NEW ERA UNIVERSITY

College of Nursing

CONAPL 18 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY

First Semester, AY 2020-2021

LABORATORY EXERCISE 4: THE SKIN

Name of Student: ________________________ Score: ________

Section: ______________________ Group No. _______________

Learning Outcomes:
After completing this exercise, you should be able to:
1. Describe the structure and function of the integumentary
system.
2. Identify the layers of the epidermis and dermis, and locate
the hypodermis on models presented.
3. Identify the accessory structures of the skin on models or
microscope slides.
4 Describe the function of the epidermal accessory structures.
5 Compare eccrine sweat gland density on the forehead,
forearm, palm, and anterior leg.

Materials:
• Integumentary system model or chart
• Prepared anatomical models: thick skin, thin skin with hair

Introduction
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, sweat
and sebaceous glands, and associated muscle and nervous tissue.
This system provides a protective barrier for the body, contains
sensory receptors, aids in the production of vitamin D, is important in

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regulating body temperature, and plays a minor role in excretion and
absorption.

A. Major Divisions of the Skin

The skin has two major divisions: the superficial epidermis and
the deep dermis. The epidermis, the outer layer of the skin, is
composed of epithelial tissue. The dermis is the connective tissue layer
that is firmly attached to the epidermis by a basement membrane,
provides the avascular epidermis with nutrients, and connects the
epidermis to the underlying hypodermis. Although it is not a part of the
integumentary system, the hypodermis or subcutaneous layer (subQ)
is located below the skin and is usually discussed with the skin. The
hypodermis is a major storage site for adipose tissue.

1. Epidermis
The epidermis is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. This
is a very thick epithelial layer in comparison with other epithelial layers
of the body. Four types of cells are found in the epidermis:
keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells.
Keratinocytes comprise 90% of the cells of the epidermis and produce
keratin, a tough fibrous protein that protects the skin and deeper
tissues from chemicals, microbes, and heat. These cells also produce
granules which secrete a lipid rich product that helps to waterproof the
skin.
Melanocytes comprise 8% of the epidermal cells and produce
and secrete the pigment melanin. Langerhans cells are immune
system cells that attack pathogens that enter the skin. Merkel cells are
the least abundant cell type and are found only in the deepest layer
of the epidermis. These cells function as touch receptors and are
associated with sensory neurons. The layers of the epidermis are in
order from deepest to most superficial: stratum basale, stratum

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spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum
corneum.
The stratum basale (strata layers; basa- base) or stratum
germinativum (germ- sprout), a single row of cells attached to the
basement membrane, contains stem cells that divide to form new
keratinocytes. As new cells are formed, the older cells are pushed
toward the surface and undergo a process called keratinization, which
produces tough, dead cells in the superficial layer. Melanocytes,
Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells are also found within the stratum
basale. The stratum spinosum (spinos- thorn-like) contains 8 to 10
rows of cells, mainly keratinocytes. In prepared slides, cells in this layer
have thorn-like projections caused by the tissue preparation process.
Granules are observed within keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum
(granulos- little grains). This layer contains 3 to 5 rows of flattened
keratinocytes that are beginning to die. No dividing cells are present in
this layer or in more superficial layers.
The stratum lucidum (lucid- clear) contains 3 to 5 rows of flat,
dead keratinocytes. This layer is translucent in specimens of fresh skin,
but in prepared slides it may be clear or stained. The outermost layer,
the stratum corneum (corn- hard or hoof-like) is a very thick layer
containing 25 to 30 or more rows of dead, squamous-shaped
keratinocytes. This layer is tough and water-repellent. These cells
continually slough off and are replaced by cells in the adjacent layer.
The epidermis differs in thickness in thin and thick skin. Thick skin is
found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet and has all
five strata. Thin skin, which covers the rest of the body, does not have
a visible stratum lucidum and has a thinner stratum corneum than thick
skin.

2. Dermis
The dermis consists of two regions: the papillary (papilla
bnipples) region and the reticular (reticul- net-like) region. The papillary
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region is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue that is deep to the
stratum basale of the epidermis and the basement membrane. Dermal
papillae are fingerlike projections of the papillary region that extend into
the epidermis. In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the dermal
papillae cause genetically determined whorls in the epidermis
called epidermal ridges that increase surface area, friction, and grip.
Sweat glands deposit their secretions onto these ridges, resulting in
fingerprints when these ridges touch surfaces. The reticular layer is the
deeper and much thicker region of the dermis. It is composed mainly
of dense, irregular connective tissue whose collagen fibers provide the
skin with strength and whose elastic fibers provide elasticity. Some
adipose tissue is also found in the reticular region. The dermis is highly
vascularized, allowing nutrients to diffuse from the dermis into the
avascular epidermis. Hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous
glands are all derived from epithelial tissue and extend into the dermis.
Nerves and lymphatic vessels are also found in this layer.

Activity 1: Major Divisions of the Skin

1. Label the skin structures in Figure 4.1. Observe where the basement
membrane separates the epidermis and dermis.
2. Label the layers of the epidermis in thick skin in Figure 4.2.
3. Identify the skin structures in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 on a model or
chart.

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 FIGURE 4.1 Photomicrograph of the skin.

• epidermis (EPI-derm-is) 1. ___________________________

• dermal papillae 2. __________________________
(puh-PILL-ee)
• hypodermis 3. __________________________
(HY-poh-der-mis)
• papillary (PAP-il-lary) layer 4. __________________________
of dermis
• reticular layer of dermis 5. __________________________

FIGURE 4.2 Photomicrograph of the epidermal layers.

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3. Accessory Structures of the Skin.
a. Sudoriferous and Sebaceous Glands
Sudoriferous glands or sweat glands, secrete a watery
substance that is important in excretion and body temperature
regulation. There are two types of sudoriferous glands: eccrine glands
and apocrine glands. Eccrine glands (eccrine sweating outwardly) are
the most common type of sudoriferous gland and are found on most
areas of the body. Ducts from the eccrine glands deposit their
secretions, called sweat, on the epithelial surface. Apocrine glands are
found only in the axilla, genital area, and pigmented area around the
nipples (areolae). Apocrine glands produce a secretion similar in
composition to sweat but more viscous. This secretion, which is
deposited on the distal end of the hair root, is odorless until broken
down by bacteria. Ceruminous glands and mammary glands are
modified sudoriferous glands. Ceruminous glands are found in the ear
canal and secrete a waxy substance called cerumen that prevents
foreign substances (including insects) from entering the auditory canal.
Mammary glands are found in the breasts and synthesize and
secrete milk after appropriate hormonal stimulation. Sebaceous
glands, or oil glands, are found surrounding hair follicles and deposit
sebum, an oily substance that lubricates the skin and hair, into the
neck of the follicle.

b. Hair and Hair Follicles

Hairs are found all over the body with the exception of the palms,
soles, lips, and parts of the external genitalia. Hair consists of dead,
keratinized epithelial cells and has two main sections: the shaft, which
projects from the skin surface, and the root, which extends into the
dermis of the skin and sometimes the hypodermis. The hair follicle,
which surrounds the hair root, is formed from epidermal layers that
project into the dermis. The expanded base of the hair follicle, the hair

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bulb, contains the papilla of the hair and the matrix. The papilla of the
hair is a projection of connective tissue into the hair follicle and contains
blood vessels that provide nutrients to the dividing cells of the matrix.
The matrix, which is derived from the stratum basale of the epidermis,
forms new hair cells that are added to the base of the hair root.
Surrounding the hair follicle is a connective tissue sheath comprised of
dermal tissue. The arrector pili is a bundle of smooth muscle cells
attached to the connective tissue sheath around the hair follicle.
Contraction of the arrector pili muscle moves the hair from its normal
angle to a 90 angle (perpendicular) with the skin surface, elevating the
skin surrounding the hair shaft and causing goose bumps. Arrector pili
muscles contract in response to stress (including cold temperature).
Examination of the hair in cross-section shows three layers: the cuticle
(outer layer), the cortex (middle layer), and the medulla (inner layer).
The cuticle, the layer of hair that we see, is a thin layer of dead,
flattened, keratinized cells that overlap each other like shingles on a
roof. Split ends occur when the free ends of these cells are pulled away
from each other. Cells in the cortex and medulla contain pigment
granules that give hair its color. The shape of hair in cross-section
indicates whether the hair is curly, wavy, or straight. Curly hair is flat in
cross-section, wavy hair is oval, and straight hair is round.

Activity 2
1. Label the diagram of the skin and accessory structures in
Figure 4.3.
2. Label the photomicrograph in Figure 4.4.
3. Examine a slide of hairy skin and identify the structures
in Figure 4.4.

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 FIGURE 4.3 Diagram of the skin and accessory structures.

• apocrine (AP-oh-krin) sweat gland 1. ______________________

• arrector pili (PIE-lee) muscle 2. _______________________
• eccrine (EK-rin) sweat gland 3. _______________________
• hair bulb 4. _______________________
• hair follicle 5. _______________________
• hair root 6. _______________________
• hair shaft 7. _______________________
• papilla (puh-PILL-uh) of hair 8. _______________________
• sebaceous (se-BAY-shus) gland 9. _______________________

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 FIGURE 4.4 Photomicrograph of the skin and accessory
structures.

• hair bulbs 1. ______________________________

• hair follicle 2. ______________________________
• hair root 3. ______________________________
• papilla of hair 4. ______________________________
• sebaceous gland 5. ______________________________

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c. Nails
Nails, which are found on the distal ends of the digits, assist in
grabbing and manipulating objects, and protect the digits. The nail
consists of a nail body, a free edge, and a root. The nail body is the
part of the nail that is visible, the free edge extends beyond the digit,
and the root is within the fold of skin at the proximal end of the nail
body. The lunula (lunula little moon) is the crescent-shaped area of
the nail body distal to the nail root. The cuticle or eponychium (epi-
above; -onych nail) is the thickened epithelial tissue along the proximal
border of the nail body.
The hyponychium (hypo- below) or nail bed is deep to the free
edge and attaches the nail to the fingertip. The nail matrix is the
epithelial tissue deep to the nail root that divides to produce new cells
that are added to the nail body as it grows.

Activity 3
1. Identify the nail structures on the diagram in Figure 4.5.
2. Identify nail structures on your own nails.

FIGURE 4.5 Nail structures.

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(a) Dorsal view
• eponychium 1. _______________________________
• free edge 2. _______________________________
• lunula 3. _______________________________
• nail body 4. _______________________________
(b) Sagittal section through finger
• eponychium 5. ________________________________
• free edge 6. ________________________________
• hyponychium 7. ________________________________
• lunula 8. ________________________________
• nail root 9. ________________________________
• nail body 10. _______________________________
• nail matrix 11. _______________________________

Activity 4: Reviewing your Knowledge.

A. Skin Layers and structures
Write the name of the skin layer or structure that fits the description.
Stratum bassle
____________________1. Layer of epidermis where there is the
most rapid cell division.
Stratum Corneum Tough, water-repellent epidermal layer;
____________________2.
contains dead squamous-shaped cells.
Dermis (Papillary Layer) Areolar connective tissue layer beneath
____________________3.
basement membrane.
Dermal Papillae
____________________4. Projections of dermis that cause
epidermal ridges.
Stratum Lucidum
____________________5. Translucent layer found in thick skin,
absent in thin skin.
Stratum Spinosum Appears to have thorn-like projections in
____________________6.
prepared slides.
Dermis (Reticular Layer)
____________________7. Thick dermal layer containing dense,
irregular connective tissue.

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Stratum Granulosum
_____________________8. Epidermal layer containing visible
granules.

B. Cells of Epidermis
Write the name of the epidermal cell type that fits the description.
Langerhans Cells
_____________________1. Defends skin against microbes.
Keratinocytes
_____________________2. Produces keratin.
Melanocytes
_____________________3. Produces the pigment melanin which
shields cell nuclei from ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Merkel Cells
_____________________4. Associated with sensory neurons and
functions in sensation of touch.

C. Accessory Structures of the Skin.

Write the name of the accessory structure that best fits the
description.
Apocrine Sweat Glands
_____________________1. Sudoriferous glands located in axillary
and genital areas; become active after puberty.
Hair Papilla
_____________________2. Connective tissue projection; provides
blood supply for hair matrix.
Nail Root
_____________________3. Secures nail to digit.
Hair Follicle
_____________________4. Epithelial layer that surrounds hair root.
Sebaceous Gland
_____________________5. Secretes sebum onto hair and skin.
Nail Plate
_____________________6. Part of nail that is visible.
free Edge
_____________________7. Part of nail that extends beyond digit.
Hair Bulb
_____________________8. Part of hair that contains the matrix.
Eccrine Sweat Glands
_____________________9. Sudoriferous glands that deposit sweat
onto epidermal ridges causing fingerprints.
Hair Shaft
____________________10. Part of hair in epidermis and extending
beyond skin surface.
Arrector Pili Muscle
____________________11. Moves hair shaft perpendicular to skin;
causes goose bumps.

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Nail Cuticle (eponychium)
____________________12. Thickened epithelial tissue at proximal
end of nail body.
Lunula
____________________13. Crescent-shaped area of nail body near
cuticle.
Hair Root
____________________14. Part of hair within dermis.
Nail Root
____________________15. Part of nail within skin.
Nail Matrix
____________________16. Part of nail deep to nail root that
produces new cells, causing the nail to grow.

D. Application
1. As we age, our skin wrinkles due to changes in collagen and
elastic fibers in the dermis and a decrease in their production.
Explain why topical application of collagen and elastic fibers
would not eliminate wrinkles.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

2. Permanent tattoos are made by injecting pigment into the skin.

Into which part of the skin is the pigment injected, the epidermis
or dermis? And why in that layer the pigment is injected? (You
can answer this without research, just use your knowledge.)
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

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References

Books
Marieb, E., Keller, S. (2018), Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology, 12th Edition, England: Pearson Education Limited.

Saladin, K., Gan, C., Cushman, H. (2018), Anatomy &

Physiology: The Unity of Form & Function, 8th Edition, New York:
McGraw Hill Education.

Shier, D., Butler, J., Lewis, R. (2018), Hole’s Essentials of

Human Anatomy & Physiology, 13th Edition, New York: McGraw
Hill Education.

Tortora, G., Derrickson, B. (2014), Principles of Anatomy &

Physiology, 14th Edition, New Jersey: Wiley.

Online Sources

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