ME - 413

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Teacher In-charge
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
[email protected]
 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
▪ The indicated power differs from the brake power by the power
absorbed in overcoming the friction of the bearings, pistons, and
other mechanical components of the engine and to drive the
engine accessories. All of these power requirements are grouped
together and called friction power (𝑃𝑓 ). Therefore,
𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑏 → (1)
▪ The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to
the indicated power is called the mechanical efficiency (m):
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑓 𝑃𝑓
𝜂𝑚 = = = 1 − → (2)
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
▪ Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as
engine design and speed. As the engine is throttled, mechanical
efficiency decreases, eventually to zero at idle operation.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION &
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
➢ SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (sfc): It is the mass flow
rate of fuel consumed per unit power output. It measures how
efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work.
Thus, lower value of sfc is desirable for an engine, and is given by:
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐 = → (1)
𝑃𝑏
▪ The sfc may also be known as bsfc because it is based on brake
(out put) power. However, term isfc is used when indicated power
i.e., 𝑃𝑖 is used instead of brake power 𝑃𝑏.
▪ For SI engines typical best values of bsfc are about 0.27 kg/kWh.
For CI engines, best values are lower and in large engines can go
below 0.2 kg/kWh.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION &
THERMAL EFFICIENCY Cont.
➢ THERMAL EFFICIENCY: The fuel energy supplied which can
be released by combustion is given by the mass of fuel supplied
to the engine per cycle (mf) times the calorific value (CV) of the
fuel. The calorific value defines its energy content.
▪ For commercial hydrocarbon fuels used in engines, CV ranges
from 42 to 44 MJ/kg. Consequently, thermal efficiency (t) which
is also called the fuel conversion efficiency, based on brake
work, is given by:
𝑊𝑏 𝑊𝑏 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
𝜂𝑡 = =
𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉 𝑚𝑓 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 𝐶𝑉
∵ 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 & 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑊𝑏 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
𝑃𝑏 1
⇒ 𝜂𝑡 = = → (2)
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝐶𝑉 𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝐶𝑉
i.e., sfc is inversely proportional to 𝜂𝑡 for normal hydrocarbon fuels.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION &
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
▪ Some useful efficiencies of
ICE are explained in Fig. 1

or 𝜂𝑡𝑖
𝑃𝑖

𝑃𝑏

Fig.1: Various efficiencies involved in IC engines. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE
▪ It is the work done per unit displacement volume. There are two
mean effective pressures namely the indicated mean effective
pressure (imep) & the brake mean effective pressure (bmep).
▪ As the area enclosed by an indicator card diagram (ICD)
represents the net work done during the cycle. Therefore, this
work done per unit swept volume gives the average height of
diagram (i.e., the cycle) leading to the pressure, known as the
indicated mean effective pressure:

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑊𝑖 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅

⇒ 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 = = ⟶ 1
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
𝑃𝑖
⇒ 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 = ⟶ 2 ∵ 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑊𝑖 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE Cont.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 ⟶ 3
where the imep or 𝑃𝑖𝑚 has units of force per unit area.
▪ Thus, brake power is given by:
⇒ 𝑃𝑏 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 ⟶ 4 ∵ 𝑃𝑏 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝑃𝑖
⇒ 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 ∵ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝
𝑃𝑏
⇒ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = ⟶ (5)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 𝜋 2
⇒ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 𝜋 ∵ 𝑉𝑑 = 𝐷 𝐿 × 𝑛𝑐
𝐷2 𝐿 × 𝑛𝑐 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 4
4
8𝑇 × 𝑛𝑅
⇒ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 2
𝐷 𝐿 × 𝑛𝑐
⇒ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = Constt. × 𝑇 ⟶ (6)
i.e., 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 is directly proportional to torque 𝑇.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE Cont.
▪ Consequently, 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 is a measure of power output from an
engine, and not of pressure in the engine, however, the unit
is the same. It is the effectiveness with which the engine
designer has used the engine’s displaced volume.
▪ Moreover, the engine displacement required to provide a
given torque (or power) at a specified speed can be
estimated by assuming appropriate values of bmep in case
of design calculations. Large low-speed two-stroke cycle
engines can achieve bmep values of about 19 bar.
▪ Typical values of the bmep are given in Table 1.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE Cont.
Table 1

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 PROBLEM
Calculate the mean piston speed and bmep of a four-
cylinder, 4-stroke SI engine at its maximum rated power.
The engine has 2.2-liter displacement, bore to stroke ratio
of 0.95, and maximum power 65 kW at 5000 rpm.

SOLUTION
∵ 𝑆𝑝ҧ = 2𝐿𝑁
5000 2.2 𝜋
∴ 𝑆𝑝ҧ = 2 × 0.092 × ∵ 3
𝑚 = 4 × × 0.95𝐿 2
×𝐿
60 1000 4
⇒ 𝑆𝑝ҧ = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑 𝒎Τ𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑃𝑏 𝑛𝑅 65 × 2 × 60
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = =
𝑉𝑑 𝑁 2.2 × 10−3 × 5000
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 𝟕𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
▪ The intake system−the air filter, carburettor, and throttle
plate (in an SI engine), intake manifold, intake port, intake
valve−restrict the amount of air which an engine of given
displacement can induct. The parameter used to measure
the effectiveness of an engine’s induction process is the
volumetric efficiency (v).
▪ Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle
engines which have a distinct induction process.
▪ It is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air (𝑚𝑎 )
drawn into the engine during a given period of time to the
theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during
that same period of time, based upon the total piston
displacement of the engine, and the temperature and
pressure of the surrounding atmosphere i.e.,
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Cont.
𝑚𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑎
𝜂𝑣 = = → (1)
Τ
𝜌𝑎,𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑎,𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝑁 𝑛𝑅
▪ In above equation (1), 𝜌𝑎,𝑖 is the inlet air density (i.e.,
density of the surrounding atmosphere) and 𝑚𝑎 is the mass
of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle. Actually, 𝜂𝑣 is a
mass ratio and not a volume ratio.
▪ The above definition was given for the un-supercharged
i.e., naturally aspirated (NA) engine. In case of the
supercharged engine, however, the theoretical mass of air
should be calculated at the conditions of pressure and
temperature prevailing in the intake manifold.
▪ The volumetric efficiency is also known as breathing
capacity of the engine.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Cont.
▪ It is desirable to have more v, and typical maximum values
of v for NA engines are in the range 80 to 90%. The
volumetric efficiency for CI engines is somewhat higher
than for SI engines.
▪ In order to improve the 𝜂𝑣 , supercharging is required.
▪ The volumetric efficiency is majorly affected by the
following variables:
1. The density of the fresh charge after arrival in the cylinder
2. The reduction of space by the exhaust products in the
clearance volume,
3. The design of the intake and exhaust manifolds, and
4. The timing of the intake and exhaust valves.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 AIR/FUEL AND FUEL/AIR
RATIOS
▪ In engine testing, both the air mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 and the fuel
mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 are normally measured. The ratio of these
flow rates is useful in defining engine operating conditions:
𝑚ሶ 𝑎
𝑎𝑖𝑟Τ𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐴Τ𝐹 = → (1)
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 Τ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐹 Τ𝐴 = → (2)
𝑚ሶ 𝑎
▪ The normal operating range for a conventional SI engine
using gasoline fuel is 12 ≤ 𝐴Τ𝐹 ≤ 18 0.056 ≤ 𝐹 Τ𝐴 ≤ 0.083 .
▪ For CI engines with diesel fuel, the range is 18 ≤ 𝐴Τ𝐹 ≤ 70
0.014 ≤ 𝐹 Τ𝐴 ≤ 0.056 .
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 FUEL/AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO
▪ For actual combustion in an engine, the fuel/air equivalence
ratio ( 𝜙 ) is a measure of the fuel-air mixture relative to
stoichiometric conditions. It is defined as:
𝐹 Τ𝐴 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴Τ𝐹 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝜙= =
𝐹 Τ𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝐴Τ𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑡
where: F/A = mf /ma = fuel-air ratio; A/F = ma /mf = air-fuel
ratio; ma = mass of air; mf = mass of fuel.
▪ The stoichiometric or chemically correct or theoretical air/fuel
or fuel/air ratios suggest that there is just enough oxygen for
the conversion of all the fuel into completely oxidized
products.
▪ The stoichiometric ratio depends on the composition of fuel
e.g., for hydrogen fuel, 𝐴Τ𝐹 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ = 34.3.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
FUEL/AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO Cont.
▪ The inverse of 𝜙 is known as the relative air/fuel ratio (𝜆) and
is also sometimes used in the literature. It is defined as:
−1
𝐹 Τ𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝐴Τ𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝜆=𝜙 = =
𝐹 Τ𝐴 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴Τ𝐹 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ
▪ The excess air is defined as:
1−𝜙
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = =𝜆−1
𝜙
▪ The excess air is expressed in percentage.
o For fuel-lean mixtures:
𝜙 < 1, 𝜆 > 1, leading to oxygen in exhaust.
o For stoichiometric mixtures:
𝜙 = 𝜆 = 1, i.e., maximum energy released from fuel.
o For fuel-rich mixtures:
𝜙 > 1, 𝜆 < 1, leading to CO and fuel in exhaust.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 PROBLEM
A four-cylinder, four-stroke automotive SI engine is designed to
provide a maximum brake torque of 150 Nm in the mid-speed
range (3000 rev/min) at bmep = 925 kPa. Estimate the required
engine displacement, bore & stroke, and the maximum brake
power of the engine at maximum speed & typical bmep of 800
kPa. The maximum mean piston speed is 15 m/s. Assume that
the bore & stroke of the engine are equal.

SOLUTION
𝑃𝑏 2𝜋 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑛𝑅
∵ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑉𝑑 𝑁 Τ 𝑛𝑅 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝜋 × 150 × 2
⇒ 𝑉𝑑 = ≅ 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝟑
925
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
▪ For 4-cylinder engine:
𝜋 2
𝑉𝑑 = 4 × 𝐷 𝐿
4
⇒ 2 × 106 𝑚𝑚3 = 𝜋𝐷3
⇒ D = L = 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒎
▪ The maximum rated engine speed can be estimated as:
ҧ
∵ 𝑆𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝐿𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
15 = 2 × 0.086 × 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
⇒ 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝟖𝟕 𝒓𝒆𝒗Τ𝒔 = 𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒗Τ𝒎𝒊𝒏
▪ The maximum brake power is:
∵ 𝑃𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 Τ𝑛𝑅
800 × 2 × 87
⇒ 𝑃𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝟕𝟎 𝐤𝐖
2 × 103

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 HOME ASSIGNMENT
A four-stroke 3-liter V6 SI engine has a maximum power output
of 100 kW at 5500 rpm, and a maximum torque of 236 Nm at
3000 rpm. The minimum bsfc is 0.09 kg/MJ at 3000 rpm, and the
air flow rate is 0.068 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. The compression ratio is 8.9:1 and
𝜂𝑚 = 90%. The engine was tested under ambient conditions of
20°𝐶 and 1 bar. Take the calorific value of fuel to be 44 MJ/kg.
a) Calculate the power output at 3000 rpm and the torque
output at 5500 rpm.
b) Calculate for both speeds the bmep and imep.
c) How does the arbitrary overall 𝜂 at 3000 rpm compare with
the corresponding air standard Otto cycle efficiency?
d) What is the volumetric 𝜂𝑣 and air/fuel ratio at 3000 rpm?
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 SOLUTION
(a)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 2𝜋 × 3000 × 236
𝑃𝑏 = = 3 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐖
Also,
60 60 × 10
3
2𝜋 × 5500 × 𝑇
100 × 10 = ⇒ 𝑇 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟔𝟐 𝐍. 𝐦
60
(b)
𝑃𝑏 𝑛𝑅
∵ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑉𝑑 𝑁
100 × 103 × 2 × 60
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 5500 = = 𝟕. 𝟐𝟕 𝒃𝒂𝒓
0.003 × 5500
74.14 × 103 × 2 × 60
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 3000 = = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟖 𝒃𝒂𝒓
0.003 × 3000
Remarks: Maximum 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 occurs at maximum 𝑇, but not at
maximum 𝑃𝑏 .
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑅
∵ 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑉𝑑 𝑁
𝑃𝑏 100
∵ 𝜂𝑚 = ⇒ 𝑃𝑖 = = 111.11 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖 0.9
111.11 × 2 × 60
⇒ 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 5500 = = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟖 𝒃𝒂𝒓
0.003 × 5500 × 102
𝑃𝑏 74.14
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 ∵ 𝜂𝑚 = ⇒ 𝑃𝑖 = = 82.37 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖 0.9
82.37 × 103 × 2 × 60
⇒ 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 3000 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝒃𝒂𝒓
0.003 × 3000
(c)
𝑃𝑏
∵ 𝜂𝑏𝑡 =
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
∵ 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 = ⇒ 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 74.14 × 0.090 = 0.0066 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑃𝑏
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 74.14
⇒ 𝜂𝑏𝑡 = = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟑%
0.0066 × 44 × 103
Now
1 1
𝜂𝑡 = 1 − =1− = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟐𝟖%
𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 8.9 0.4

(d)
𝑉𝑎ሶ
𝜂𝑣 = ∵ 𝑉ሶ𝑑 = 𝑉𝑑 𝑁Τ𝑛𝑅 = 0.003 3000Τ2 × 60 = 0.075
𝑉ሶ𝑑
0.068
⇒ 𝜂𝑣 = = 90.6%
0.075
∵ 𝑃𝑉𝑎ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑅𝑇
1 × 105 × 0.068
⇒ 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = = 0.081 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠
287 × 293
𝐴 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 0.081
= = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟒
𝐹 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 0.0066
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah