COGNITIVE AND • Acquisition of complex and superego.

He also
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS knowledge and skills requires introduced five stages of
1.Nature of the learning extended learner effort and psychosexual development:
process. The learning of guided practices. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
complex subject matter is • Without learner’s motivation genital.
most effective when it is an to learn, the willingness to -Understanding Freud’s theory
intentional process of exert this effort is unlikely helps educators recognize how
constructing and experience. without coercion. early experiences shape
2. Goals of the learning DEVELOPMENTAL AND personality and behavior,
process The successful SOCIAL FACTORS influencing the way students
learner, over time and with 10. Developmental influences react to authority, structure,
support and instructional on learning and relationships.
guidance, can create • As individuals develop, there 2. Erik Erikson - 8 Psychosocial
meaningful, coherent are different opportunities and Stages of Development
representation of knowledge. constraints for learning. -Erikson outlined eight stages
3. Construction of Knowledge • Learning is most effective of psychosocial development,
The successful learner can link when differential development each involving a central
new information with existing within and across physical, conflict (e.g., trust vs.
knowledge in meaningful intellectual, emotional and mistrust, autonomy vs.
ways. social domains is considered. shame).
4. Strategic thinking The 11. Social influences o -Erikson’s theory emphasizes
successful learner can create learning the importance of social
and use a repertoire of • Learning is influenced by relationships in development.
thinking and reasoning social interactions, 3.Jean Piaget - 4 Stages of
strategies to achieve complex interpersonal relations and Cognitive Development
learning goals. communications with others. -Piaget described four stages:
5. Thinking about thinking INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES sensorimotor, preoperational,
Higher order strategies for FACTORS concrete operational, and
selecting and monitoring 12. Individuals differences in formal operational. Each stage
mental operations facilitate learning represents a new level of
creative and critical thinking. • Learners have different cognitive ability.
6. Context of thinking Learning strategies, and capabilities for 4. Lawrence Kohlberg - Levels
is influenced by environmental learning that are a function of & Substages of Moral
factors, including culture, prior experience and heredity. Development
technology and instructional 13.Learning and diversity -Kohlberg proposed three
practices. • Learning is most effective levels of moral reasoning (pre-
MOTIVATIONAL AND when differences in learner’s conventional, conventional,
AFFECTIVE FACTORS linguistic, cultural, and post-conventional), each with
7. Motivational and emotional considered. two substages. Moral
influences on learning 14. Standards and assessment reasoning evolves as
• What and how much is • Setting appropriately high individuals mature.
learned is influenced by the and challenging standards and 5. Lev Vygotsky - Zone of
learner’s motivation. assessing the learner as well Proximal Development & The
• Motivation to learn, in turn, as learning progress – Role of Language
is influenced by the including diagnostic, progress -Vygotsky emphasized the role
individual’s emotional states, and outcome assessment – are of social interaction and
beliefs, interests and goals integral parts of the learning language in learning,
and habits of thinking. process. especially through the concept
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn of the Zone of Proximal
• The learner’s creativity, -Child and Adolescent Development (ZPD), where
higher order thinking, and Development courses, students can achieve more
natural curiosity all contribute foundational theories related with guidance.
to motivation to learn. to learners' development were 6. Urie Bronfenbrenner - Bio-
• Intrinsic motivation is covered. Ecological Systems Theory
stimulated by tasks of optimal -Sigmund Freud - 3 -Bronfenbrenner proposed that
novelty and difficulty, relevant Components of Personality & 5 development is influenced by
to personal interest, and Psychosexual Stages of various systems (e.g.,
providing for personal choice Development microsystem, mesosystem,
and control. 9. Effects of -Freud proposed that exosystem, macrosystem) that
Motivation o effort personality is composed of interact with one another.
three elements – the id, ego,
Factors that Bring about than, say, their thinking Basing it on the categories
Student Diversity abilities. found in Omrod’s Educational
1. Socioeconomic Global-Analytic Continuum Psychology (2000).
status – the A. Analytic (Left Brain): 1. Specific cognitive or
millionaires’ lifestyle Also known for Successive academic difficulties
differs from that of the Hemispheric Style.  Learning disabilities
middle income or lower B. Global (Right Brain): Also  Attention-deficit
income group. known for Simultaneous hyperactivity disorder
2. Thinking/ learning Hemispheric  Speech and
style – some of you Multiple Intelligences communication disorders
learn better by seeing a. Visual Spatial 2. Social/emotional and
something; others by Intelligence (Picture behavioural difficulties
just listening; and still Smart) - organizing ideas  Autism
others by manipulating spatially and learning visually.  Mental retardation
something. b. Verbal/Linguistic (Word  Emotional/conduct
3. Exceptionalities – in Smart) - learning via spoken disorders
class there maybe one and written language. 3. Physical disabilities and
who has difficulty in c. Mathematical/Logical health impairments
spoken language (Number Smart/Logic  Physical disabilities and
comprehension or in Smart) – solving problems health impairments
seeing, hearing, etc. while you're learning.  Severe and multiple
Hillard defines "learning style" d. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body disabilities
as the sum of how individuals Smart) - interaction with
develop habitual responses to one's environment to learn. 1) IVAN PAVLOV
experience. e. Musical (Music Smart) -  A Russian physiologist,
A. Visual Learners learning through rhythms, that is well-known for his
1.Visual Iconic - Those who music, and patterns.. work in classical
prefer this input are more f. Intrapersonal (Self conditioning or stimulus
interested in visual imagery to Smart) - learning by way of substitution.
solidify learning, beliefs, principles, and  His most well-known
2.Visual Symbolic - Those attitudes. experiment involved meat,
who prefer this form of input g. Interpersonal (People a dog and a bell.
are at ease with abstract Smart) - This intelligence  He stumbled upon classical
symbolism such as encourages cooperation and conditioning when
mathematical formulas or the teamwork with others. measuring the dog’s
written word. h. Naturalist (Nature salivation to study
B. Auditory Learners Smart) - using classification, digestion.
1.Talkers -They learn best categories, and hierarchies to 2) EDWARD L.
through verbal lectures, learn. This intelligence notices THORNDIKE (1874-1949
discussion, deliberation, and the minute meaning  He gave the original S-R
listening to what others have differences. framework of behavioral
to say. I. Existential (Spirit Smart) psychology in
3.Listeners - Remember what - This intelligence looks for Connectionism theory.
is said to them and make it connections between new  He explained that learning
their own.4. Talkers- They are knowledge and application in is the result of associations
the ones who enjoy conversing the real world. forming between stimuli
and debating. Disability - it refers to any (S) and responses (R).
C. Tactile/ Kinesthetic condition of the body or mind  He states that
Learners that makes it more difficult for Connectionism is the
People gain a lot from using a person to perform certain learning that taken place
their hands to actively explore activities and interact with the when a strong connection
the physical world around world around them. or bond between stimulus
them. Handicap – doesn’t have same and response is formed.
-Individuals who favor this meaning with disability. A 3) JOHN WATSON
kind of input tend to move handicap refers to an inability (1878- 1958)
toward active sensory-motor to accomplish something one -American psychologist
learning. might want to do, that most to work with Pavlov’s
-They frequently favor others around one are able to ideas and involved in
"learning by doing," accomplish. animal studies, then
preferring to use their Categories of later became involved
psychomotor abilities rather exceptionalities
 in human behavior  Reinforcement not Cognitive factors in social
research. essential for learning – learning
-He believed that He concluded that  Learning without
human development reinforcement is not performance – This is
could only be based on essential for learning, similar to Tolman’s latent
what one could see. although it provides an learning.
incentive for performance.  Cognitive processing
4. BURRHUS during learning –
FREDERICK SKINNER Albert Bandura attention is a critical factor
(1904-1990)  A Canadian-American in learning.
-He believed in the psychologist. He was a  Expectations – as a result
stimulus-response professor of social science of being reinforced, people
pattern of conditioned in psychology at Stanford form expectations about
behavior. University. the consequences that
-His theory zeroed in  Social Learning Theory future behaviors are likely
only on changes in focuses on the learning to bring.
observable behavior. that occurs within social  Reciprocal causation –
-He studied operant context. It considers that behavior can influence
behavior (voluntary people learn from one both the environment and
behaviors used in another. the person.
operating on the Modeling refers to the  Modeling – live model
environment). process of learning by (actual person
Neo Behaviorism bridges the observing and imitating the demonstrating the
gap between behaviorism and behaviors of others, known as behavior), symbolic model
cognitive theory learning. models. (can be a person or action
Edward Tolman How the environment portrayed in some other
 American psychologist and reinforces and punishes medium)
a professor of psychology modeling in several possible
at the University of ways: Behaviors can be learned
California, Berkeley. He  The observer is reinforced through modeling:
founded what is now a by model.  Aggression – can be
branch of psychology  The observer is reinforced learned through models.
known as Purposive by a third person.  Moral behavior –
Behaviorism.  The imitated behavior influenced by observation
Purposive Behaviorism has itself leads to reinforcing and modeling.
also been referred to as Sign consequences.  Moral judgments –
Learning Theory.  Consequences of model’s developed through
Tolman’s Key Concepts behavior affect the modeling.
 Goal-directedness – observer’s behavior
learning is always vicariously. Gestalt theory
purposive and goal- Contemporary social  It is a school of thought
directed. He held the learning perspective of that emphasizes the
notion that an organism reinforcement and importance of perceiving
acted or responded for punishment the whole rather than just
some adaptive purpose.  Contemporary theory the individual parts.
 Cognitive Maps – he proposes that both 1. Law of Proximity
found out that organisms reinforcement and  Elements that are closer
will select the shortest or punishment have indirect together will be perceived
easiest path to achieve a effects on learning. as coherent objectives.
goal.  Reinforcement and 2. Law of Similarity
 Latent Learning – kind of punishment influence the  Elements that look similar
learning that remains or extent to which an will perceived as part of
stays with individual until individual exhibits a the same form.
needed. It is a learning behavior that has been 3. Law of Closure
that is not outwardly learned.  We tend to fill the gaps or
manifested at once.  The expectation of close the figures we
 Intervening variables – reinforcement influences perceived.
are variables that are not cognitive processes that 4. Law of Continuity
readily seen but serve as promote learning.  Individuals have tendency
determinants of behavior. to continue contour
whenever the elements of
 the pattern establish an -Strengthening student’s 4. Graphic Organizer. Provide
implied direction. cognitive structure by students with guidance on
5. Law of Good Pragranz allowing students to have a what the important
 Pragranz is a German bird’s eye view to see the information is in a lesson
term meaning "Good “big picture” of the topic or unit.
Figure". before going to the details. Representation
 This law states that the 3.Subsumption
objects in the -During meaningful learning, Bruner suggested the
environment are seen a the person (subsume), ability to represent knowledge
way that makes them (organizes or incorporates), in three stages. These three
appear as simple as new knowledge into old stages also become the three
possible. knowledge. ways to knowledge
6. Law of Figure - Ground knowledge.
 We tend to to pay Four processes for
attention and perceived Meaningful Learning
Bruner's Stages of
things in the foreground 1. Derivative
first. subsumption. Describe Knowledge Representation
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE the situation in which the 1. Enactive Representation
-General vs. Specific: This new information you learn  Age: Early Childhood
involves whether the is an example of a concept  Learning through actions
knowledge is usefull in many that you have already on physical objects.
tasks, or only in one. learned. 2. Iconic Representation
-Declarative This refers to 2. Correlative  Age: Preschool to Early
factual knowledge. They subsumption. Is when Primary
relate to the nature of how you add new details to  Use of models and pictures
things are. They may be in what you already know, to represent knowledge.
the form of a word or an usually a higher-order 3. Symbolic Representation
image. concept.  Age: Later Childhood to
-Procedural This includes 3. Superordinate Adolescence
knowledge on how to do subsumption. You are  Ability to think abstractly
things. already familiar with the using symbols.
-Episodic This includes things but didn’t know the Spiral Curriculum
memories of life events, like concept itself until it was
your high school graduation. taught. In spiral curriculum,
-Conditional This is about 4. Combinatorial teacher must revisit the
"knowing when and why" to subsumption. When the curriculum by teaching the
apply declarative or newly acquired knowledge same content in different ways
procedural strategies. combine with prior
depending on student's
-The main theme of knowledge to enrich the
developmental learning.
Ausubel’s Theory is that understanding of both
knowledge is hieratically concepts.  Teaching enhances
organized; that new Types of Advance cognitive development.
information is meaningful to Organizer  Instruction must be
the extent that it can be tailored to the learner's
related (attached, anchored) 1. Expository. Provide
understanding.
to what is already known. students with the meaning
Focus of Ausubels Theory and purpose of what is to
1.Cognitive Structure follow. Bruner’s Principles of
-Learner’s Cognitive Structure 2. Narrative. Takes from a Instruction
is the most important factor story. Stories can make  1. Readiness -
influencing learning is the something distant or Instruction must align
quantity, clarity, and unfamiliar seem personal
with student
organization of the learner’s and familiar.
3. Skimming. Previewing the experiences and
present knowledge.
-Present Knowledge- include important that will contexts.
facts, concepts, propositions, encounter later by focusing  2. Spiral Organization
theories and raw perceptual on and noting what stands - Structure lessons for
data that the learner ha out in headings, easy understanding.
available at any point in time. subheadings, and
highlighted information.
 3. Going beyond the
2.Advance Organizer
information given -
Encourage students to
 go beyond the
information given.
Major Aspects of Bruner's
Theory of Instruction

1. Predisposition to
Learn – Emphasizes
readiness and
motivation
2. Structure of
Knowledge -
Knowledge must be
structured and
comprehensible.
3. Effective Sequencing
- Lessons presented in
increasing difficulty.
4. Reinforcement -
Motivation should stem
from interest in the
subject matter rather
than external goals.
Four Rules in
Categorization

1. Criterial Attributes –
required characteristics for
inclusion of an object in a
category
2. Prescribe how the criterial
attributes are combined
3. Assigns weight to various
properties
4. Sets acceptance limits on
attributes
Types of Categories

1. Identity Categories –
categories include objects
based on their attributes or
features
2. Equivalent Categories –
Equivalence can be
determined by affective
criteria, based on related
functions or by formal
criteria
3. Coding Systems – are
categories that serves to
recognize sensory input.
They are major
organizational variables in
higher cognitive function.