CHAPTER 10.

TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

Chapter 10

Traffic Assignment

10.1 Overview
The process of allocating given set of trip interchanges to the specified transportation system is usually re
ferred to as traffic assignment. The fundamental aim of the traffic assignment process is to reproduce on the
transportation system, the pattern of vehicular movements which would be observed when the travel demand
represented by the trip matrix, or matrices, to be assigned is satisfied. The major aims of traffic assignment
procedures are:

1. To estimate the volume of traffic on the links of the network and obtain aggregate network measures.

2. To estimate inter zonal travel cost.

3. To analyze the travel pattern of each origin to destination(O-D) pair.

4. To identify congested links and to collect traffic data useful for the design of future junctions.

10.2 Link cost function

As the flow increases towards the capacity of the stream, the average stream speed reduces from the free
flow speed to the speed corresponding to the maximum flow. This can be seen in the graph shown below.

travel time
flow (x)

Figure 10:1: Two Link Problem with constant travel time function

That means traffic conditions worsen and congestion starts developing. The inter zonal flows are assigned to
the minimum paths computed on the basis of free-flow link impedances (usually travel time). But if the link
flows were at the levels dictated by the assignment, the link speeds would be lower and the link travel time
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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

would be higher than those corresponding to the free flow conditions. So the minimum path computed prior to
the trip assignment will not be the minimum after the trips ae assigned. A number of iterative procedures are
done to converge this difference. The relation between the link flow and link impedance is called the link cost
x β
function and is given by the equation as shown below: t = t0[1 + α( k) ]
where t and x is the travel time and flow, respectively on the link, t0 is the free flow travel time, and k is the
practical capacity. α and β are the model parameters, for which the value of α = 0.15 minimum and β = 4.0
are typically used.
The types of traffic assignment models are all-or-nothing assignment (AON), incremental assignment, ca
pacity restraint assignment, user equilibrium assignment (UE), stochastic user equilibrium assignment (SUE),
system optimum assignment (SO), etc. The frequently used models all-or-nothing, user equilibrium, and
system optimum will be discussed in detail here.

10.3 All-or-nothing assignment

In this method the trips from any origin zone to any destination zone are loaded onto a single, minimum cost,
path between them. This model is unrealistic as only one path between every O-D pair is utilized even if there
is another path with the same or nearly same travel cost. Also, traffic on links is assigned without
consideration of whether or not there is adequate capacity or heavy congestion; travel time is a fixed input
and does not vary depending on the congestion on a link. However, this model may be reasonable in sparse
and uncongested networks where there are few alternative routes and they have a large difference in travel
cost. This model may also be used to identify the desired path : the path which the drivers would like to travel
in the absence of congestion. In fact, this model’s most important practical application is that it acts as a
building block for other types of assignment techniques.It has a limitation that it ignores the fact that link
travel time is a function of link volume and when there is congestion or that multiple paths are used to carry
traffic.

Example

To demonstrate how this assignment works, an example network is considered. This network has two nodes
having two paths as links. Let us suppose a case where travel time is not a function of flow as shown in other
words it is constant as shown in the figure below.

x1
t1 = 10

12
 15
t2 =

x2

Figure 10:2: Two Link Problem with constant travel time function

Solution The travel time functions for both the links is given by:
t1 = 10
t2 = 15

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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

and total flows from 1 to 2 is given by. q12 = 12

Since the shortest path is Link 1 all flows are assigned to it making x1 =12 and x2 = 0.

10.4 User equilibrium assignment (UE)

The user equilibrium assignment is based on Wardrop’s first principle, which states that no driver can
unilaterally reduce his/her travel costs by shifting to another route. User Equilibrium (UE) conditions can be
written for a given O-D pair as:

fk(ck − u) = 0 : ∀k (10.1)

ck − u >= 0 : ∀k (10.2)

where fk is the flow on path k, ck is the travel cost on path k, and u is the minimum cost.
Equation labelqueue2 can have two states.

1. If ck − u = 0, from equation 10.1 fk ≥ 0. This means that all used paths will have same travel time. 2.

If ck − u ≥ 0, then from equation 10.1 fk = 0.

This means that all unused paths will have travel time greater than the minimum cost path. where fk is the
flow on path k, ck is the travel cost on path k, and u is the minimum cost.

Assumptions in User Equilibrium Assignment

1. The user has perfect knowledge of the path cost.

2. Travel time on a given link is a function of the flow on that link only.
 3. Travel time functions are positive and increasing.

The solution to the above equilibrium conditions given by the solution of an equivalent nonlinear
mathematical optimization program,

Minimize Z =X a ta(xa)dx, (10.3)

Z xa 0

frs
k= qrs : ∀r, s
subject to X
Xs k: ∀a
xa =X r δrs
k Xk rs
a,kf

frs
k≥ 0 : ∀ k, r, s
xa ≥ 0 : a ∈ A

where k is the path, xa equilibrium flows in link a, ta travel time on link a, frs
O-D pair r-s, qrs trip rate between r and sand δrs kflow on path k connecting
given by
(
1 if link a belongs to path k,
δr,s
a,k = 0 otherwise(10.4)
a,k is a definitional constraint and is

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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

The equations above are simply flow conservation equations and non negativity constraints, respectively.
These constraints naturally hold the point that minimizes the objective function. These equations state user
equilibrium principle.The path connecting O-D pair can be divided into two categories : those carrying the
flow and those not carrying the flow on which the travel time is greater than (or equal to)the minimum O-D
travel time. If the flow pattern satisfies these equations no motorist can better off by unilaterally changing
routes. All other routes have either equal or heavy travel times. The user equilibrium criteria is thus met for
every O-D pair. The UE problem is convex because the link travel time functions are monotonically increasing
function, and the link travel time a particular link is independent of the flow and other links of the networks. To
solve such convex problem Frank Wolfe algorithm is useful.

Example
Let us suppose a case where travel time is not a function of flow as shown in other words it is constant as
shown in the figure below.

x1
10+3x1
t1 =
12
t2 =15+2x2

x2

Figure 10:3: Two Link Problem with constant travel time function

Solution Substituting the travel time in equation yield to

min Z(x) Z x1 0 10 + Z x2 0 15 +
= 3x1dx1 + 2x2dx2

2+ 15x2 + 2x22
2
= 10x1 +3x21
subject to

x1 + x2 = 12

Substituting x2 = 12 − x1, in the above formulation will yield the unconstrained formulation as below :
2
2+ 15(12 − x1) +2(12 − x1)

min Z(x) = 10x1 +3x21

2
Differentiate the above equation x1 and equate to zero, and solving for x1 and then x2 leads to the solution x1
= 5.8, x2 = 6.2.
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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

10.5 System Optimum Assignment (SO)

The system optimum assignment is based on Wardrop’s second principle, which states that drivers cooperate
with one another in order to minimize total system travel time. This assignment can be thought of as a model
in which congestion is minimized when drivers are told which routes to use. Obviously, this is not a
behaviorally realistic model, but it can be useful to transport planners and engineers, trying to manage the
traffic to minimize travel costs and therefore achieve an optimum social equilibrium.

xata(xa) (10.5) Minimize Z =X a

subject to

X
frs
k= qrs : ∀r, s (10.6) k
xa =X
r Xk δrs
Xs rs k: ∀a (10.7)
a,kf

frs
k≥ 0 : ∀ k, r, s (10.8)
xa ≥ 0 : a ∈ A (10.9)
rs
xa equilibrium flows in link a, ta travel time on link a, f
kflow on path k connecting O-D pair r-s, qrs trip rate
between r and s.

Example

To demonstrate how the assignment works, an example network is considered. This network has two nodes
having two paths as links. Let us suppose a case where travel time is not a function of flow or in other words
it is constant as shown in the figure below.

x1
10+3x1
t1 =
12
t2 =15+2x2

x2

Figure 10:4: Two Link Problem with constant travel time function
Solution Substituting the travel time in equation , we get the following:

min Z(x) = x1 ∗ (10 + 3x1) + x2 ∗ (15 + 2x2) (10.10)

= 10x1 + 3x12 + 15x2 + 2x22(10.11)

Substituting x2 = x1 − 12
min Z(x) == 10x1 + 3x12 + 15(12 − x1) + 2(12 − x1)2(10.12) (10.13)

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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

Differentiate the above equation to zero, and solving for x1 and then x2 leads to the solution x1 = 5.3,x2= 6.7
which gives Z(x) = 327.55

10.6 Other assignment methods

Let us discuss briefly some other assignments like incremental assignment, capacity restraint assignment,
stochastic user equilibrium assignment and dynamic assignment.

10.6.1 Incremental assignment

Incremental assignment is a process in which fractions of traffic volumes are assigned in steps.In each step,
a fixed proportion of total demand is assigned, based on all-or-nothing assignment. After each step, link
travel times are recalculated based on link volumes. When there are many increments used, the flows may
resemble an equilibrium assignment ; however, this method does not yield an equilibrium solution.
Consequently, there will be inconsistencies between link volumes and travel times that can lead to errors in
evaluation measures. Also, incremental assignment is influenced by the order in which volumes for O-D pairs
are assigned, raising the possibility of additional bias in results.

10.6.2 Capacity restraint assignment

Capacity restraint assignment attempts to approximate an equilibrium solution by iterating between all-or
nothing traffic loadings and recalculating link travel times based on a congestion function that reflects link
capacity. Unfortunately, this method does not converge and can flip-flop back and forth in loadings on some
links.

10.6.3 Stochastic user equilibrium assignment

User equilibrium assignment procedures based on Wardrop’s principle assume that all drivers perceive costs
in an identical manner. A solution to assignment problem on this basis is an assignment such that no driver
can reduce his journey cost by unilaterally changing route. Van Vilet considered as stochastic assignment
models, all those models which explicitly allows non minimum cost routes to be selected. Virtually all such
models assume that drivers perception of costs on any given route are not identical and that the trips
between each O-D pair are divided among the routes with the most cheapest route attracting most trips. They
have important advantage over other models because they load many routes between individual pairs of
network nodes in a single pass through the tree building process,the assignments are more stable and less
sensitive to slight variations in network definitions or link costs to be independent of flows and are thus most
appropriate for use in uncongested traffic conditions such as in off peak periods or lightly trafficked rural
areas.

10.6.4 Dynamic Assignment

Dynamic user equilibrium,expressed as an extension of Wardrop’s user equilibrium principle, may be defined
as the state of equilibrium which arises when no driver can reduce his disutility of travel by choosing a new
route or departure time,where disutility includes, schedule delay in addition in to costs generally considered.
Dynamic stochastic equilibrium may be similarly defined in terms of perceived utility of travel. The existence

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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

of such equilibrium in complex networks has not been proven theoretical and even if they exist the question
of uniqueness remains open.

10.7 Summary
Traffic assignment is the last stage of traffic demand modeling. There are different types of traffic assignment
models. All-or-nothing, User-equilibrium, and System-optimum assignment models are the commonly used
models. All-or-nothing model is an unrealistic model since only one path between every O-D pair is utilised
and they can give satisfactory results only when the network is least congested. User-equilibrium assignment
is based on Wardrop’s first principle and it’s conditions are based on certain assumptions. Wardrop’s second
principle is utilized by System-optimum method and it tries to minimise the congestion by giving prior
information to drivers regarding the respective routes to be chosen. Other assignment models are also briefly
explained.

10.8 Problems
Calculate the system travel time and link flows by doing user equilibrium assignment for the network in the
given figure 10:5. Verify that the flows are at user equilibrium.

x1
12+3x1
t1 =
12
t2 =10+5x2

x2

Figure 10:5: Two link problem with constant travel time

Solution Substituting the travel time in the respective equation yield to

Z x1 0 12 + Z x2 0 10 +
minZ(x) = 3x 1dx1 + 5x2dx2

2+ 10x2 + 5x22
2
= 12x1 +3x21
subject to

x1 + x2 = 12

Substituting x2 = 12 − x1, in the above formulation will yield the unconstrained formulation as below :
2
2+ 10(12 − x1) +5(12 − x1)

min Z(x) = 12x1 + 3x21

2
2min Z(x) = 4x 1 − 58x1 + 480

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CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL May 7, 2007

Differentiate the above equation x1 and equating to zero,

dz(x)

dx = 0 − 58 + 8x1 = 0orx1 = 7.25Hencex2 = 12 − 7, 25 = 4.75

Travel times are

t1 = 12 + 3 × 7.25 = 33.75t2 = 10 + 5 × 4.75 = 33.75i.e.t1 = t2

It follows that the travel times are at user equilibrium.

Introduction to Transportation Engineering 10.8 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao