QUERY PROCESSING: i) Basic steps in query processing 1. Parsing and translation 2. Evaluation 3. Optimization
Parsing and translation
o The parser of the query processor checks the syntax of the query, the user’s privileges to execute the query, the table names and attribute names etc. o Translator translate the query into its internal form. This is then translated into relational algebra. Evaluation o The query-execution engine takes a query-evaluation plan, executes that plan, and returns the answers to the query. A sequence of operations that can be used to evaluate a query is a query evaluation plan. This following query can be translated into Query evaluation plan as o select balancefrom accountwhere balance < 2500
Query evaluation plan
Query Optimization: Amongst all equivalent evaluation plans choose the one with lowest cost. Cost is generally measured as total elapsed time for answering query
1 ii) SORTING: SQL queries can specify that output need to be sorted. For relations that fit in memory, quick sort can be used. For relations that don’t fit in memory, external sort-merge is a good choice to use. a 19 a 19 g 24 d 31 a 14 b 14 a 19 g 24 a 19 c 33 d 31 b 14 b 14 d 31 c 33 c 33 c 33 e 16 b 14 d 7 e 16 g 24 e 16 d 21 r 16 d 21 d 31 a 14 d 21 m 3 e 16 d 7 m 3 r 16 g 24 d 21 p 2 m 3 m 3 d 7 a 14 p 2 p 2 a 14 d 7 r 16 r 16 p 2 initial sorted relation runs runs output create merge merge runs pass–1 pass–2
External sorting using Sort-merge
Let M denote memory size (in pages). 1. Create sorted runs. Let i = 0 initially. Repeatedly do the following till the end of the relation: (a) Read M blocks of relation from memory (b) Sort the in-memory blocks (c) Write sorted data to run Ri; increment i. Let the final value of i be N 2. Merge the runs (N-way merge). AssumeN<M. o Sort and merge the blocks in each run o Repeated passes are performed till all runs are sorted and have been merged into one. iv) JOIN OPERATION Join operation is used to join several tuples or blocks of two relation based on join condition. (i.e) Atleast one of the attribute must be common in both relation. Several different algorithms to implement joins o Nested-loop join o Block nested-loop join o Indexed nested-loop join o Merge-join o Hash-join Nested-Loop Join: It joins each tuple of relation r with relation s if it satisfies the join condition for each tuple tr in r do begin for each tuple ts in s do begin check if (tr , ts ) satisfy the join condition if they do, add tr • ts to the result end end r is called the outerrelation and s the inner relation of the join.
2 Block nested-loop join: Variant of nested-loop join in which every block of inner relation is paired with every block of outer relation. for each block Br of r do begin for each block Bs of s do begin for each tuple tr in Br do begin for each tuple ts in Bs do begin Check if ( tr , ts ) satisfy the join condition if they do, add tr• ts to the result end end end end Indexed Nested-Loop Join: In this, nested loop join is performed by using an index. For each tuple tr in the outer relation r, use the index to look up tuples in s that satisfy the join condition with tuple tr Merge-Join: 1. Sort both relations on their join attribute (if not already sorted on the join attributes). 2. Merge the sorted relations to join them Join step is similar to the merge stage of the sort-merge algorithm. Main difference is handling of duplicate values in join attribute — every pair with same value on join attribute must be matched Hash-Join: Applicable for equi-joins and natural joins. A hash function h is used to partition tuples of both relations r and s. Then, Join operation is performed on the partitions of r and s based on join condition
