CS-702(C) Wireless &Mobile Computing AIST SAGAR

UNIT- 1
Review of traditional networks: Review of LAN, MAN, WAN, Intranet, Internet, and
interconnectivity devices: bridges, Routers etc. Review of TCP/IP Protocol Architecture:
ARP/RARP, IP addressing, IP Datagram format and its Delivery, Routing table format, ICMP
Messages, Subnetting, Supernetting and CIDR, DNS. NAT: Private addressing and NAT, SNAT,
DNAT, NAT and firewalls, VLANS: Concepts, Comparison with Real LANS, Type of VLAN,
Tagging, IPV6: address structure, address space and header.

TRADITIONAL NETWORK: Traditional network refers to the old conventional way of

networking which uses fixed and dedicated hardware devices such as routers and switches to
control network traffic. Inability to scale and network security and Performance are the major
concern now a days in the current growing business situation so that SDN is taking control to
traditional network. Traditional network is static and based on hardware network appliances.
Traditional network architecture was used by many companies till recent years but now a days
due to its drawbacks Software Defined Network has been developed and in coming years it will
be used more.
Components of Traditional Network:
 Network devices: Traditional networks use physical network devices, such as routers,
switches, and firewalls, to manage and direct network traffic.
 Cabling: Traditional networks use physical cabling to connect network devices to each other.
 Protocols: Traditional networks rely on standard networking protocols, such as TCP/IP and
Ethernet, for communication between network devices.
Advantages of Traditional Network:
 Well-established: Traditional networks are well-established and widely used in various
organizations.
 Predictable performance: Traditional networks offer predictable performance as network
devices are configured based on specific requirements.
 Familiarity: Traditional networks are familiar to network administrators and require minimal
training.
Disadvantages of Traditional Network:
 Limited scalability: Traditional networks have limited scalability due to the dependence on
physical hardware devices.
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 Limited automation: Traditional networks have limited automation capabilities and require
significant manual intervention.
 Rigid architecture: Traditional networks have a rigid, hierarchical architecture that is difficult
to modify or adapt to changing business needs.
The below figure illustrates the architecture of Traditional Network:

Figure 1 architecture of Traditional Network:

SOFTWARE DEFINED NETWORK (SDN) : SDN stands for Software Defined

Network which is networking architecture approach. It enables the control and management of
network using software applications. Through Software Defined Network (SDN) networking
behavior of entire network and its devices are programmed in centrally controlled manner
through software applications using open APIs. Software Defined Network improves
performance by network virtualization. In SDN software controlled applications or APIs work as
basis of complete network management that may be directing traffic on network or to
communicate with underlying hardware infrastructure. So in simple we can say SDN can create
virtual network or it can control traditional network with the help of software.
Components of SDN:
SDN is comprised of three key components: the data plane, the control plane, and the application
layer. The data plane is responsible for forwarding network traffic, while the control plane
manages network infrastructure and makes decisions about how network traffic should be

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handled. The application layer consists of software applications that run on top of the SDN
infrastructure.
Benefits of SDN:
SDN offers several key benefits over traditional networking approaches. For example, SDN
allows for more efficient network management, as network administrators can automate many
tasks that would otherwise be done manually. SDN also allows for more flexible and
customizable network configurations, as network infrastructure can be reconfigured on the fly.
Applications of SDN:
SDN has a wide range of applications, from data center networking to wide area networks
(WANs) and even the Internet of Things (IoT).
SDN is particularly useful in situations where network infrastructure needs to be highly flexible
and scalable.
The below figure illustrates architecture Software Defined Network :

Figure 2 Software Defined Network

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Similarities Between Software Defined Network & Traditional Network:

 Both SDN and traditional networks aim to provide network connectivity between devices.

 Both types of networks use standard networking protocols, such as TCP/IP and Ethernet, for

communication between network devices.

 Both SDN and traditional networks have security concerns, such as unauthorized access, data

breaches, and network attacks.

 Both types of networks can provide quality of service (QoS) features to ensure that critical

applications receive the required bandwidth and priority.

Difference between SDN and Traditional Network :
S.No. SDN TRADITIONAL NETWORK
01. Software Defined Network is virtual Traditional network is the old conventional
networking approach. networking approach.
02. Software Defined Network is centralized Traditional Network is distributed control.
control.
03. This network is programmable. This network is non programmable.
04. Software Defined Network is open Traditional network is closed interface.
interface.
05. In Software Defined Network data plane In traditional network data plane and
and control plane are decoupled by control plane are mounted on same plane.
software.
06. It supports automatic configuration so it It supports static/manual configuration so it
takes less time. takes more time.
07. It can prioritize and block specific network It leads all packets in the same way no
packets. prioritization support.
08. It is easy to program as per need. It is difficult to program again and to
replace existing program as per use.
09. Cost of Software Defined Network is low. Cost of Traditional Network is high.
10. Structural complexity is low in Software Structural complexity is high in Traditional
Defined Network. Network.
11. Extensibility is high in Software Defined Extensibility is low in Traditional

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Network. Network.
12. In SDN it is easy to troubleshooting and In Traditional network it is difficult to
reporting as it is centralized controlled. troubleshoot and report as it is distributed
controlled.
13. Its maintenance cost is lower than Traditional network maintenance cost is
traditional network. higher than SDN.

Review of LAN, MAN, WAN

LAN It is an abbreviation for Local Area Network. It connects various network devices in a
way that the workstations and PCs (personal computers) can share programs, tools, and data. A
single switch or stack of various switches connects a group of various devices and computers
together. They use a private addressing scheme- that the TCP/IP protocol defines. The private
addresses of every computer are unique in relation to one another. At every LAN’s boundary,
you will find routers that connect them all to a larger WAN.
The rate of data transmission is very high because it links to a very limited number of
computers. These connections exhibit a higher speed and require relatively inexpensive
hardware (for example, network adapters, hubs, Ethernet cables, etc.). A LAN covers a very
small area of about a few kilometers, and people own them privately for home, office
buildings, schools, hospitals, etc. It is very easy for people to design a LAN and maintain it.
The communication medium that it uses has coaxial cables and twisted-pair cables. It also has
minimal noise and error due to its short distance coverage.
Data rates in early LAN ranged from 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps. This speed extends to approx 100-
1000 Mbps today. The LAN has a very short propagation delay. It relies typically on wired
connections (to attain better security and speed), but it may also comprise wireless
connections. The smallest of LANs may make use of just two computers, and the larger ones
may accommodate thousands of them. Users experience high fault tolerance and low
congestion in a LAN network (like a few students playing together in the same room).
MAN It is an abbreviation for Metropolitan Area Network. It covers a smaller area than that
of WAN and a larger area as compared to a LAN. A MAN basically connects two devices (or
more) that reside apart but in the same or different cities. It may also serve as an Internet
Service Provider (ISP), and it basically covers a larger geographical area. Customers who need

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a better speed and higher-quality connectivity opt for MAN. They are very hard to maintain
and design, and their speeds range in terms of Megabytes Per Second (Mbps).
MAN shows lesser fault tolerance and more congestion in the network. It also exhibits a
moderate rate of data transfer and propagation delay. A single organization may or may not
own a MAN, as it is very costly. It makes use of devices like Cable/Wire and Modem for data
transmission. A significant example of a MAN is those telephone company networks that are
capable of providing high-speed lines (DSL) to a cable TV network or customers in any given
city.
WAN It stands for Wide Area Network. It basically extends over large areas, but it might
stay confined within a state or a country’s boundaries. A connection of various LANs may also
constitute a WAN. They may connect to each other using radio waves and telephone lines. A
WAN typically may stay limited to any enterprise (an organization or a corporation) or may
even be accessible to the general public. It comes with a technology that is very expensive and
relatively high-speed.
WANs are basically of two types: Point-to-Point WAN and Switched WAN. It is also very
difficult to maintain as well as design a WAN. The fault tolerance is also very less, just like
MAN, and it brings more congestion in a network. The communication medium deployed for
WAN is the Satellite Link or Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The usual long-
distance transmission leads to a higher error and voice in a WAN.
The data rate concerning a WAN is comparatively slower than LAN- about a tenth of its speed.
It is because of the higher distance that it covers and more number of terminals, servers, etc.
The speed of transmission may range in a WAN from a few Kbps (Kilobits per second) to
Mbps (Megabits per second). One of the biggest issues that WAN faces is the propagation
delay. A few devices that help in data transmission via WAN are: Satellites, Microwaves, and
Optic wires. One example of a Point-to-Point WAN is the dial-up line connecting any home
computer to the Internet. One example of a Switched WAN is the ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) Network.

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Differences between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN
Full-Form LAN stands for local MAN - metropolitan WAN stands for wide area
area network. area network. network.
Geographic Operates in small Operates in large areas Operates in larger areas
Span areas such as the same such as a city. such as country or
building or campus. continent.
Ownership LAN’s ownership is MAN’s ownership can While WAN also might not
private. be private or public. be owned by one
organization.
Transmission The transmission While the transmission Whereas the transmission
Speed speed of a LAN is speed of a MAN is speed of a WAN is low.
high. average.
Propagation The propagation delay There is a moderate Whereas, there is a long
delay is short in a LAN. propagation delay in a propagation delay in a
MAN. WAN.
Congestion There is less While there is more Whereas there is more
congestion in LAN. congestion in MAN. congestion than MAN in
WAN.
Design & LAN’s design and While MAN’s design Whereas WAN’s design
Maintenance maintenance are easy. and maintenance are and maintenance are also
difficult than LAN. difficult than LAN as well
MAN.
Fault There is more fault While there is less In WAN, there is also less
tolerance tolerance in LAN. fault tolerance. fault tolerance.

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Figure 3 LAN, MAN, and WAN

INTERNET & INTRANET

S.No Internet Intranet
Internet is used to connect different
1. Intranet is owned by private firms.
networks of computers simultaneously.
2. On the internet, there are multiple users. On an intranet, there are limited users.
3. Internet is unsafe. Intranet is safe.
On the internet, there is more number of
4. In the intranet, there is less number of visitors.
visitors.
5. Internet is a public network. Intranet is a private network.
6. Anyone can access the Internet. In this, anyone can’t access the Intranet.
The Internet provides unlimited
7. Intranet provides limited information.
information.
Using Social media on your phone or A company used to communicate internally
8.
researching resources via Google. with its employees and share information
The Internet is a global network that
An intranet is a private network that connects
9. connects millions of devices and
devices and computers within an organization.
computers worldwide.

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It is open to everyone and allows access

An intranet is only accessible to authorized
10. to public information, such as websites
users within the organization.
and online services.
It is used for communication, sharing of An intranet is primarily used for internal
11. information, e-commerce, education, communication, collaboration, and
entertainment, and other purposes. information sharing within an organization.
Access to an intranet is restricted to
Users can access the Internet from any
authorized users within the organization and is
12. location with an Internet connection and
typically limited to specific devices and
a compatible device.
locations.
Security measures, such as firewalls,
Intranets employ similar security measures to
encryption, and secure sockets layer
protect against unauthorized access and
13. (SSL) protocols, are used to protect
ensure the privacy and integrity of shared
against threats like hacking, viruses, and
data.
malware.
The Internet is a public network that is Intranets are private networks that are owned
14. not owned by any particular organization and managed by the organization that uses
or group. them.
Examples of Internet-based services Examples of intranet-based services include
15. include email, social media, search internal communications, knowledge
engines, and online shopping sites. management systems, and collaboration tools

INTERCONNECTIVITY DEVICES
Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware
on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater,
Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. REPEATER – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes

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weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
2. HUB – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the
intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub:
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay
the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center.
These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them
and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. BRIDGE – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It
is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input
and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of

the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source

station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network
using all possible paths to the destination.

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4. SWITCH – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link
layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to
the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but
the broadcast domain remains the same.
Types of Switches:
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as
an expansion to a larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as
VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks
and allow for centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage.
They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and
are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can
route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2
switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them
to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack
and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy
expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

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5. ROUTERS – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Figure 4 ROUTERS

6. GATEWAY – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that
may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol
converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than
switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
7. BROUTER – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of
both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a
router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of
filtering local area network traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id
that is written on the chip, aSnd it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an
interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which
means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the network model.

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four/five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link
Layer are referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in
the 4-layer reference.
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The
main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches
its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines
them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring
from one end to another end.
Difference between TCP and IP: IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to
send and receive the mail.
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of
the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer.
Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number
of users.

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 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of
a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that
define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device
to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is
used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically

connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character

transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the
whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this
transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.

Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes
of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in

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cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank
transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets
up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems
Interconnection.
TCP/IP uses both the session and presentation OSI uses different session and presentation
layer in the application layer itself. layers.
TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.
The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In the OSI model, the transport layer
assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP While in the OSI model, Protocols are better
model. covered and are easy to replace with the
technology change.
TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented
connectionless (IP) services. The transport layer services are provided by the network layer
(TCP) provides connections. in the OSI model.

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Figure 5 TCP/IP and OSI Model

ARP & RARP

In Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Receiver’s MAC address is fetched. Through ARP,
(32-bit) IP address mapped into (48-bit) MAC address. Whereas, In Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol (RARP), IP address is fetched through server. Through RARP, (48-bit)
MAC address of 48 bits mapped into (32-bit) IP address.
ARP RARP
A protocol used to map an IP address to a A protocol used to map a physical (MAC)
physical (MAC) address address to an IP address
To obtain the MAC address of a network To obtain the IP address of a network device
device when only its IP address is known when only its MAC address is known
Client broadcasts its IP address and requests a Client broadcasts its MAC address and requests
MAC address, and the server responds with an IP address, and the server responds with the
the corresponding MAC address corresponding IP address
IP addresses MAC addresses
Widely used in modern networks to resolve Rarely used in modern networks as most devices
IP addresses to MAC addresses have a pre-assigned IP address

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Whereas RARP stands for Reverse Address

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
Resolution Protocol.
Through ARP, (32-bit) IP address mapped Whereas through RARP, (48-bit) MAC address
into (48-bit) MAC address. of 48 bits mapped into (32-bit) IP address.
In ARP, broadcast MAC address is used. While in RARP, broadcast IP address is used.
In ARP, ARP table is managed or maintained While in RARP, RARP table is managed or
by local host. maintained by RARP server.
In Address Resolution Protocol, Receiver’s
While in RARP, IP address is fetched.
MAC address is fetched.
In ARP, ARP table uses ARP reply for its While in RARP, RARP table uses RARP reply
updation. for configuration of IP addresses .
Hosts and routers uses ARP for knowing the
While RARP is used by small users having less
MAC address of other hosts and routers in the
facilities.
networks.
ARP is used in sender’s side to map the RARP is used in receiver’s side to map the
receiver’s MAC address. sender’s IP.

Figure 6 ARP & RARP

IPAddress
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a unique numerical identifier for every device or network
that connects to the internet. Typically assigned by an internet service provider (ISP), an IP
address is an online device address used for communicating across the internet.

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IPv4
IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address and the host address. It stands
for Internet Protocol version four. It was introduced in 1981 by DARPA and was the first
deployed version in 1982 for production on SATNET and on the ARPANET in January 1983.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in Decimal Notation. It is
represented by 4 numbers separated by dots in the range of 0-255, which have to be converted to
0 and 1, to be understood by Computers. For Example, An IPv4 Address can be written
as 189.123.123.90.IPv4 Address
Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary digits separated by a dot (.).

Figure 7 IPAddress IPv4

IPv6
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was first introduced in
December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force. IP version 6 is the new version of Internet
Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4 in terms of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is
written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It can be written as 128 bits
of 0s and 1s.

Figure 8 F IPAddress IPv6

Benefits of
IPv6 : The recent Version of IP (IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4).
 Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4, which is required for
expanding the IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128 bit IP Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-
bit Address.

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 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in with it. IPv6 offers
security like Data Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here, an Internet Connection is more
Secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler and more effective
header Structure, which is more cost-effective and also increases the speed of Internet
Connection.
 Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS features, which helps in
increasing traffic over websites and increases audio and video quality on pages.
 Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better support for Mobile
Devices. It helps in making quick connections over other Mobile Devices and in a safer way
than IPv4.
Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
It Supports Manual and DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering address
configuration configuration
In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is
Unachievable Achievable
It can generate 4.29×109 address space The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
produce 3.4×1038 address space
The Security feature is dependent on the IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6
application protocol
Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in
hexadecimal
Fragmentation performed by Sender and In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the
forwarding routers sender
In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available
available and uses the flow label field in the header
In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available
It has a broadcast Message Transmission In IPv6 multicast and anycast message

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Scheme transmission scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication facility In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are
not provided provided

IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4 can be converted to IPv6 Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4
IPv4 consists of 4 fields which are separated IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated by
by addresses dot (.) a colon (:)
IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into five IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP
different classes. Class A , Class B, Class C, address.
Class Da , Class E.
IPv4 supports VLSM(Variable Length subnet IPv6 does not support VLSM.
mask).
Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
Routing Table:
A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format, that is used to determine where
data packets traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-enabled
devices, including routers and switches, use routing tables.
Entries of an IP Routing Table:
A routing table contains the information necessary to forward a packet along the best path
toward its destination. Each packet contains information about its origin and destination. Routing
Table provides the device with instructions for sending the packet to the next hop on its route
across the network.
Each entry in the routing table consists of the following entries:
1. Network ID: The network ID or destination corresponding to the route.
2. Subnet Mask: The mask that is used to match a destination IP address to the network ID.
3. Next Hop: The IP address to which the packet is forwarded
4. Outgoing Interface: Outgoing interface the packet should go out to reach the destination
network.

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5. Metric: A common use of the metric is to indicate the minimum number of hops (routers
crossed) to the network ID.
Routing table entries can be used to store the following types of routes:
 Directly Attached Network IDs
 Remote Network IDs
 Host Routes
 Default Route
 Destination
There are ways to maintain Routing Table:
 Directly connected networks are added automatically.
 Using Static Routing.
 Using Dynamic Routing.
These Routing tables can be maintained manually or dynamically. In dynamic routing, devices
build and maintain their routing tables automatically by using routing protocols to exchange
information about the surrounding network topology. Dynamic routing tables allow devices to
“listen” to the network and respond to occurrences like device failures and network congestion.
Tables for static network devices do not change unless a network administrator manually
changes them.
ICMP Messages
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used to diagnose
communication errors by performing an error control mechanism. Since IP does not have an
inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control messages. It depends on Internet Control
Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide error control.
ICMP is used for reporting errors and management queries. It is a supporting protocol and is
used by network devices like routers for sending error messages and operations information.
* ICMP packets are transmitted in the form of datagrams that contain an IP header with ICMP
data. ICMP datagram is similar to a packet, which is an independent data entity.
ICMP Packet Format: ICMP header comes after IPv4 and IPv6 packet header.

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Figure 9 ICMP Messages

In the ICMP packet format, the first 32 bits of the packet contain three fields:
Type (8-bit): The initial 8-bit of the packet is for message type, it provides a brief description of
the message so that receiving network would know what kind of message it is receiving and how
to respond to it. Some common message types are as follows:
 Type 0 – Echo reply  Type 8 – Echo Request
 Type 3 – Destination unreachable  Type 11 – Time Exceeded
 Type 5 – Redirect Message  Type 12 – Parameter problem
Code (8-bit): Code is the next 8 bits of the ICMP packet format, this field carries some
additional information about the error message and type.
Checksum (16-bit): Last 16 bits are for the checksum field in the ICMP packet header.
The checksum is used to check the number of bits of the complete message and enable the ICMP
tool to ensure that complete data is delivered.
The next 32 bits of the ICMP Header are Extended Header which has the work of pointing out
the problem in IP Message. Byte locations are identified by the pointer which causes the problem
message and receiving device looks here for pointing to the problem.
The last part of the ICMP packet is Data or Payload of variable length. The bytes included in
IPv4 are 576 bytes and in IPv6, 1280 bytes.
SUBNETTING & SUPERNETTING
Subnetting is the procedure to divide the network into sub-networks or small networks, these
smaller networks are known as subnets. The subnet is also defined as an internal address made
up of a combination of a small network and host segments. In a subnet, a few bits from the host

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portion are used to design small-sized subnetworks from the original network. In subnetting,
network bits are converted into host bits.
Supernetting is the procedure to combine small networks into larger spaces. In subnetting,
Network addresses’ bits are increased. on the other hand, in supernetting, Host addresses’ bits
are increased. Subnetting is implemented via Variable-length subnet masking, While super
netting is implemented via Classless inter domain routing.
Difference between Subnetting and Supernetting
Subnetting Supernetting
Subnetting is the procedure to divide the While supernetting is the procedure of combining
network into sub-networks. small networks.
In subnetting, Network addresses’ bits are While in supernetting, Host addresses’ bits are
increased. increased.
In subnetting, The mask bits are moved While In supernetting, The mask bits are moved
towards the right. towards the left.
Subnetting is implemented via Variable- While supernetting is implemented via Classless
length subnet masking. interdomain routing.
In subnetting, Address depletion is reduced While It is used for simplifying the routing
or removed. process.

Advantages of subnetting
1. Effective IP address use: Subnetting enables the division of a large network into smaller
subnets, which aids in the efficient use of IP address allocation. It lessens IP address wastage
and enables organizations to allocate IP addresses in accordance with their unique
requirements.
2. Subnetting can help reduce network congestion and enhance overall network performance by
breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Smaller subnets improve the efficiency of
routing and switching operations and allow for better network traffic control.
3. Increased network security: Subnetting makes it possible to implement security measures
more precisely. Organizations can improve security by controlling access between subnets
and implementing firewall rules by isolating various subnets from one another.

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Disadvantages of subnetting
1. Complexity: Subnetting can make network configuration and design more complicated. It
can be difficult, especially for large networks, to choose the right subnet sizes, plan IP
address ranges, and manage routing between subnets.
2. Subnetting requires more administrative work, especially when adding new subnets or
changing the configuration of existing ones. In addition to maintaining routing tables and
ensuring proper connectivity between subnets, it entails managing IP address ranges.
Advantages of supernetting
1. Supernetting enables the consolidation of several smaller networks into a single, larger
network block, which reduces the size of the routing table and maximizes the use of IP
address space.
2. Routing can be made easier by combining several smaller networks into a supernet because
fewer routing updates and table entries are required. This may result in increased routing
effectiveness and decreased router overhead.
3. A reduced number of routing lookups needed for packet forwarding thanks to supernetting
can help improve network performance. As a result, packet processing may be accelerated
and latency may be decreased.
Disadvantages of supernetting
1. Loss of network granularity: Supernetting involves aggregating multiple networks into larger
network blocks. This can result in a loss of granularity, making it more challenging to
implement fine-grained network management, security policies, and traffic control.
2. Increased risk of network failures: If a single supernet experiences a network failure, it can
affect multiple smaller networks within that supernet. This makes troubleshooting and
isolating network issues more complex.
3. Limited flexibility: Supernetting requires careful planning and coordination to ensure that the
aggregated networks have compatible address ranges. It may limit the ability to make
independent changes to individual subnets within a supernet without affecting the entire
supernet.
CIDR
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method of IP address allocation and IP routing that
allows for more efficient use of IP addresses. CIDR is based on the idea that IP addresses can be

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allocated and routed based on their network prefix rather than their class, which was the
traditional way of IP address allocation.
CIDR addresses are represented using a slash notation, which specifies the number of bits in the
network prefix.
CIDR addresses are made up of two sets of numbers:
1. Prefix. The prefix is the binary representation of the network address -- similar to what
would be seen in a normal IP address.
2. Suffix. The suffix declares the total number of bits in the entire address.
For example, CIDR notation might look like: 192.168.129.23/17 -- with 17 being the number of
bits in the address. IPv4 addresses support a maximum of 32 bits.
The same CIDR notation can be applied to IPv6 addresses. The only difference is IPv6 addresses
can contain up to 128 bits.
Advantages:
1. Efficient use of IP addresses: CIDR allows for more efficient use of IP addresses, which
is important as the pool of available IPv4 addresses continues to shrink.
2. Flexibility: CIDR allows for more flexible allocation of IP addresses, which can be
important for organizations with complex network requirements.
3. Better routing: CIDR allows for more efficient routing of IP traffic, which can lead to
better network performance. Reduced administrative overhead: CIDR reduces
administrative overhead by allowing for easier management of IP addresses and routing.
Disadvantages:
1. Complexity: CIDR can be more complex to implement and manage than traditional class-
based addressing, which can require additional training and expertise.
2. Compatibility issues: Some older network devices may not be compatible with CIDR,
which can make it difficult to transition to a CIDR-based network.
3. Security concerns: CIDR can make it more difficult to implement security measures such
as firewall rules and access control lists, which can increase security risks.
4. Overall, CIDR is a useful and efficient method of IP address allocation and routing, but it
may not be suitable for all organizations or networks. It is important to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of CIDR and consider the specific needs and requirements
of your network before implementing CIDR.

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DNS
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and distributed naming system
for computers, services, and other resources in the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP)
networks. It associates various information with domain names (identification strings) assigned
to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain
names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and
devices with the underlying network protocols. The Domain Name System has been an essential
component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping
those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative name servers for each domain.
Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space
to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault-tolerant service and was
designed to avoid a single large central database.
Network Address Translation (NAT)
To access the Internet, one public IP address is needed, but we can use a private IP address in our
private network. The idea of NAT is to allow multiple devices to access the Internet through a
single public address. To achieve this, the translation of a private IP address to a public IP
address is required. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local
IP address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order to provide
Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does the translation of port numbers i.e. masks the port
number of the host with another port number, in the packet that will be routed to the destination.
It then makes the corresponding entries of IP address and port number in the NAT table. NAT
generally operates on a router or firewall.
Advantages of NAT –
o NAT conserves legally registered IP addresses.
o It provides privacy as the device’s IP address, sending and receiving the traffic, will be
hidden.
o Eliminates address renumbering when a network evolves.
Disadvantage of NAT –
o Translation results in switching path delays.
o Certain applications will not function while NAT is enabled.

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o Complicates tunneling protocols such as IPsec.

Source Network Address Translation (SNAT) :
SNAT, as name suggests, is a technique that translates source IP address generally when
connecting from private IP address to public IP address. It maps source client IP address in a
request to a translation defined on BIG-IP device. It is most common form of NAT that is used
when internal host needs to initiate session to an external host or public host.

Figure 10 Source Network Address Translation (SNAT) :

Destination Network Address Translation (DNAT) :

DNAT, as name suggests, is a technique that translates destination IP address generally when
connecting from public IP address to private IP address. It is generally used to redirect packets
destined for specific IP address or specific port on IP address, on one host simply to a different
address mostly on different host.

Figure 11 Destination Network Address Translation (DNAT) :

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Difference between SNAT and DNAT :

SNAT DNAT
It is generally used to change private It is generally used to redirect incoming packets
address or port into a public address or with destination of public address or port to
port for packets leaving network. private IP address or port inside network.
It translates source IP address within a It translates IP addresses of internal servers that
connection to BIG-IP system IP address are protected by device to public IP addresses.
that one defines.
It is used to change source address of It is used to change destination address of packet.
packet.
It also changes source port in TCP/UDP It also changes destination port in TCP/UDP
headers. headers.
It generally allows multiple hosts on It generally allows multiple hosts on outside to
inside to get any host on outside. get single host on inside.
It is performed after routing decision is It is performed before routing decision is made.
made.
In this, destination IP address is In this, source IP address is maintained and
maintained and source IP address is destination IP address is changed.
changed.
Client inside LAN and behind Firewall Website hosted inside data center behind
needs to browse Internet. Firewall and needs to be accessible to users over
Internet

FIREWALL: A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based,

which monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules it
accepts, rejects or drops that specific traffic. Accept : allow the traffic Reject : block the traffic
but reply with an “unreachable error” Drop : block the traffic with no reply A firewall
establishes a barrier between secured internal networks and outside untrusted network, such as
the Internet.

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Figure 12 FIREWALL

Virtual LAN (VLAN): Is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on layer 2
(data link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast
domain can be divided by switches using the concept of VLAN.
A broadcast domain is a network segment in which if a device broadcast a packet then all the
devices in the same broadcast domain will receive it. The devices in the same broadcast domain
will receive all the broadcast packets but it is limited to switches only as routers don’t forward
out the broadcast packet. To forward out the packets to different VLAN (from one VLAN to
another) or broadcast domains, inter Vlan routing is needed. Through VLAN, different small-
size sub-networks are created which are comparatively easy to handle.
VLANs offer several features and benefits
 Improved network security
 Better network performance
 Simplified network management
 Flexibility & Scalability
 Cost savings
Types Of VLANs Depending On The Type Of Network They Carry:
Default VLAN – When the switch initially starts up, all switch ports become a member of the
default VLAN (generally all switches have default VLAN named as VLAN 1), which makes
them all part of the same broadcast domain. Using default VLAN allows any network device
connected to any of the switch port to connect with other devices on other switch ports. One
unique feature of Default VLAN is that it can’t be renamed or delete.

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Data VLAN – Data VLAN is used to divide the whole network into 2 groups. One group of
users and other group of devices. This VLAN also known as a user VLAN, the data VLAN is
used only for user-generated data. This VLAN carrying data only. It is not used for carrying
management traffic or voice.
Voice VLAN – Voice VLAN is configured to carry voice traffic. Voice VLANs are mostly
given high transmission priority over other types of network traffic. To ensure voice over IP
(VoIP) quality (delay of less than 150 milliseconds (ms) across the network), we must have
separate voice VLAN as this will preserve bandwidth for other applications.
Management VLAN – A management VLAN is configured to access the management
capabilities of a switch (traffic like system logging, monitoring). VLAN 1 is the management
VLAN by default (VLAN 1 would be a bad choice for the management VLAN). Any of a switch
VLAN could be define as the management VLAN if admin has not configured a unique VLAN
to serve as the management VLAN. This VLAN ensures that bandwidth for management will be
available even when user traffic is high.
Native VLAN – This VLAN identifies traffic coming from each end of a trunk link. A native
VLAN is allocated only to an 802.1Q trunk port. The 802.1Q trunk port places untagged traffic
(traffic that does not come from any VLAN) on the native VLAN. It is best to configure the
native VLAN as an unused VLAN.
Port-based VLAN- In a port-based VLAN, each port on an organization switch is relegated
to a particular VLAN. All traffic on that port is then naturally appointed to the VLAN related
with that port.
Tagged VLAN- A Tagged VLAN is utilized to help different VLANs on a solitary actual
port. In this kind of VLAN, every parcel is labeled with a VLAN ID, which recognizes the
VLAN to which it has a place. This permits different VLANs to be persisted in a solitary actual
port.
Protocol-based VLAN- A protocol-based VLAN utilizes Layer 3 convention data to dole out
bundles to a VLAN. For instance, all traffic for a particular convention, like IPX, could be
relegated to a particular VLAN. This kind of VLAN is less ordinarily utilized contrasted with
port-based and labeled VLANs.

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TAGGING
VLAN tagging is a method through which more than one VLAN is handled on a port.
VLAN tagging is used to tell which packet belongs to which VLAN on the other
side. To make recognition easier, a packet is tagged with a VLAN tag in the Ethernet
frame. Independent logical systems can be formed accurately with the help of
the VLAN tagging inside a physical network itself. Individual domains can be
created with the help of this VLAN tagging system.

___________________________*****___________________________

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