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 Ning Xiang
Jens Blauert

Acoustics
for Engineers
Troy Lectures
Third Edition
Acoustics for Engineers
Ning Xiang Jens Blauert
•

Acoustics for Engineers

Troy Lectures

Third Edition

123
Ning Xiang Jens Blauert
Program in Architectural Acoustics Institute of Communication Acoustics
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) Ruhr-Universität Bochum (RUB)
Troy, NY, USA Bochum, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-63341-0 ISBN 978-3-662-63342-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63342-7
Jointly published with ASA Press

1st & 2nd editions: © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008, 2009

3rd edition: © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of
Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
The ASA Press

ASA Press, which represents a collaboration between the Acoustical Society of

America and Springer Nature, is dedicated to encouraging the publication of
important new books as well as the distribution of classic titles in acoustics. These
titles, published under a dual ASA Press/Springer imprint, are intended to reflect the
full range of research in acoustics. ASA Press titles can include all types of books
that Springer publishes, and may appear in any appropriate Springer book series.

Editorial Board
Mark F. Hamilton (Chair), University of Texas at Austin
James Cottingham, Coe College
Timothy F. Duda, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Robin Glosemeyer Petrone, Threshold Acoustics
William M. Hartmann (Ex Officio), Michigan State University
Darlene R. Ketten, Boston University
James F. Lynch (Ex Officio), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Philip L. Marston, Washington State University
Arthur N. Popper (Ex Officio), University of Maryland
Christine H. Shadle, Haskins Laboratories
G. Christopher Stecker, Boys Town National Research Hospital
Stephen C. Thompson, The Pennsylvania State University
Ning Xiang, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
The Acoustical Society of America

On 27 December 1928 a group of scientists and engineers met at Bell Telephone

Laboratories in New York City to discuss organizing a society dedicated to the field
of acoustics. Plans developed rapidly, and the Acoustical Society of America
(ASA) held its first meeting on 10–11 May 1929 with a charter membership of
about 450. Today, ASA has a worldwide membership of about 7000.
The scope of this new society incorporated a broad range of technical areas that
continues to be reflected in ASA’s present-day endeavors. Today, ASA serves the
interests of its members and the acoustics community in all branches of acoustics,
both theoretical and applied. To achieve this goal, ASA has established Technical
Committees charged with keeping abreast of the developments and needs of
membership in specialized fields, as well as identifying new ones as they develop.
The Technical Committees include acoustical oceanography, animal bioacous-
tics, architectural acoustics, biomedical acoustics, engineering acoustics, musical
acoustics, noise, physical acoustics, psychological and physiological acoustics,
signal processing in acoustics, speech communication, structural acoustics and
vibration, and underwater acoustics. This diversity is one of the Society’s unique
and strongest assets since it so strongly fosters and encourages cross-disciplinary
learning, collaboration, and interactions.
ASA publications and meetings incorporate the diversity of these Technical
Committees. In particular, publications play a major role in the Society. The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA) includes contributed papers
and patent reviews. JASA Express Letters (JASA-EL) and Proceedings of Meetings
on Acoustics (POMA) are online, open-access publications, offering rapid publi-
cation. Acoustics Today, published quarterly, is a popular open-access magazine.
Other key features of ASA’s publishing program include books, reprints of classic
acoustics texts, and videos. ASA’s biannual meetings offer opportunities for
attendees to share information, with strong support throughout the career contin-
uum, from students to retirees. Meetings incorporate many opportunities for

vii
viii The Acoustical Society of America

professional and social interactions, and attendees find the personal contacts a
rewarding experience. These experiences result in building a robust network of
fellow scientists and engineers, many of whom become lifelong friends and
colleagues.
From the Society’s inception, members recognized the importance of developing
acoustical standards with a focus on terminology, measurement procedures, and
criteria for determining the effects of noise and vibration. The ASA Standards
Program serves as the Secretariat for four American National Standards Institute
Committees and provides administrative support for several international standards
committees.
Throughout its history to present day, ASA’s strength resides in attracting the
interest and commitment of scholars devoted to promoting the knowledge and
practical applications of acoustics. The unselfish activity of these individuals in the
development of the Society is largely responsible for ASA’s growth and present
stature.
Preface

This book provides the material for an introductory course in engineering acoustics
for students with basic knowledge of mathematics. The contents are based on
extensive teaching experience at the university level.
Under the guidance of an academic teacher, the book is sufficient as the sole
textbook for the subject. Each chapter deals with a well-defined topic and represents
the material for a two-hour lecture. The chapters alternate between more theoretical
and more application-oriented concepts.
For self-study, we advise our readers to consult complementary introductory
material. Chapter 16 lists several textbooks for this purpose.
Thanks go to various colleagues and graduate students who most willingly
helped with corrections, proofreading, and stylistic improvement, and last but not
the least, to the reviewers of the first edition, in particular, to Profs. Gerhard Sessler
and Dominique J. Chéenne. Nevertheless, the authors assume full responsibility for
all contents. For the current edition, we reversed the authors’ order. Ning Xiang is
now the corresponding author, and Jens Blauert acts as the co-author.
In this (third) edition, we corrected recognized errors and typos, and edited
several figures, notations, and equations to increase the clarity of the presentation.
Also, we made some appropriate amendments.
At every chapter’s end, we offer exercise problems. Chapter 15 proposes
approaches to solving them. The problems provide our readers with the opportunity
to explore the underlying mathematical background in more detail. However, the
study of the problems and their proposed solutions is no prerequisite for compre-
hending the material presented in the book’s main body.

Troy, NY, USA Ning Xiang

Bochum, Germany Jens Blauert
April 2021

ix
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definition of Three Basic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Specialized Areas within Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 About the History of Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Relevant Quantities in Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Some Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Logarithmic Level Ratios and Logarithmic Frequency
Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 7
1.7 Double-Logarithmic Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 10
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 11
2 Mechanic and Acoustic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Basic Elements of Linear, Oscillating, Mechanic Systems . . . . 16
2.2 Parallel Mechanic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Free Oscillations of Parallel Mechanic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Forced Oscillation of Parallel Mechanic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Energies and Dissipation Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Basic Elements of Linear, Oscillating, Acoustic Systems . . . . . 25
2.7 The Helmholtz Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Electromechanic and Electroacoustic Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 The Electromechanic Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 The Electroacoustic Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Levers and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Rules for Deriving Analog Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Synopsis of Electric Analogies of Simple Oscillators . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Circuit Fidelity, Impedance Fidelity and Duality . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 Examples of Mechanic and Acoustic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

xi
xii Contents

4 Electromechanic and Electroacoustic Transduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.1 Electromechanic Couplers as Two- or Three-Port Elements . . . 44
4.2 The Carbon Microphone—A Controlled Coupler . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Fundamental Equations of Electroacoustic Transducers . . . . . . 46
4.4 Reversibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5 Coupling of Electroacoustic Transducers to the Sound
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.6 Pressure and Pressure-Gradient Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.7 Further Directional Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.8 Absolute Calibration of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5 Magnetic-Field Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1 The Magnetodynamic Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Magnetodynamic Sound Emitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 The Electromagnetic Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4 Electromagnetic Sound Emitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.5 The Magnetostrictive Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.6 Magnetostrictive Sound Transmitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . 77
5.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6 Electric-Field Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1 The Piezoelectric Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Piezoelectric Sound Emitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.3 The Electrostrictive Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Electrostrictive Sound Emitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.5 The Dielectric Transduction Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6 Dielectric Sound Emitters and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.7 Further Transducer and Coupler Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7 The Wave Equation in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 97
7.1 Derivation of the One-Dimensional Wave Equation . . ...... 99
7.2 Three-Dimensional Wave Equation in Cartesian
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.3 Solutions of the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4 Field Impedance and Power Transport in Plane Waves . . . . . . 108
7.5 Transmission-Line Equations and Reflectance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.6 The Acoustic Measuring Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8 Horns and Stepped Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.1 Webster’s Differential Equation—The Horn Equation . . . . . . . 118
8.2 Conical Horns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.3 Exponential Horns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Contents xiii

8.4 Radiation Impedances and Sound Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

8.5 Steps in the Area Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.6 Stepped Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9 Spherical Waves, Harmonics, and Line Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.1 The Spherical Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.2 Spherical Sound Sources of the First Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3 Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.4 Higher-Order Spherical Sound Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.5 Line Arrays of Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.6 Analogies to Fourier Transform in Signal Theory . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.7 Directional Equivalence of Sources and Receivers . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10 Piston Membranes, Diffraction and Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1 The Rayleigh Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.2 Fraunhofer’s Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.3 The Far-Field of Piston Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.4 The Near-Field of Piston Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.5 General Remarks on Diffraction and Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11 Dissipation, Reflection, Refraction, and Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.1 Dissipation During Sound Propagation in Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.2 Sound Propagation in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.3 Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.4 Wall (Surface) Impedance and Degree of Absorption . . . . . . . 174
11.5 Porous Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.6 Resonance Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
12 Geometric Acoustics and Diffuse Sound Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.1 Mirror Sound Sources and Ray Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
12.2 Flutter Echoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.3 Impulse Responses of Rectangular Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.4 Diffuse Sound Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.5 Reverberation-Time Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.6 Application of Diffuse Sound Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
13 Insulation of Air- and Structure-Borne Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
13.1 Sound in Solids—Structure-Borne Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
13.2 Radiation of Airborne Sound by Bending Waves . . . . . . . . . . 207
13.3 Sound-Transmission Loss of Single-Leaf Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13.4 Sound-Transmission Loss of Double-Leaf Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 213
xiv Contents

13.5 The Weighted Sound-Reduction Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

13.6 Insulation of Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
13.7 Insulation of Floors with Regard to Impact Sounds . . . . . . . . . 220
13.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14 Noise Control—A Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.1 Origins of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.2 Radiation of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.3 Noise Reduction as a System Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
14.4 Noise Reduction at the Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14.5 Noise Reduction Along the Propagation Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . 238
15 Solutions to the Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.1 Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.2 Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
15.3 Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
15.4 Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.5 Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.6 Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.7 Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.8 Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.9 Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
15.10 Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
15.11 Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
15.12 Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
15.13 Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
15.14 Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
16 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
16.1 Complex Notation of Sinusoidal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
16.2 Complex Notation of Power and Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
16.3 Supplementary Textbooks for Self Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
16.4 Letter Symbols, Notations, and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
About the Authors

Ning Xiang, Ph.D. is professor of Acoustics and Signal Processing at the

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York. He is the director of
RPI’s Program in Architectural Acoustics.

Jens Blauert, Dr.-Ing., Dr.-Tech. h.c. is emeritus professor of Acoustics and

Electrical Engineering at the Ruhr-University Bochum (RUB) in Bochum,
Germany. He is the founder and former director of RUB’s Institute of
Communication Acoustics.

xv
Chapter 1
Introduction

Human beings are usually considered to predominantly perceive their environment

through the visual sense—in other words, humans are conceived as visual beings.
However, this is certainly not true for inter-individual communication.
It is audition and not vision that is the most relevant social sense of human beings.
The auditory system is their most prominent communication organ—particularly
in speech communication. Take as proof that it is much easier to educate blind
people than deaf ones. Also, when watching TV, an interruption of the sound is
much more distracting than an interruption of the picture. Particular attributes of
audition compared to vision are the following.
– In audition, communication is compulsory. The ears cannot close by reflex like
the eyes can.
– The field of hearing extends to regions all around the listener—in contrast to the
visual field. Further, it is possible to listen behind optical barriers and in darkness.
These special features, among other things, lead many engineers and physicists,
especially those in the field of communication technology, to a particular interest in
acoustics. A further reason for the affinity of engineers and physicists to acoustics is
based on the fact that many physical and mathematical foundations of acoustics are
usually well known to them, such as mechanics, electrodynamics, vibrations, waves,
and fields.

1.1 Definition of Three Basic Terms

When working your way into acoustics, you will usually start with the phenomenon
of hearing. The term acoustics is derived from the Greek verb ακoύιν [akúIn],
which means to hear. We thus start with the following definition.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 1

N. Xiang and J. Blauert, Acoustics for Engineers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63342-7_1
2 1 Introduction

Auditory event … An auditory event is something that exists as heard. It

becomes actual in the act of hearing. Frequently used synonyms are audi-
tory object, auditory percept, and auditory sensation.

Consequently, the question arises of when auditory events appear? As a rule, we hear
something when our auditory system interacts via the ears with a medium that moves
mechanically in the form of vibrations and/or waves. Such a medium may be a fluid
like air or water, or a solid like steel or wood. The phenomenon of hearing usually
requires the presence of mechanic vibration and/or waves. The following definition
follows this line of reasoning.
Sound … Sound is mechanic vibration and/or mechanic waves in elastic media.

According to this definition, sound is a purely physical phenomenon. Be warned,

however, that the term sound is also sometimes used for auditory events, particularly
in sound engineering and sound design. Such an ambiguous usage of the term is
avoided in this book.
It it worthy noting that vibrations and waves are often mathematically express-
ible as differential equations—see Chap. 2. Vibrations require common differential
equations with the dependent variable being a function of time, while waves require
partial ones because the dependent variable is a function of both time and space.
Further, note that, although rare, auditory events may happen without sound being
present, such as with tinnitus. In turn, there may be no auditory events in the presence
of sound, for example, for deaf people, or when the frequency range of the sound
is not in the reach of hearing. Sounds are categorized in terms of their frequency
ranges—listed in Table 1.1.
The interrelation of auditory events and sound is captured by the following defi-
nition of acoustics.
Acoustics … Acoustics is the science of sound and of its accompanying auditory
events.

This book deals with engineering acoustics. Synonyms for engineering acoustics
are applied acoustics and technical acoustics.

Table 1.1 Sound categories by frequency range

Sound category Frequency range
Audible sound ≈16 Hz–16 kHz
Ultrasound >16 kHz
Infrasound <16 Hz
Hypersound >1 GHz
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of which he had suffered. In a certain stage of putrefaction, the
bodies of persons which have been immersed in water, rise to the
surface, and in deep water, are supported in an erect posture, to the
terror of uninstructed spectators. Menacing looks and gestures, and
even words, are supplied by the affrighted imagination, with infinite
facility, and referred to the horrible apparition. I insert a striking
instance from Dr. Clarke. “One day, leaning out of the cabin window,
by the side of an officer who was employed in fishing, the corpse of
a man, newly sewed in a hammock, started half out of the water,
and continued its course, with the current, towards the shore—
Nothing could be more horrible: its head and shoulders were visible,
turning first to one side, then to the other, with a solemn and awful
movement, as if impressed with some dreadful secret of the deep,
which, from its watery grave it came upwards to reveal. Such sights
became afterwards frequent, hardly a day passing without ushering
the dead to the contemplation of the living, until at length they
passed without observation.”[28]
Lucian has treated this malady of the mind with his usual severe
ridicule, in one of his most entertaining dialogues, the Philopseudes.
The stories of the statues, which descended at night from their
pedestals, and walked about the court, are well told. But that of the
inchanted stick is the best.
Eucrates says, that he became acquainted, in Egypt, with Pancrates,
who had resided twenty years in the subterraneous recesses, where
he had learned magic from Isis herself. “At length, he persuaded me
to leave all my servants at Memphis, and to follow him alone, telling
me that we should not be at a loss for servants. When we came into
any inn, he took a wooden pin, latch or bolt, and wrapping it in
some clothes, when he had repeated a verse over it, he made it
walk, and appear a man to every one. This creature went about,
prepared supper, laid the cloth, and waited on us very dextrously.
Then, when we had no further occasion for it, by repeating another
verse, he turned it into a pin, latch or bolt again. He refused to
impart the secret of this incantation to me, though very obliging in
every thing else. But having hid myself, one day, in a dark corner, I
caught the first verse, which consisted of three syllables. After he
had given his orders to the pin, he went into the market-place. Next
day, in his absence, I took the pin, drest it up, and repeating those
syllables, ordered it to fetch some water. When it had brought a full
jar, I cried, stop, draw no more water, but be a pin again. But
instead of obeying me, it went on bringing water, till it had almost
filled the house. I, not able to endure this obstinacy, and fearing the
return of Pancrates, lest he should be displeased, seized a hatchet,
and split the pin into two pieces. But each part, taking up a jar, ran
to draw more water, so that I had now two servants in place of one.
In the mean time, Pancrates returned, and understanding the
matter, changed them into wood again, as they were before the
incantation.” We may fairly apply the Italian saying to this story; si
non é vero, é ben trovato.
But there is ghostly authority for the division of a goblin, equal to
most of Glanville’s histories, though I cannot now recover, the names
of the parties. The relation came to me, however, from a friend of
one of the Seers.
Two elderly ladies, resided, each in her ancient castle, adjoining to
the other, near the borders of Scotland. While they were beguiling a
tedious winter evening, with accounts of their domestic policy, the
conversation insensibly turned on the subject of their household
ghosts: for at that time, every venerable old mansion had an
established resident of that nature, who was as well known as the
family-crest.
‘Every evening, said one of the Sybils, I perceive the bust of a man,
in one of the rooms, which is distinctly visible, down to the girdle.
‘And we,’ cried the other dame, ‘have the rest of his person in our
castle, which perambulates the house every night; till this moment, I
could not imagine how the head and shoulders of the figure were
disposed of.’
I have thus presented to the reader, those facts which have
afforded, to my own mind, a satisfactory explanation of such
relations of spectral appearances, as cannot be refused credit,
without removing all the limits and supports of human testimony. To
disqualify the senses, or the veracity of those who witness unusual
appearances, is the utmost tyranny of prejudice. Yet, who, till within
the last fifteen years, would have dared to assert that stones fell
from the clouds? Livy had regularly recorded such events, and was
ridiculed for supplying those most curious facts, which must
otherwise have been lost to natural history.
In like manner, I conceive that the unaffected accounts of spectral
visions should engage the attention of the philosopher, as well as of
the physician. Instead of regarding these stories with the horror of
the vulgar, or the disdain of the sceptic, we should examine them
accurately, and should ascertain their exact relation to the state of
the brain, and of the external senses.
The terror of nocturnal illusions would thus be dissipated, to the
infinite relief of many wretched creatures; and the appearance of a
ghost would be regarded in its true light, as a symptom of bodily
distemper, and of little more consequence than the head-ach and
shivering attending a common catarrh.
There is reason to believe, that many persons suffer silently, from
these imaginary visitations, who are deterred from divulging their
distresses, by the ridicule with which complaints of this nature are
commonly treated. When the proper distinction is established,
admitting the reality of the impression, but explaining its production
in the mind alone, all difficulties of this kind may be removed, and
the apprehensions of the visionary may be readily quieted.
Lastly, by the key which I have furnished, the reader of history is
released from the embarrassment of rejecting evidence, in some of
the plainest narratives, or of experiencing uneasy doubts, when the
solution might be rendered perfectly simple.
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] The experiments in this Essay appear to have been
suggested, by those of Mariotte, Le Cat, and Bernoulli.
[2] Zoonomia, Sect. xi. 2.
[3] Sect. xi. 8.
[4] Voyage d’Islande, in the Ambigu.
[5] I subjoin the original account, as it will amuse the reader.
“In the course of my repeated tours through the Harz,[6] I
ascended the Broken twelve times; but I had the good fortune
only twice, (both times about Whitsuntide) to see that
atmospheric phenomenon, called the Spectre of the Broken,
which appears to me worthy of particular attention, as it must, no
doubt, be observed on other high mountains, which have a
situation favorable for producing it. The first time I was deceived
by this extraordinary phenomenon, I had clambered up to the
summit of the Broken very early in the morning, in order to wait
for the inexpressibly beautiful view of the sun rising in the east.
The heavens were already streaked with red; the sun was just
appearing above the horizon in full majesty, and the most perfect
serenity prevailed throughout the surrounding country, when the
other Harz mountains in the south west, towards the Worm
mountains, &c. lying under the Broken began to be covered by
thick clouds. Ascending at that moment the granite rocks called
the Tempelskanzel, there appeared before me, though at a great
distance, towards the Worm mountains and the
Achtermannshöhe, the gigantic figure of a man, as if standing on
a large pedestal. But scarcely had I discovered it when it began
to disappear, the clouds sunk down speedily and expanded, and I
saw the phenomenon no more. The second time, however, I saw
this spectre somewhat more distinctly, a little below the summit
of the Broken, and near the Heinnichshohe, as I was looking at
the sun rising, about four o’clock in the morning. The weather
was rather tempestuous; the sky towards the level country was
pretty clear, but the Harz mountains had attracted several thick
clouds, which had been hovering round them, and which
beginning on the Broken confined the prospect. In these clouds,
soon after the rising of the sun, I saw my own shadow, of a
monstrous size, move itself for a couple of seconds in clouds, and
the phenomenon disappeared. It is impossible to see this
phenomenon, except when the sun is at such an altitude as to
throw his rays upon the body in a horizontal direction; for, if he is
higher, the shadow is thrown rather under the body than before
it. In the month of September last year, as I was making a tour
through the Harz with a very agreeable party, and ascended the
Broken, I found an excellent account, and explanation of this
phenomenon, as seen by M. Haue on the 23rd of May 1797, in his
diary of an excursion to that mountain. I shall therefore take the
liberty of transcribing it.
“After having been here for the thirtieth time,” says M. Haue,
“and, besides other objects of my attention, having procured
information respecting the above-mentioned atmospheric
phenomenon, I was at length so fortunate as to have the
pleasure of seeing it; and perhaps my description may afford
satisfaction to others who visit the Broken through curiosity. The
sun rose about four o’clock, and the atmosphere being quite
serene towards the east, his rays could pass without any
obstruction over the Heinnichshohe. In the south west, however,
towards the Achtermannshöhe, a brisk west wind carried before it
their transparent vapours, which were not yet condensed into
thick heavy clouds. About a quarter past four I went towards the
inn, and looked round to see whether the atmosphere would
permit me to have a free prospect to the south west; when I
observed, at a very great distance towards the Achtermannshöhe,
a human figure of a monstrous size. A violent gust of wind having
almost carried away my hat, I clapped my hand to it by moving
my arm towards my head, and the colossal figure did the same.
The pleasure which I felt on this discovery can hardly be
described; for I had already walked many a weary step in the
hope of seeing this shadowy image without being able to satisfy
my curiosity. I immediately made another movement by bending
my body, and the colossal figure before me repeated it. I was
desirous of doing the same thing once more, but my colossus had
vanished. I remained in the same position, waiting to see whether
it would return, and in a few minutes it again made its
appearance in the Achtermannshöhe. I paid my respects to it a
second time and it did the same to me. I then called the landlord
of the Broken; and having both taken the same position which I
had taken alone, we looked toward the Achtermannshöhe, but
saw nothing. We had not, however, stood long, when two such
colossal figures were formed over the above eminence, which
repeated our compliment by bending their bodies as we did; after
which they vanished. We retained our position; kept our eyes
fixed upon the same spot, and in a little the two figures again
stood before us, and were joined by a third. Every movement that
we made by bending our bodies, these figures imitated—but with
this difference, that the phenomenon was sometimes weak and
faint, sometimes strong and well defined. Having thus had an
opportunity of discovering the whole secret of this phenomenon, I
can give the following information to such of my readers as may
be desirous of seeing it themselves. When the rising sun, and
according to analogy the case will be the same at the setting sun,
throws his rays over the Broken upon the body of a man standing
opposite to fine light clouds floating around, or hovering past
him, he needs only fix his eye steadfastly upon them, and in all
probability, he will see the singular spectacle of his own shadow
extending to the length of five or six hundred feet, at the distance
of about two miles before him. This is one of the most agreeable
phenomena, I ever had an opportunity of remarking on the great
observations of Germany. Philosophical Magazine, vol. i. page
232.
[6] The Harz mountains are situated in Hanover.
[7] Lib. i. p. 76, 77. Nam aut in vultu fœditas est, ac turpitudo,
aut uncis, hamisque, quales obscænis vulturibus insunt manus
pedesve depravatos habent, aut denique insolita, atque insigni
aliqua nota quæ naturæ immanitatem prodant, conspicuos se
ostendunt. Joannes Piscator, Henaezel; Salome, Catharina
Balandræa, Nicolæa Ganatia, Sennel Armentaria, et Joanna
Gerardina, retulerunt se & sæpe, et otiosé, atque attenté
considerasse suos Magistellos, cum præsentes colloquerentur;
observasseque semper illis obscuras atrasque fuisse facies: ac
(quod Jornandes dicit de Hunnis, quos Demonibus incubis satos
ferunt) offæ similes: lumina penitus abdita, flammæ tamen instar
micantia: Oris rictus sparsos, profundos, ac perpetuó olidi,
sulphureique aliquid æstuantes: manus strigosas, et villis atque
hamis deformes: pedes corneos bifidosque: staturam nunquam
justam, sed aut brevitate aut vastitate semper aliqua insolentem,
totamque adeo Seriem extra modum.
Addit Alexia Belhoria, illum se aliquando vidisse capite, vel pede
altero truncum, mutilumque, cum forté saltationes nocturnas uná
cum suis agitaret. Quæ res me in memoriam inducit ejus rumoris,
qui me puero circumferebatur de Empusis, quarum frequentes de
nocte choreæ in triviis tum videri ferebantur (la Mequie
Hennequin) id est, familiam Hellequinam vocitabant: nam
Hellequinos ab incubis Dæmonibus suam traxisse originem non
ignobiles Scriptores prodiderunt.
Nicolæa Ganatia, Eva Hesoletia, Jana Nigra Armacuriana, ac
pleræque aliæ vocem illis esse aiunt, qualem emittunt, qui os in
dolium, aut testam rimosam, insertum habent.... Aut certé exilem
et debilem, p. 80.
In the 6th chapter, Remy has indulged his curiosity in a most
extraordinary, and almost reprehensible manner.
Ab hoc qui nobis istos concubitus, succubitusque Dæmonum
memorant uno ore loquuntur omnes, nihil iis frigidius &c. The
other details are too shocking to be repeated, p. 55.
[8] Cardanus de vita propria, cap. 37.
[9] Drummond’s Works, p. 224.
[10] Beaumont’s Treatise, p. 91, 4.
[11] Die 13 Septembris amb. illi Juvenes ad me redierunt,
dicentes: Ne metue, sed rei quæ Tibi exhibebitur, attende! 2. Et
conspexi ante me subito circulum quandam, magni solis instar,
rubrum, ac velut sanguineum: in quo lineæ fuerunt, seu maculæ,
albæ & nigræ, tanta mixtura se invicem variantes, ut jam
nigrarum, jam albarum major cerneretur numerus: duravitque
spectaculum istud per justum spatium. 3. Et cum ad me dixissent
Aspice! Attende! nihil metue! nihil tibi accidet mali! 4. Ecce fulmen
tribus vicibus exigui temporis intervallis sibi succedentibus
intonuit, tam horrendé et terribilé, ut totus obrigescerem. 5.
Circulus autem ille stabat porro coram me, maculæque albæ á
nigris disjungebant sese: et circulus accessit tám propé mihi, ut
manu tangere potuissem. 6. Fuit autem tam speciosus, ut toto
vitæ tempore amænioris rei speciem nullam viderim: et maculæ
albæ adeò candidæ ác jucundæ, ut admirationis modum nón
invenerim. 7. Sed aliæ illæ maculæ à nube quadam horribilitér
caliginosâ ablatæ sunt: in quâ nube tristem audivi ejulatum, etsi
viderem neminem. 8. Verba tamén ejulatûs et lamentorum
fuerant, bené perceptibilia, hæc; væ nobis qui nos caliginosæ
nubi permisimus abstrahi à rotundo Divinæ gratiæ sanguine
rubente circulo, quô nos Dei gratia in Christo dilectissimo filio suo
comprehensos concluserat.
 Lux é Tenebris, p. 119.
[12] Jortin’s Rem. on Ecclesiast. Hist. App. to vol. I.
[13] Eighth Relation, p. 202.
[14] De Miraculis Mortuorum.
[15] Wepfer. Histor. Apoplectic. p. 459.
[16] Garmann de Cadaverum Mumiis. Lib. iii. Tit. ii. p. 1042, 3.
[17] On Genius.
[18] De Apparitionibus mortuorum, Vivis ex Pacto factis. Lips.
1709.
[19] Baronii Annales.—This story was told to Baronius, by the
grandson of Mercato, who was Proto-notary of the church, and a
man of the greatest probity, as well as of general knowledge.
[20] De vita propria, cap. 38.
[21] Cap. 37.
[22] Polyhistor. Literar. Lib. i. Cap. 19. 9. Tom i. p. 217.
[23] There are beauties, in the character of Don Quixote, which
can only be understood by persons accustomed to lunatics. The
dexterity and readiness with which he reconciles all events with
the wayward system which he has adopted: his obstinacy in
retaining and defending false impressions, and the lights of
natural sagacity, and cultivated eloquence, which break frequently
through the cloud that dims his understanding, are managed with
consummate knowledge of partial insanity, though it is sometimes
hardly perceptible to the general reader.
[24] Memoirs de Trevoux, T. viii.—1726.
[25] Hist. of the Irish Rebellion, by Sir John Temple, Kt.—p. 123.
[26] Mem. de Sully, Liv. i.
[27] Clarke’s Life of Nelson, vol. II.
[28] Second Part of Clarke’s “Travels in various parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa.” Page 268.
 FINIS.

PRINTED BY J. AND J. HADDOCK, WARRINGTON.

 Transcriber’s Notes
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.
Spelling, punctuation, accents, and grammar have been preserved as printed in
the original publication except as follows:
1. Page number for Chapter II in the Contents changed from 28 to 30.
2. Page number for Chapter V in the Contents, 117, added.
3. Contents page: Changed “Proofs of spectral inpressions” to “Proofs of spectral
impressions”
4. Page 13: Changed “begin this discussion, by admiting” to “begin this
discussion, by admitting”
5. Page 20: Changed “desart and inaccessible places” to “desert and
inaccessible places”
6. Page 28: Changed “in this intance” to “in this instance”
7. Page 32: Changed punctuation from “with great precipitation,” to “with great
precipitation.”
8. Page 42: Removed hyphen: “as shew how-easily” to “as shew how easily”
9. Page 65: Changed punctuation from “another lady whom he named,” to
“another lady whom he named.”
10. Page 87: Changed “Pandæmonum” to “Pandæmonium”
11. Page 103: The author’s Greek “ψυχή δε κατα χθονὸς ήὕτε καπνὸς Ὤχετο
τετριγυῖα.” was changed to “ψυχὴ δὲ κατὰ χθονὸς ἠΰτε καπνὸς ᾤχετο τετριγυῖα.”
12. Page 111: Changed “effects of mysticism, supperstition” to “effects of
mysticism, superstition”
13. Page 122: Removed extra period from “&c..” to “&c.”
14. Page 137: Changed punctuation from “lost to natural history,” to “lost to
natural history.”
15. Footnote #1: Changed “Bernouilli” to “Bernoulli”
16. Footnote #5: Changed “Worm mountains and the Achtermaunshohe” to
“Worm mountains and the Achtermannshöhe”
17. Footnote #5: Changed “to see that atmospheric phonomenon” to “to see
that atmospheric phenomenon”
18. Footnote #7: Changed “Jormandes” to “Jornandes”
19. Footnote #9: Changed “Such sights as youthfnl poets dream” to “Such
sights as youthful poets dream”
20. Footnote #19: Changed “who was Proto-nothary of the church” to “who was
Proto-notary of the church”
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ESSAY
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