Final Exam Review

lauren craddock
December 2024

Logarithmic Identities
• Product Rule:
logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y)

• Quotient Rule:  
x
logb = logb (x) − logb (y)
y

• Power Rule:
logb (xn ) = n logb (x)

• Change of Base Formula:

logk (x)
logb (x) =
logk (b)

• Logarithm of 1:
logb (1) = 0

• Logarithm of the Base:

logb (b) = 1

• Inverse Property:
logb (bx ) = x

• Exponential and Logarithmic Relationship:

blogb (x) = x

Trigonometric Identities
• Reciprocal Identities:
1 1 1
sin(θ) = , cos(θ) = , tan(θ) =
csc(θ) sec(θ) cot(θ)

• Pythagorean Identities:
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1
1 + tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ)
1 + cot2 (θ) = csc2 (θ)

• Angle Sum and Difference Identities:

sin(A ± B) = sin(A) cos(B) ± cos(A) sin(B)

cos(A ± B) = cos(A) cos(B) ∓ sin(A) sin(B)

tan(A) ± tan(B)
tan(A ± B) =
1 ∓ tan(A) tan(B)

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 • Double Angle Identities:
sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ) cos(θ)
cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
2 tan(θ)
tan(2θ) =
1 − tan2 (θ)

Exam 1 Review (Lectures 3-9)

Important Notes for Exam Review
Students should know how to:

• Find the absolute minimum and maximum from transformations:

Understand how transformations (stretching, compressing, shifting) affect the graph, and identify
the highest and lowest points after the transformation.

• Find the average rate of change:

Be able to calculate the average rate of change of a function between two points, which is given by:

f (b) − f (a)
Average Rate of Change =
b−a

• Identify concave up/concave down and inflection points from a graph:

Recognize where a graph is concave up (shaped like ∪) and concave down (shaped like ∩), and
identify inflection points where the concavity changes.
• Find the inverse of a function and its range/domain:
Given a function f (x), be able to find its inverse f −1 (x) and determine the domain and range of
both the original and the inverse function.
• Find the domain of a function:
Determine the set of input values (x-values) for which a function is defined. For rational functions,
identify where the denominator is not zero.

• Composite functions and how to identify their domain:

Understand how to compose two functions f (g(x)) and determine the domain of the composite
function.
• Symmetry (x-axis, y-axis, and origin):
Be able to identify the symmetry of a graph.
– Symmetry about the x-axis: f (x) = −f (x)
– Symmetry about the y-axis: f (−x) = f (x)
– Symmetry about the origin: f (−x) = −f (x)

• Rigid transformations:
Understand and identify rigid transformations (translations and reflections) and how they affect
the graph without changing its size or shape.

Rigid Transformations
Rigid transformations preserve the shape and size of the graph. They include:
– Translations: Shifting the graph left, right, up, or down.
– Reflections: Flipping the graph over an axis.

These transformations do not change the distances between points or the overall shape of the graph.

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 Non-Rigid Transformations
Non-rigid transformations change the shape or size of the graph. They include:
– Vertical Stretching/Compression: Changing the height of the graph along the y-axis.
– Horizontal Stretching/Compression: Changing the width of the graph along the x-axis.
• Multiplying and solving polynomials:
Know how to multiply polynomials using methods like distribution (FOIL) and the distributive
property, and be able to solve polynomial equations for their roots.
• Find the total number of x and y intercepts:
To find the y-intercept, set x = 0 in the equation. To find the x-intercept(s), set y = 0 and solve
for x.

Exam 2 Review (Lectures 10-18)

Students should know how to:
• Find the slope between two points:
Given two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), calculate the slope of the line passing through them using
the formula:
y2 − y1
slope = m =
x2 − x1
• Solve inequalities involving absolute values:
For example, solve |5x + 6| + 2 ≥ 90.
• End behavior of a function:
Polynomials:
To determine the end behavior of polynomial functions, focus on the degree of the polynomial and
the leading coefficient:
– If the degree is even and the leading coefficient is positive: Both ends of the function
go to +∞.
As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞ and As x → −∞, f (x) → ∞
– If the degree is even and the leading coefficient is negative: Both ends of the function
go to −∞.
As x → ∞, f (x) → −∞ and As x → −∞, f (x) → −∞
– If the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive: The left end goes to −∞
and the right end goes to +∞.
As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞ and As x → −∞, f (x) → −∞

– If the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is negative: The left end goes to +∞
and the right end goes to −∞.
As x → ∞, f (x) → −∞ and As x → −∞, f (x) → ∞

Rational Functions:
p(x)
For rational functions of the form f (x) = q(x) , the end behavior depends on the degrees of the
numerator and the denominator:
– If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator: The
end behavior approaches zero.
As x → ∞, f (x) → 0 and As x → −∞, f (x) → 0

– If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator: The end
behavior approaches the ratio of the leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator.
an an
As x → ∞, f (x) → and As x → −∞, f (x) →
bm bm

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 – If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator: The
function will tend to ∞ or −∞, depending on the signs of the leading terms.

As x → ∞, f (x) → ±∞ and As x → −∞, f (x) → ±∞

• Find the zeros of a rational function:

To find the zeros of a rational function, set the numerator equal to zero and solve for x. For
example, for 2x+1 1
x−3 , set 2x + 1 = 0, yielding the zero at x = − 2 .

• Identify the multiplicity of a zero:

The multiplicity of a zero refers to the number of times a particular root appears in the factored
form of a polynomial. For example, (x − 3)2 has a zero at x = 3 with multiplicity 2.
• Identify functions with the same vertex:
Given two quadratic functions, determine if they have the same vertex. For functions of the form
f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, the vertex is (h, k). Check if the values of h and k are the same for both
functions.
• Add, subtract, multiply, and divide both real and complex functions:
Understand how to perform operations on both real and complex functions. For example, for
complex functions f (x) = 2 + 3i and g(x) = 1 − 4i, perform operations like:

f (x) + g(x) = (2 + 3i) + (1 − 4i) = 3 − i

• Find the asymptotes of a function:

Vertical Asymptotes:
Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator of a rational function equals zero (and the nu-
merator does not equal zero at those points). To find vertical asymptotes, set the denominator
equal to zero and solve for x. These are values where the function goes to ∞ or −∞. For example,
for:
1
f (x) = , the vertical asymptote is at x = 3.
x−3
Horizontal Asymptotes:
Horizontal asymptotes describe the behavior of the function as x → ∞ or x → −∞. The horizontal
asymptote is determined by comparing the degrees of the numerator and the denominator:
– If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the horizontal
asymptote is y = 0.
– If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, the horizontal
asymptote is the ratio of the leading coefficients.
– If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, there is no
horizontal asymptote.
• Find the sum of all zeros of a polynomial:
Use Vieta’s formulas to find the sum of the zeros of a polynomial. For a quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0,
coefficient of x2
the sum of the zeros is − ab . For a cubic polynomial, the sum of the zeros is − leading coefficient .

• Choose a function that has complex zeros:

Identify a function that has complex zeros by inspecting the discriminant of a quadratic equation.
For example, x2 + 4 = 0 has complex zeros x = ±2i.

Exam 3 Review (Lectures 10-18)

Students should know how to:

• Find angles in specific quadrants:

Given an angle, identify which quadrant it lies in. Angles in standard position (with the initial
side along the positive x-axis) are measured counterclockwise. The four quadrants are:
– Quadrant I: 0◦ ≤ θ < 90◦

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 – Quadrant II: 90◦ ≤ θ < 180◦
– Quadrant III: 180◦ ≤ θ < 270◦
– Quadrant IV: 270◦ ≤ θ < 360◦
• Difference between exponential forms:
Understand the different forms for growth or decay functions:
– Exponential growth: P (t) = P0 ekt where P0 is the initial quantity, k is the growth rate,
and t is time.

nt
– Exponential growth with compounding: P (t) = P0 1 + nr , where r is the annual
interest rate, n is the number of compounding periods per year, and t is time.
– Exponential growth or decay with a base b: P (t) = abt , where:
∗ a is the initial value.
∗ b is the base, where:
· If b > 1, the function models exponential growth.
· If 0 < b < 1, the function models exponential decay.
∗ t is the time (or number of periods).
• Identifying Exponential Growth and Decay:
Given a function, determine if it represents exponential growth or decay by looking at the base b:
– Exponential Growth: If the base b > 1, the function represents exponential growth.
– Exponential Decay: If the base 0 < b < 1, the function represents exponential decay.
For example:
 t
5
f (t) = 7
6
5
- Here, the base is 6, which is less than 1, indicating that this function represents exponential
decay.
• Exponential and logarithmic rules:
The main rules for working with exponential and logarithmic functions include:
– Exponential Rules:
am
am · an = am+n , = am−n , (am )n = amn , a0 = 1
an
– Logarithmic Rules:
 
x
logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y), logb = logb (x) − logb (y), logb (xn ) = n logb (x)
y
logb (bx ) = x, logb (1) = 0, logb (0) is undefined
• Identify the Annual Growth Factor:
If a quantity grows by 27% each year, the annual growth factor is:
1 + 0.27 = 1.27
This means that the quantity increases by 27
• Find the continuous growth rate:
For continuous growth modeled by A(t) = A0 ekt , find the continuous growth rate from the function.
For example, if A(t) = 14(1.26)t , the continuous growth rate is ln(1.26).
• Add, subtract, multiply, and divide exponential and logarithmic functions:
Learn how to simplify expressions that involve combining these functions. For example:
 
x
logb (x) + logb (y) = logb (xy), logb (x) − logb (y) = logb
y
ex · ey = ex+y , ex /ey = ex−y

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• Identify functions with exponential growth/decay:
Exponential growth occurs when k > 0 in the function P (t) = P0 ekt , while exponential decay
occurs when k < 0. Example:
P (t) = 1000e0.05t (exponential growth)
P (t) = 1000e−0.05t (exponential decay)
• Doubling Time and Longest Doubling Time:
The doubling time T for a function modeled by A(t) = A0 (1 + r)t is directly related to the base of
the exponential function.
Key idea: The function with the smaller base (growth factor) will have a longer doubling time
because it grows more slowly.
• Example: Compare Doubling Times for 9(1.08)t and 9(1.22)t :
Given the two functions:
A1 (t) = 9(1.08)t and A2 (t) = 9(1.22)t
- The function 9(1.08)t has a smaller base than 9(1.22)t , so it will have a longer doubling time.
• Why does the smaller base lead to a longer doubling time?
A smaller base means slower growth, so it will take longer for the quantity to double compared to
a function with a larger base, which grows faster.
• Domain of Logarithmic Functions:
For a logarithmic function of the form g(x) = logb (f (x)), the domain is the set of values of x for
which the argument of the logarithm, f (x), is positive (i.e., f (x) > 0).
Example: Find the domain of the function g(x) = log4 (40 + 12x).
To determine the domain, we must solve the inequality:
40 + 12x > 0
12x > −40
40 10
x>− =−
12 3
Therefore, the domain of g(x) = log4 (40 + 12x) is:
10
x>−
3
In interval notation, the domain is:  
10
− ,∞
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• Arc Length:

Consider a circle with a diameter of 10 units, and a central angle measuring 70 degrees. To find
the length of the arc created by this angle, follow these steps:
– The radius of the circle is half the diameter, so:
10
r= = 5 units
2
– Convert the central angle from degrees to radians:
 π  70π 7π
θ = 70◦ × = = radians
180◦ 180 18
– Use the formula for arc length:
7π 35π
Arc Length = rθ = 5 × = units
18 18
35π
– The exact arc length is 18 , or approximately:
35π
≈ 6.11 units
18

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Unit Circle with Radians, Degrees, Points, and Reference
Points
The unit circle with all key angles in both degrees and radians, along with the corresponding points
and reference points on the circle, is shown below:
y

π
90°, 2
, (0,1)
√ √
120°, 2π , (− 12√, 23 )
3 √
60°, π3 , ( 12 , √23 ) √
135°, 4 , (− 22 , 22 )
3π
45°, π4 , ( 22 , 22 )
√ √
5π 3 1 π 3 1
150°, 6
, (− 2
, 2) 30°, 6
, ( 2
, 2)

180°, π, (-1,0) 0°, 0, (1,0) x

360°, 2π, (1,0)

√ √
7π 3
210°, 6
, 2
, − 12 )
(− 330°, 11π
6
, ( 23 , − 21 )
√ √ √ √
225°, 5π
4
, (− 22 , − 22√ ) 315°, 7π4
, ( 22√, − 22 )
240°, 4π3
, (− 1
2
, − 2
3
) 300°, 5π
3
, ( 12 , − 23 )
3π
270°, 2
, (0,-1)

Exam 4 Review (Lectures 28-35)

Students should know how to:

– Trig Identities:

∗ Pythagorean identities:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ, 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

∗ Reciprocal identities:
1 1 1
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
csc θ sec θ cot θ
∗ Quotient identities:
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = , cot θ =
cos θ sin θ
– Finding values of θ:
8
Given cos θ = − 17 and θ is in Quadrant II, find sin θ.
Use the Pythagorean identity:
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
8
Substituting cos θ = − 17 , we get:
 2
2 8 64 225
sin θ = 1 − − =1− =
17 289 289

Therefore, sin θ = ± 15
17 . Since θ is in Quadrant II, we have sin θ =
15
17 .

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– Simplifying Trig Functions:
Simplify cot θ
csc θ .
Using the reciprocal and quotient identities:
cos θ
cot θ sin θ
= 1 = cos θ
csc θ sin θ

– Finding Solutions in [0, 2π]:

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Find the solutions to cos2 (2x) = 2 in the interval [0, 2π].

– Finding the Range of a Trig Function:

Find the range of −4 cos(3x) + 9.
The range of cos(3x) is [−1, 1], so:
−4 cos(3x) ∈ [−4, 4]
Adding 9 to this range:
−4 cos(3x) + 9 ∈ [5, 13]
– Using Inverse Trig Functions:

Example: Find θ such that arccos 21 = θ.
The solution is θ = π3 .
– Domain of All Trig Functions:
The domain of sin θ and cos θ is (−∞, ∞).
The domain of sec θ is all θ except where cos θ = 0, which occurs at:
π
θ = + kπ, k ∈ Z
2
Thus, sec θ is undefined at these values.
The domain of csc θ is all θ except where sin θ = 0, which occurs at:
θ = nπ, n∈Z
Thus, csc θ is undefined at these values.
The domain of cot θ is all θ except where sin θ = 0, which occurs at:
θ = nπ, n∈Z
Thus, cot θ is undefined at these values.
– Angle of Depression:
The angle of depression is the angle between the horizontal line and the line of sight from an
object to an observer.
If the object is at height h and the distance from the observer is d, the angle of depression θ
can be found using:
h
tan θ =
d
– Period, Midline, Amplitude, and Phase Shift:
The general form of a sinusoidal function is:
y = A sin(Bx − C) + D
where:
∗ A is the amplitude.
∗ B affects the period: Period = 2π
|B| .
∗ C affects the phase shift: Phase shift = C
B.
∗ D is the midline.
Example: For y = 3 sin(2x − π) + 9:
∗ Amplitude: 3
∗ Period: 2π
2 =π
∗ Phase shift: π2
∗ Midline: y = 9

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Supplementary Questions
Any and all exam questions from Exam 1-4 are expected to be known, and students should expect
questions of similar difficulty on the exam. Use past exams to examine other questions that will
be of the same difficulty level.

– Past Exam Questions:

Students should review and be comfortable with all exam questions from previous exams
(Exam 1-4). The types of questions covered in these exams will be similar in difficulty to
those on the upcoming exam.
– Level of Difficulty:
The exam will test students on concepts from all sections covered in Exams 1-4. Be prepared
to answer questions that are:
∗ Conceptual questions about key topics from each lecture.
∗ Problem-solving questions that involve applying learned methods and techniques.
∗ Questions requiring understanding of graphs, transformations, and solving equations.
∗ Word problems and real-world applications of the concepts covered.
– Study Strategy:
To prepare effectively, students should:
∗ Review past exams thoroughly, paying attention to both correct and incorrect solutions.
∗ Focus on understanding the logic and steps behind solving each type of problem.
∗ Practice additional questions from past exams to familiarize yourself with various question
formats and difficulty levels.

Helpful Homework Questions

In addition to the review of past exams and quizzes, the following homework questions may be
helpful for exam preparation. Lectures after 24 are left out because I feel you past exam questions
will be more useful for that review.

– Lecture 3:
Questions: Q17
– Lecture 4:
Questions: Q5
– Lecture 5:
Questions: Q14, Q17
– Lecture 6:
Questions: Q8, Q9, Q21
– Lecture 7:
Questions: Q2, Q5, Q20
– Lecture 8:
Questions: Q8, Q12, Q14
– Lecture 9:
Questions: Q9, Q16, Q17
– Lecture 10:
Questions: Q2
– Lecture 11:
Questions: Q22, Q21
– Lecture 12:
Questions: Q6, Q10
– Lecture 13:
Questions: Q1, Q9, Q19, Q20

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 – Lecture 14:
Questions: Q2, Q12
– Lecture 15:
Questions: Q9, Q18, Q20
– Lecture 16:
Questions: Q4
– Lecture 17:
Questions: Q6, Q24, Q25
– Lecture 18:
Questions: Q6, Q7, Q14, Q15
– Lecture 19:
Questions: Q13
– Lecture 20:
Questions: Q12, Q21
– Lecture 21:
Questions: Q5, Q12, Q13, Q23
– Lecture 22:
Questions: Q13, Q14, Q18
– Lecture 23:
Questions: Q16, Q17, Q18
– Lecture 24:
Questions: Q3, Q4, Q16

Final Words
Thank you all for a wonderful semester! It has been a pleasure to work with each of you. Good
luck on your final, you all will do amazing!

Best of luck! :D

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