting Data

Data collection is a systematic approach to gathering information from a variety of sources to
get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest.
A data collection sheet or tally chart is used to organize the data from a survey. You can use
it to collate data from completed questionnaires or you can record information directly onto
it.
Example
The pupils in a class were asked how they got to school. The results are shown below.

Way of travel Tally Frequency

Walk |||| |||| ||| 13
Bicycle |||| 5
Car |||| 4
Bus |||| ||| 8

We can illustrate the data in the table above using.

 a pictogram  a bar chart  a pie chart

285
Pictogram

Data are often easier to understand if you present them in diagrammatic form. A pictogram
uses pictures or symbols to represent a number of units of data. The pictures usually relate to
the data shown. P
Walk 13
Bicycle 5
Car 3
Bus 8
Bar chart
A bar chart is the most common type of diagram, and is frequently used. The height of the bar
represents the frequency.

Bus

Car

Bicycle

Walk

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Pie Chart
A pie chart uses a circle divided into several pieces of pie or sectors to represent each of the
frequencies.
The first step is to work out what angle in the circle will represent one person.
There are 360º in a full circle and 30 pupils in this survey, so:
360
Angle = = 12
30

To find the angle for Walk, we simply multiply the angle (12º) by the number of pupils who
said Walk:

12 × 13 = 156
The completed calculations for this are shown in the table below.

286
Way of travel Frequency Calculation Angle
Walk 13 360 156
13 × 30
Bicycle 5 360 60
5 × 30
Car 4 360 48
4 × 30
360 P
Bus 8 8 × 96
30

It is important to always check that the angles add up to 360º. You should always label each
sector of the pie chart with a name and an angle.

96
Walk
156 Bicycle
Car
48 Bus

60

6.2 Averages
What is difference between mean and median?
Mean and median both are measures of central tendency. The mean is referred to arithmetic
mean and the mean is equal to the sum of all the observation values divided by the total
number of observation. The word median is the fancy name for middle. The median is equal
to the number that located at the middle of the set of observation values when arranged in
order of magnitude.
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean or simply the mean, of a set of values is found by adding up all values
and dividing the result by the total number of values in the set.
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Mean = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Example
Find the mean of: 6, 8, 11, 5, 2, 9, 7, 8
Solution
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Mean = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

287
 6+8+11+5+2+9+7+8 56
Mean = = =7
8 8

Median
The median value of a set of data is the middle value of the ordered data. That is, the data
must be put in numerical order first.
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Worked examples: Find the median of the following:
i. 11, 4, 9, 7, 10, 5, 6
ii. b) 1, 3, 0.5, 0.6, 2, 2.5, 31, 2.9
Solutions
a) Ordering the data gives 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11and the middle value is 7.
b) Ordering the data gives 0.5, 0.6,1,2, 2.5, 2.9, 3,3.1
Here there is a middle pair 2 and 2.5. The median is between these 2 values
2+2.5 4.5
Thus, median = = = 2.25
2 2

The Mode
The mode is the value that occurs most often. It is possible for data to have more than one
mode and is called bimodal or, if all the items are all different, no mode.
Example (1)
Find the mode for:
a) 2, 6, 3, 9, 5, 6, 2, 6.
b) 2, 3, 5, 3, 1, 6, 5.
Solution
a) 6 occur two times. In this case, it is a most frequency. Therefore, the mode is 6
b) 3 and 5 each occur twice. 1, 2 and 6 each occur once. So the modes are 3 and 5.The
data is said to be bi-modal.
Exercises
1. Find the mode, median and mean of the following:
a) 3, 12, 11, 7, 5, 5, 6, 4, 10 i) 16, 24, 36, 42, 58, 66,80
b) 16, 19, 10, 24,19 j) 52, 61, 49, 52, 49, 52, 41,58
c) 3, 6, 3, 7, 4, 3, 9 k) 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8
d) 8, 2, 8, 5, 5, 8 l) 7, 12, 10, 8, 18, 30, 17, 10, 18, 14
e) 2, 9, 7, 3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 4, 9 m) 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7
f) 28, 39, 42, 29, 39, 40, 36, 41, 30 n) 3, 5, 9, 4, 5, 11, 10, 5, 7, 7, 8, 10
g) 12, 21, 150, 18, 26, 59, 106, 138
h) 11, 10, 12, 12, 9, 10, 14, 12, 9

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2. The mean of three numbers is 8. The mode is 9. What is the lowest of three numbers?
3. The weekly salaries of six employees at Al-Hayat Hospital are $140, $220, $90, $180,
$140, $200. For these six salaries, find:
a) the mean
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b) the median
c) the mode
4. Mubarik has grades of 84, 65, and 76 on three math tests. What grade must he obtain on
the next test to have an average of exactly 80 for the four tests?
5. The marks of five candidates in an examination were 76, 84, 72, 84 and 59. Find the
mode, median and mean.
6. The minimum daily temperatures, in °C, during a winter week were –1, –8, 0, –6, –1, –2
and –3. Find the mode, median and mean.
7. The ages of four children are 3 years 7 months, 5 years 4 months, 6 years 8 months and 8
years 9 months. Find, in years and months, their mean age.
8. The mean of 19, 37, 17, x, 29 and 15 is 24. Find the value of x.
9. The mean height of the 15 boys in a class is 162 cm and the mean height of the 10 girls is
152 cm. Work out the mean height of the 25 pupils.
Grouped data
Grouped data is data that has been organized into classes. Grouped data is used when there is
a large number of possible outcomes, we will usually need to group the data.
Frequency Distributions
Frequency distribution is a number of times a given quantity (or group of quantities) occurs
in a set of data. A frequency distribution is a table used to describe a data set.
Example (1)
Suppose that 20 statistics students’ scores on an exam are as follows:
97, 92, 88, 75, 83, 67, 89, 55, 72, 78, 81, 91, 57, 63, 67, 74, 87, 84, 98, 46
Construct a frequency table on this exam results
Solution
We can construct a frequency table with classes 90-99, 80-89, 70-79 etc., by counting the
number of grades in each grade range.
Class Frequency ( f )
90-99 4
80-89 6

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 70-79 4
60-69 3
50-59 2
40-49 1
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Example (2)
Make a frequency distribution for the following data, using 5 classes:
5, 10, 7, 19, 25, 12, 15, 7, 6, 8,17, 17, 22, 21, 7, 7, 24, 5, 6, 5.
Represent this data on a frequency table.
Solution
The smallest number is 5, and the largest is 25, so the range is 20. The class width will be
20/5 = 4, but we need to round up, so we will use 5. Our classes will be 5–9, 10–14, 15–19,
20–24, and 25–29. Then, counting the number of entries in each class, we get:

Class Frequency
5–9 10
10–14 2
15–19 4
20–24 3
25–29 1

Example (3)
A sales representative records his daily mileage for a period of 4 weeks.
153 127 142 82 91 125 113 105 93 105 88 122 96 145 136 115
107 125 98 94
Group the data using class intervals of width 20, giving classes of 80 – 99, 100 – 119, etc
Find:
a) The grouped mean
b) The modal class

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Solution
Step 1: make grouped frequency table
Class interval Frequency
80–99 7
100– 119 5 P

120 –139 5
140–159 3

Step 2: find mid-point and product of mid-point and frequency

Class interval Mid-point (x) Frequency (f) fx
80–99 89.5 7 626.5
100– 119 109.5 5 547.5
120 –139 129.5 5 647.5
140–159 149.5 3 448.5
Total 20 2270

∑𝒇𝒙 2270
a) Estimated mean = = = 113.5
∑𝒙 20
b) Modal class = 80 – 99 since it has a largest frequency

Exercise
1. Construct a frequency table (in ascending order) with 6 data classes from the
following data set. Amount of gasoline purchased by 28 drivers:
7, 4, 18, 4, 9, 8, 8, 7, 6, 2, 9, 5, 9, 12, 4, 14, 15, 7, 10, 2, 3, 11, 4, 4, 9, 12, 5, 3
2. Use the following raw data of the length (mm) of nails found in packets of assorted
nails.
11 48 53 32 28 15 17 45 37 41 55 31 23 36 42 27 19 16 46
39 41 28 43 36 21 51 37 44 33 40 15 38 54 16 46 47 20
18 48 29 31 41 53 18 24 25 20 44 13 45
Make a grouped frequency table taking class intervals 10 -14, 15 - 19, etc., and find
the mean and modal class of the data.
3. A factory has a census of its workers. There are 50 workers in total. The following list
shows their ages:
34, 28, 22, 36, 27, 18, 52, 39, 42, 29, 35, 31, 27, 22, 37, 34, 19, 20, 57, 49, 50, 37, 46,
25, 17, 37, 42, 53, 41, 51, 35, 24, 33, 41, 53, 60, 18, 44, 38, 41, 48, 27, 39, 19, 30, 61,
54, 48, 26, 18.
a) Make a table grouping the data into classes from 10 to 19, 20 to 29, 30 to 39, 40 to
49 etc. Find the mean and modal classes.

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 b) Make a table grouping the data into classes from 15 to 19, 20 to 24, 25 to 29, 30 to
34, 35 to 39 etc. Find the mean and modal classes.
4. The data shows the marks given to a class of mathematics students in a test.
34, 12, 45, 23, 12, 18, 26, 41, 48, 23, 47, 11, 7, 15, 31, 28, 6, 43, 27, 38, 32, 21,
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29, 45, 15, 9, 20, 37, 43, 27, 30, 17, 14, 26, 34, 24, 18, 16, 35, 32, 27, 14, 30, 22, 31,
40, 17, 24, 37, 13
Complete the table below
Mark 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Frequency
Tally
Total

c) Check that the totals add up to 50 students.

d) Write down the modal class.
e) Find the mean
5. The data shows the ages of 20 workers in an office.
23, 35, 21, 20, 28, 32, 19, 39, 20, 18, 37, 29, 19, 25, 34, 26, 24, 31, 22, 30.
a) Make a frequency table and tally chart with classes for 16-20, 21-25, 26-30, 31-35
and 36-40.
b) Check that the total adds up to 20.
c) Write the data in order and find the median.
d) Find the mean of the grouped data
e) Write down the modal class.
6. A scientist measures the weights of 20 tomatoes (in grammes) in an experiment. These
are the results:
121 187 143 219 191 146 203 142 172 234 163 194 241 150
125 219 162 210 120 236
a) Make a table for this data using classes from 120-149, 150-179, 180-209, 210-
229 and 230-259.
b) Find the modal class.
c) Find the mean class.

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 7. The ages of the 112 people who live on a tropical island are grouped as follows. Find:
a) Estimated mean
b) Modal class

8. A survey is conducted to look into the amount of money the average customer spends
at the Supermarket checkout. This was done with a sample of 100 people. The
information was then grouped into the following intervals.

Amount Spent Frequency

5  x < 25 10
25  x < 40 13
40  x < 70 12
70  x < 100 29
100  x < 150 23
150  x < 200 13

Calculate the:
a) Mean of the data
b) Mode class

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