List of Experiments

1. Basic commands and understanding of MATLAB.

2. To perform amplitude modulation using MATLAB.
3. To study Frequency Modulation (FM).
4. To perform DSB-SC amplitude modulation using MATLAB.
5. To perform Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) modulation.
6. Theoretical study of receiver.
7. To study and analyze the Electromagnetic Spectrum.
8. To design different types of Analog filters and implement the design using
MATLAB.
9. To study about modulation and demodulation.
10. To study the different communication channels and signals.
11. To perform Frequency Division multiplexing (FDM).
12. To study and generate pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse width
modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM).

0
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

1
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-1
Aim: - Basic commands and understanding of MATLAB.
Software: - MATLAB (R2015a)

Theory: - MATLAB (an abbreviation of "matrix laboratory") is a proprietary multi-

paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment developed by
MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data,
implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs
written in other languages.

Working environment

2
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

COMMANDS: -

Commands for Managing a Session

Command Purpose
Clc Clears command window.
clear Removes variables from memory.
exist Checks for existence of file or variable.
global Declares variables to be global.
help Searches for a help topic.
lookfor Searches help entries for a keyword.
quit Stops MATLAB.
who Lists current variables.
whos Lists current variables (long display).

System and file commands

Cd change current directory

Date Display current date
path Display search path
Save Save workspace variable in file

Input and output commands

Command Purpose
disp Displays contents of an array or string.
fscanf Read formatted data from a file.
; Supress screen printing
fprintf Performs formatted writes to screen or file.
input Displays prompts and waits for input.

3
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Array commands

Plotting commands
Command Purpose
axis Sets axis limits.
fplot Intelligent plotting of functions.
grid Displays gridlines.
plot Generates xy plot.
print Prints plot or saves plot to a file.
title Puts text at top of plot.
Xla`bel Adds text label to x-axis.
ylabel Adds text label to y-axis.
axes Creates axes objects.
close Closes the current plot.
close all Closes all plots.
figure Opens a new figure window.

4
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

gtext Enables label placement by mouse.

hold Freezes current plot.
legend Legend placement by mouse.
refresh Redraws current figure window.
Set Specifies properties of objects such as axes.
subplot Creates plots in subwindows.
text Places string in figure.
Bar Creates bar chart.
loglog Creates log-log plot.
polar Creates polar plot.
semilogx Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic abscissa).
semilogy Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic ordinate).

5
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Trigonometric functions

6
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

7
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Applications: -
• Statistics and machine learning (ML)
This toolbox in MATLAB can be very handy for the programmers. Statistical
methods such as descriptive or inferential can be easily implemented.
• Curve fitting
The curve fitting toolbox helps to analyse the pattern of occurrence of data. After a
particular trend which can be a curve or surface is obtained, its future trends can be
predicted.
• Control systems
Systems nature can be obtained. Factors such as closed-loop, open-loop, its
controllability and observability, Bode plot, Nyquist plot, etc can be obtained.
• Signal Processing
Signals and systems and digital signal processing are taught in various engineering
streams. But MATLAB provides the opportunity for proper visualization of this.
• Deep learning
Its a subclass of machine learning which can be used for speech recognition,
financial fraud detection, medical image analysis.
• Image processing
The most common application that we observe almost every day are bar code
scanners, selfie (face beauty, blurring the background, face detection), image
enhancement, etc.

Conclusion: -

MATLAB helps you take your ideas beyond the desktop. You can run your analyses on
larger data sets, and scale up to clusters and clouds. MATLAB code can be integrated
with other languages, enabling you to deploy algorithms and applications within web,
enterprise, and production systems. Experiment 1

8
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-2
Aim: - To perform amplitude modulation using MATLAB.
Apparatus Used: - MATLAB software.
Theory: - Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of a carrier is varied
accordance with a modulating wave signal. It causes a shift in a range of frequencies in a
signal.

Amplitude modulation: -
It is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about a
mean value, linearly with the baseband signal m(t). Baseband signal is also called message
signal and modulating wave.
m(t)=Am.cos(2.π.fm.t)
Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by
c(t)=Ac. cos(2.π.fc.t)
here Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.
Let m(t) denote the baseband signal that carries the specification of the message. An
amplitude modulated AM wave may thus be described, in its most general form as function
of time as:

s(t)=[Ac+m(t)] cos(2.π.fc.t)
s(t)=[Ac+Am. cos(2.π.fm.t)] cos(2.π.fc.t)
s(t)=Ac.[1+µ cos(2.π.fm.t)] cos(2.π.fc.t)
µ=Am/Ac;
s(t)=Ac.[1+ka.m(t)] cos(2.π.fc.t);
µ=Am.ka

μ is called modulation depth or modulation index.

( Amax− Amin)
μ=
( Amax + Amin)

ka is amplitude sensitivity of modulator responsible for generation of modulated signal s(t). k a

is measured in volt-1.

For proper envelope detection we must satisfy conditions:

9
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

1. |ka.m(t)|<1; for all t. Otherwise there will be a phase reversal.

2. fc>>W ; here W is the highest frequency component of message signal m(t) i.e.
message bandwidth.

The fourier transform of s(t) is S(f).

S(f)=(Ac/2).[δ(f-fc) + δ(f+fc)] + (ka.A/2)[M(f-fc)+M(f+f)]

Problems with AM:

• The presence of carrier signal in modulated signal is wasteful of power since it is

completely independent of information bearing signal.
• The presence of two sidebands i.e lower and upper is wasteful of transmission
bandwidth. As far as transmission of information is concerned only one sideband is
sufficient. Here transmission bandwidth is Bt=2. W

Average power of carrier component in AM signal s(t) is Ac2/2.

Average power of information bearing component Ac.ka.m(t). cos(2.π.fc.t);
2
Am
P=
in AM signal s(t) is Ac2ka2.P/2.here P=average power of message signal m(t). 2

Average power of signal s(t)= Ac2[1+ka2.P]/2.

Figure of merit:

(SNR)o ( A2c .k2a . P/2) μ2

= = 2
( SNR)c A2c 2 (μ +2)
( [1+k a . P])
2.

For μ=1. figure of merit= 1/3.

MATLAB code: -

clc
clear all
close all
fm=5;
fc=100;

10
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Am=5;
t=-0.20:0.001:0.20;

%To generate message signal

m=Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot (3,1,1);
plot(t,m);
title ('message signal wave');
xlabel('time'); Fig: - Block diagram for AM wave
ylabel('amplitude'); generation (obtained using Simulink)

legend (' message wave');

grid on;

%To generate carrier signal

Ac=10;
c=Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(3,1,2);

plot(t,c,'r');
title('carrier signal wave');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
legend('carrier wave');
grid on;

%To generate Modulated signal

s=(Ac+m).*cos(2*pi*fc*t) %u=Am/Ac;
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t,s,'k');
title('Amplitude Modulated signal wave');

11
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
legend('signal wave');

grid on;

here Am can be varied as 5,10,15 keeping Ac=10 as constant to obtain u=0.5,1,1.5

respectively.

%to generate fft for spectrum analysis

nfft=length(s3);

12
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

n=2^(nextpow2(nfft))
f=(0:n -1)*(1000/n)
C=abs(fft(s3,n));

plot(C);

Calculations: -
s/n. Modulation Modulation index
1 Critical μ=50-0/50+0 =1

2 Under μ=30 -10/ 30 +10 =0.5

3 Over μ=60 -(-20)/ 60 +(-20) =2

Conclusion: -
An amplitude modulated signal s(t) has been generated whose amplitude describes the
characteristics of message signal. Also required condition for 0o phase shift in s(t) is Ac> Am(t)
, with carrier frequency much larger than message frequency.

13
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-3

AIM: To study Frequency Modulation (FM).

Software Used: - MATLAB

Theory: -
Frequency modulation (FM) is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
The information-bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the instantaneous frequency
of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low noise process and
provides a high-quality modulation technique that is used for music and speech in high-fidelity
broadcasts.

The classic definition of FM is that the instantaneous output frequency of a transmitter is varied
in accordance with the modulating signal. Recall that we can write an equation for a sine wave
as follows: e(t) = Ep sin (ωt + φ)

While amplitude modulation is achieved by varying Ep, frequency modulation is realized by

varying ω in accordance with the modulating signal or message. Notice that one can also vary
φ to obtain another form of angle modulation known as phase modulation (PM).
An important concept in the understanding of FM is that of frequency deviation. The amount
of frequency deviation a signal experiences is a measure of the change in transmitter output
frequency from the rest frequency of the transmitter. The rest frequency of a transmitter is
defined as the output frequency with no modulating signal applied. For a transmitter with linear
modulation characteristics, the frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the applied modulating signal. Thus, an FM transmitter is said to have a
modulation sensitivity, represented by a constant, kf, of so many kHz/V, kf = frequency
deviation/V = kf kHz/V.
FM analysis
From the definition of frequency deviation, an equation can be written for the signal frequency
of an FM wave as a function of time:
V(t) = A sin (2π (fc +m(sin2πfmt)) t+ Θ)

The constant is the modulation index for FM. It is defined as follows: m= δ/fm
The Greek letter δ represents the frequency deviation and f m represents the modulating
frequency that causes the deviation. As in the case of AM, this time domain representation of
the FM signal can be converted to an equivalent frequency-domain expression that
includes the carrier and sidebands. Because the mathematics required for this
conversion are quite complex, we will only consider the result:

14
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

The Jn(x) functions are known as Bessel Functions of First kind. Graphs of J n(x) look like
slowly decreasing sine and cosine functions. The Jn(x) functions are a closely related family of
functions in the same way that sin(nx) and cos(nx) for a family of similar functions.

The zeroth-order Bessel Functions, J0(m) determines the amplitude of the carrier. The nth
Bessel function Jn(m) determines the amplitude of the nth pair of sidebands. There are two
important concepts contained in the expression shown above.
The amplitude of the carrier depends on m. the modulation index. This is quite different from
AM, where the amplitude of the carrier was independent of the value of m. There is an infinite
number of sidebands. Thus, the theoretical bandwidth of FM is infinite.

An infinite bandwidth signal would be very difficult to transmit. Fortunately, the higher-order
sidebands in FM have extremely low amplitude and may be ignored. For example: if the
modulation index is 5, only the first 7 sidebands are significant in value.
There is a rule of thumb, known as Carson’s Rule, that predicts the bandwidth occupied by the
significant sidebands of an FM signal, based on the maximum modulation frequency and its
corresponding modulation index:
B = 2 fm(m+1) = 2( δmax+ fm)
Parameter fm is the frequency of the modulating signal, δmax is the maximum deviation, and m
is the corresponding modulation index. If a range of frequencies is used to modulate the carrier,
the maximum modulating frequency and its corresponding modulation index are used.
Commercial FM broadcasting uses a maximum deviation of 75 KHz and a maximum
modulating frequency of 15 KHz. Substituting these values into Carson’s Rule gives:
B = 2*(75+15) = 180 KHz.

15
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Applications:
FM applications are divided into two broad categories:

Wideband FM (WFM)
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
The primary difference between the two types of FM is the number of sidebands in the
modulated signal. Wideband FM has a large number (theoretically infinite) number of
sidebands. Narrowband FM has only a single pair of significant sidebands.

It is possible to determine if a particular FM signal will be wide or narrow band by looking at

a quantity called the Deviation Ratio (DR). It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation
of the FM signal to the maximum modulating frequency:
DR= δ/fmax
The DR is also the modulation index of the highest modulating frequency. If the DR ≥ 1.0 is
called wideband FM (WFM) and DR< 1.0 the modulation is narrowband FM (NBFM).
One of the drawbacks of wideband FM is the large bandwidth required. Commercial FM
broadcasting requires 150 kHz of bandwidth to transmit a15 kHz audio signal, 5 times the
bandwidth required for an AM signal.
Commercial WBFM broadcasts occur in the VHF range, between 88 and 108 MHz. The
carrier frequencies start at 88.1 MHz and are separated by 200 kHz intervals. The maximum
audio bandwidth allowed is 15 kHz and the deviation is limited to +/- 75 kHz. Limiting the
deviation to this value leaves a 25 kHz guard band at each end of the channel that limits inter-
channel interference. The DR for commercial FM broadcasting is 75/15 = 5.0. This is clearly
a wideband FM signal.
NBFM is widely used in business and public service communications. The DR for NBFM is
restricted to values between 0.5 and 1.0. By holding the DR to such small values, only the
carrier and the first sideband are of significant amplitude. When only one sideband and the
carrier are transmitted, the NBFM signal occupies the same bandwidth as an AM signal. This
overcomes one of the drawbacks of wideband FM, the large bandwidth required. The FCC
permits the bandwidth of NBFM signals to be from 10 to 30 kHz, depending on the assigned
carrier frequency and the type of operation authorized.
The figure below compares the spectra of a WFM signal (DR = 5) and a NBFM signal (DR =
0.5). The separation between sidebands is equal to the modulating frequency. Thus, the
bandwidth for NBFM is 2*fm, which is the same as for AM. However, for WFM, the
bandwidth is approximately 2N* fm, where N = the number of sidebands.

16
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
clc

clear all
close all

Am=1;
fm=25;

fc=200;
A=10;
b=4;
t=0:0.00001:0.25;
m=Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t);

subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,m);
title('message signal wave');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

legend(' message wave');

grid on;

17
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

c=A*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t,c);

title('carrier signal wave');

xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
legend('carrier wave');
grid on;

s= A*cos((2*pi*fc*t)+b*sin(2*pi*fm*t));
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t,s);
title('Frequency Modulated signal wave');

xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
legend('wave');
grid on;

18
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Result: -
We have successfully studied and obtained the frequency modulated (FM) waveforms on
MATLAB

19
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-4
AIM: - To perform DSB-SC amplitude modulation using MATLAB

Apparatus Required: - MATLAB

Theory: -
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) is the transmission in which
frequencies produced by Amplitude Modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally
being completely suppressed.
Mathematical Expression: –
Let consider the mathematical expression for message signal is
m(t) = Am*cos(2πfmt) and
carrier signal
c(t) = Ac*cos(2πfct)
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of
modulating and carrier signals. s(t)=m(t)c(t)
s(t)=AmAc*cos(2πfmt) cos(2πfct)

𝐴𝑚𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚𝐴𝑐
s(t) = cos [2π(fc + fm)t] + cos[2π(fc − fm)t]
2 2

Fig. - DSBSC modulation block diagram

Bandwidth of DSBSC wave: -

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is
BW=fmax−fmin
The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum
frequencies are fc+fm and fc−fm respectively.

20
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

fmax=fc + fm
fmin=fc−fm
BW=2fm

Power of DSBSC wave: -

Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband
frequency components.
Pt=PUSB+PLSB
We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠2 𝑉𝑚 2
P= = 2*
𝑅 𝑅

So, Upper sideband power is

𝐴𝑐 2
PUSB= 𝐴𝑚2 8𝑅

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.
𝐴𝑚 2 𝐴𝑐 2
PLSB= 8𝑅

Power of DSBSC wave is given by

Pt = PUSB + PLSB
𝐴𝑐 2
Pt = 𝐀𝐦𝟐 2

MATLAB Code: -

clc
clear all
close all

fm=10;
fc=100;
t=-0.2:0.001:0.2;

%To generate DSB-SC Modulated signal

Am=20;
m=Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot(3,2,1);
plot(t,m,'k');
title('message signal');

21
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

xlabel('time---->');
ylabel('amplitude---->');
x=fft(m);
subplot(3,2,2);
plot(abs(x));
title('message signal');
xlabel('frequency----->');
ylabel('amplitude----->');

Ac=10;
c=Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(3,2,3);
plot(t,c,'r');
title('carrier signal');
xlabel('time ----->');
ylabel('amplitude ----->');
y=fft(c);
subplot(3,2,4);
plot(abs(y));
title('carrier signal');
xlabel('frequency ----->');
ylabel('amplitude ----->');

s=m.*c;
z=fft(s);
subplot(3,2,5);
plot(t,s,'r');
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time---->');
ylabel('amplitude---->');
subplot(3,2,6);
plot(abs(z));
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('frequency----->');
ylabel('amplitude----->');

22
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Conclusion: -
We have successfully performed and obtained the waveforms for Double Side Band
Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulated signal.

23
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-5
AIM: - To perform Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) modulation.
Apparatus Required: -MATLAB R2018b
Theory:
SSB-SC Modulation: The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier
and transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier.
An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective band pass
filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband. Hence transmission bandwidth
can be cut by half if one sideband is entirely suppressed. This leads to single-sideband
modulation (SSB). In SSB modulation bandwidth saving is accompanied by a considerable
increase in equipment complexity.
This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband, has high power, as the power allotted
for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.
Modulating signal: m(t)= Am*cos (2 π*fm* t)
Carrier signal: c(t)=Ac*cos(2π*fc*t)
The resulting DSB-SC modulated wave is:
Sdsb(t)= c(t)* m(t) = Ac*Am*cos[2π*fc*t]* cos(2 π*fm* t)

Equation for SSBSC wave is:

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc+fm)t] (for Upper Sideband)

s(t)=AmAc2cos[2π(fc−fm)t] (for Lower Sideband)

Where s(t) is the modulated signal, m(t) is the modulating signal, c(t) is the carrier
signal, Am is the Amplitude of the modulating signal, Ac is the amplitude of the
carrier signal.
An SSB signal is obtained by using the complex envelope:

g(t) = A[s(t) ± sˆ(t)], which results in the SSB signal waveform,

sm(t) = A[s(t) cos (2πf t) ∓ sˆ(t)(sin 2πf t)],

Where the upper ( - ) sign is used for USSB and the lower (+) sign is used for LSSB.
sˆ(t) denotes the Hilbert transform of s(t), which is given by:

sˆ(t) = s(t) ∗ h(t), where h(t) = 1/πt

24
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

A sinusoidal SSB modulated wave:

Sssb=Ac/2*Am*cos(2π*fm*t)*cos(2π*fc*t)∓Ac/2*Am*sin(2π*fm*t)*sin(2π*fc* t)

Sssb=Ac/2*m(t) *cos(2π*fc*t) ∓ Ac/2*m^(t)*sin (2π*fc* t)

Introductio

Block Diagram: -

25
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
close all;

clear all;
clc;
t=0:0.001:1;
fm=20;
fc=50;

am=1;
ac=1;
m1=am*cos(2*pi*fm*t); %message signal
subplot(5,1,1);
plot(t,m1);

title('Message Signal');
m2=am*sin(2*pi*fm*t) ; %quadrature of message
c1=ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t); %carrier signal
subplot(5,1,2);
plot(t,c1);

title('Carrier Signal');
c2=ac*sin(2*pi*fc*t); %quadrature of carrier
m=1;
g = ac*(1+m.*m1).*c1 %amplitude modulated signal
amf=fft(g);
subplot(5,1,3);

plot(t,abs(amf));
title('AM Signal in frequency domain');
ussb=m1.*c1-m2.*c2;
lssb=m1.*c1+m2.*c2;
fussb=fft(ussb);

flssb=fft(lssb);

26
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

subplot(5,1,4);

plot(t,abs(fussb));

title('USB Signal in frequency domain');

subplot(5,1,5);

plot(t,abs(flssb));
title('LSB Signal in frequency domain');

Output: -

Result: -
Single Sideband Modulation was studied and plots obtained for both Upper Sideband and
Lower Sideband modulation waves in the frequency domain using MATLAB.

27
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-6
Objective: - Theoretical study of receiver.

Theory: -
Receiver: It is an electronic equipment which pickups the desired signal, reject the unwanted
signal and demodulate the carrier signal to get back the original modulating signal.

Function of Receiver:

• Intercept the incoming modulated signal.

• Select desired signal and reject unwanted signals.
• Amplify selected R.F signal.
• Detect modulated signal to get back original modulating signal.
• Amplify modulating frequency signal

Design of Receiver:

• The radio receiver has to be cost effective.

• Requirements:
▪ Has to work according to application as for AM or FM signals.
▪ Tune to and amplify desired radio stations.
▪ Filter out all other stations.
▪ Demodulator has to work with all radio stations regardless of
carrier frequency.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RECEIVER

28
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Types of receiver depending upon fundamental aspects:

1. Tuned RF receiver
2. Super heterodyne receiver

Tuned RF receiver:
TRF receiver is a receiver where the tuning, i.e., selectivity is provided by the radio frequency
stages.

In essence the simplest tuned radio frequency receiver is a simple crystal set. Tuning is
provided by a tuned coil / capacitor combination, and then the signal is presented to a simple
crystal or diode detector where the amplitude modulated signal is recovered.

A TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:

• Tuned radio frequency stages:

 This consisted of one of more amplifying and tuning stages.
Early sets often had several stages, each proving some gain
and selectivity.
 Band limit the received RF signal.
 Amplifying the received RF signal.

• Signal detector:
 The detector enabled the audio from the amplitude
modulation signal to be extracted. It used a form of detection
called envelope detection and used a diode to rectify the
signal.

• Audio amplifier:
 Audio stages to provide audio amplification.
 Amplify the recovered signal.

29
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Advantages:
• TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the broadcast frequency 535KHz
to 1640KHz.
• High sensitivity.

Disadvantages:
• At the higher frequency, it produces difficulty in design.
• It has poor audio quality.
• Instability
• Poor in BW
• Poor selectivity.

Super heterodyne receiver

The shortcomings of the TRF receiver are overcome by the super heterodyne receiver.

• Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to transmit

one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing.
• Also known as frequency conversion, high frequency down converted to low
frequency.
• A super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming radio frequency signals to a
lower frequency known as an intermediate frequency.

30
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

BLOCK DIAGRAM

A SHD receiver would consist of three main sections:

• RF section
• Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier.
• Pre-selector is a broad-tuned band pass filter with an adjustable center
frequency used to reject unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the
noise bandwidth.
• RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant
factor in determining the noise figure for the receiver.

▪ Mixer/converter section
• Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a
mixer.
• Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and
accuracy desired.
• Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio
frequency to intermediate frequencies (IF).

The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained in the
envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are translated
from RF to IF.

• IF section
• Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and band pass filters to achieve most of the
receiver gain and selectivity.
• The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to construct
high-gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.

31
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

• IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts.

• Detector section:
• To convert the IF signals back to the original source information
(demodulation).
• Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a balanced
demodulator.

• Audio amplifier section:

• Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers .

DRAWBACKS OVERCOMED
• Stability- as high frequency is down converted to IF the reactance of stray
capacitances will not decrease as it was at high frequencies resulting in increased
feedback.
• No variation in BW- as IF range is 438 to 465KHz (in case of AM receivers) mostly
455KHz, appropriate for Q limit (120).
• Better selectivity- as no adjacent channels are picked due to variation in BW.

32
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-7
Objective: To study and analyze the Electromagnetic Spectrum.
Theory:
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged
according to frequency and wavelength. The electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed,
that is, the speed of light – 3 x 108 metres/second.
Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be broadly classified as follows:

TYPE OF RADIATION FREQUENCY RANGE (HZ) WAVELENGTH RANGE

GAMMA-RAYS 1020 – 1024 < 10-12 m

X-RAYS 1017 – 1020 10 nm – 1 pm

ULTRAVIOLET 1015 – 1017 400 nm – 10 nm

VISIBLE 4 – 7.5*1014 750 nm – 400 nm

NEAR-INFRARED 1*1014 – 4*1014 2.5 μm – 750 nm

INFRARED 1013 – 1014 25 μm – 2.5 μm

MICROWAVES 3*1011 – 1013 1 mm – 25 μm

RADIO WAVES < 3*1011 > 1 mm

1) GAMMA-RAYS:
Gamma rays have the smallest wavelengths (< 10-12 metres) and the most energy of
any wave in the electromagnetic spectrum. They are produced by the hottest and most
energetic objects in the universe, such as neutron stars and pulsars. On Earth, gamma
waves are generated by nuclear explosions, lightning, and radioactive decays.

DETECTING GAMMA RAYS:

Unlike optical light and x-rays, gamma rays cannot be captured and reflected by
mirrors. Gamma-ray wavelengths are so short that they can pass through the space
within the atoms of a detector. Gamma-ray detectors typically contain densely packed
crystal blocks. As gamma rays pass through, they collide with electrons in the crystal.
This process is called Compton scattering, wherein a gamma ray strikes an electron
and loses energy. These collisions create charged particles that can be detected by the
sensor.

33
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Gamma Rays are used in medicine (radiotherapy), industry (sterilization and

disinfection) and the nuclear industry. Shielding against gamma rays is essential
because they can cause diseases to skin or blood, eye disorders and cancer.

2) X-RAYS:

X-Rays are powerful waves of electromagnetic energy. Most of them have a

wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the
range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-
Rays are without any electrical charge and travel in a straight line.

X-Rays are produced when high-velocity electrons collide with the metal plates,
thereby giving the energy as the X-Rays and themselves absorbed by the metal plate.

Working of X-Rays

Like Gamma Rays, X-Rays also have a high penetrating power, but less than that of
Gamma Rays. They are used for medical purposes to detect breakage in human bones.

3) Ultraviolet Radiation:

34
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from

10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz),
shorter than that of visible spectrum, but longer than X-rays.

Ultraviolet radiation is produced by high-temperature surfaces, such as the Sun, in a

continuous spectrum and by atomic excitation in a gaseous discharge tube as a
discrete spectrum of wavelengths.

Based on the interaction of wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation with biological

materials, three divisions have been designated: UV-A (400–315 nm), also
called black light; UV-B (315–280 nm), responsible for the radiation’s best-known
effects on organisms; and UV-C (280–100 nm), which does not
reach Earth’s surface.

Most of the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is absorbed by oxygen in

Earth’s atmosphere, which forms the ozone layer of the lower stratosphere. Of the
ultraviolet that does reach Earth’s surface, almost 99 percent is UV-A radiation.
When the ozone layer becomes thin, however, more UV-B radiation reaches Earth’s
surface and may have hazardous effects on organisms.

Unlike X-rays, ultraviolet radiation has a low power of penetration; hence, its direct
effects on the human body are limited to the surface skin. The direct effects include
reddening of the skin (sunburn), pigmentation development (suntan), aging, and
carcinogenic changes.

4) Visible Rays:
The visible Rays spectrum is the section of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that
is visible to the human eye. Essentially, that equates to the colors the human eye can
see. It ranges in wavelength from approximately 400 nanometers (4 x 10 -7 m, which is
violet) to 700 nm (7 x 10-7 m, which is red). The edges of the visible ray spectrum blend
into the ultraviolet and infrared levels of radiation.
Uses and Applications:

The main benefit of visible ray is that it allows us to see objects, thereby leading to

35
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

many applications. Some of them are mentioned below:

1. For performing scientific experiments by scientists, researchers, technicians, and
students.
2. Lasers emitting visible light are used in laser pointers, laser surgery, and cutting of
metals.
3. Light-emitting diodes (LED) display visible lights and are used in many
electronic devices.
4. Astronomers use visible light emitted by distant objects like planets and
moons to study their properties and features.
5) Infrared Region:

The infrared spectrum is the invisible light with frequencies below that of the red
light. The infrared spectrum is between 700 nm to 0.1 mm in wavelength, which can
be divided into near, mid, and far-infrared spectrum. The longer the wavelength, the
lower the frequency.

Much of the energy from the sun reaches the Earth in the form of infrared
radiation. Different ranges of infrared frequency have different applications:

1) Near-infrared light, with wavelengths between 700 – 1400 nm, generates the
most heat but does not penetrate deep into human tissues. Near-infrared rays
are used in electronic applications like TV remote sensors and photography.
Their applications can be somewhat similar to visible light applications since
their wavelength ranges are close.

2) Mid-infrared light, with wavelengths between 1400 – 3000 nm. It penetrates

deeper than near-infrared light and generates more heat than far-infrared light.
Mid-infrared light can help expand blood vessels and increase circulation so that
blood can reach injured or inflamed areas of the body.

3) Far-infrared light, with wavelengths between 3000 nm – 0.1 mm. Far infrared
penetrates deepest into the tissues. Its health benefits come from both generating
heat and other properties. Far-infrared light can potently reduce inflammation
and oxidative stress. It increases circulation, improves blood vessel and heart
functions, reduces pain and fatigue, and normalizes blood pressure.

Application in Fiber Optics:

For fiber optics with glass fibres, we use rays in the infrared region which has wavelengths
longer than visible light, typically around 850, 1300 and 1550 nm. We use the infrared
because the attenuation of the fiber is much less at those wavelengths.

36
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

The attenuation of glass optical fiber is caused by two factors, absorption and scattering.
Absorption occurs in several specific wavelengths called water bands due to the absorption
by minute amounts of water vapor in the glass. Fiber optic transmission wavelengths are
determined by two factors: longer wavelengths in the infrared for lower loss in the glass
fiber and at wavelengths which are between the absorption bands. The infrared
wavelengths transition between light and heat, like we can see the dull red glow of an
electric heating element and feel the heat. At longer wavelengths, ambient temperature
becomes background noise, disturbing signals. And there are significant water bands in the
infrared. Hence, we don't use any other higher wavelength.

6) Microwaves:
Microwaves are defined as electromagnetic radiations with a frequency ranging between
300 MHz to 300 GHz while the wavelength ranges from 1 mm to around 30 cm. The
microwave radiation is commonly referred to as microwaves. They fall between the
infrared radiation and radio waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwaves are used
in Long distance telephone communication, cellular phones, television networks, satellites,
wireless LANs, etc.
Features of Microwaves:

1. Microwaves travel in straight lines, and so the transmitter and receiver stations should
be accurately aligned to each other.
2. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight propagation. So, towers hoisting the stations
should be placed so that the curvature of the earth or any other obstacle does not interfere
with the communication.
3. Since it is unidirectional, it allows multiple receivers in a row to receive the signals
without interference.
4. Microwaves do not pass-through buildings. So, indoor receivers cannot be used
effectively.

37
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

5. Microwaves are often refracted by the atmospheric layers. The refracted rays take longer
time to reach the destination than the direct rays. This causes out of phase transmission,
called multipath fading.
Microwaves propagate through microwave circuits, components, and devices, which act
as a part of Microwave transmission lines, broadly called as Waveguides.
Types of Waveguides:
There are five types of waveguides:

• Rectangular waveguide
• Circular waveguide
• Elliptical waveguide
• Single-ridged waveguide
• Double-ridged waveguide

These waveguides are one conductor structures, that can support a TE or a TM wave, but
not a TEM wave.

7) Radio Waves:
Radio waves are the waves having the longest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.
These waves are a kind of electromagnetic radiation and have a frequency from high 300
GHz to low as 3 kHz though somewhere it is defined as above 3 GHz as microwaves. At
300 GHz, the wavelength is 1 mm and at 3 kHz is 100 km. They travel at the speed of light
just like all other electromagnetic waves do.
Radio waves are usually produced by radio transmitters and can be received by radio
receivers. Radio waves having different frequencies contains various characteristics of
propagation in the Earth’s atmosphere. The long waves get diffracted around different
obstacles and follow the outline whereas the short waves reflect the ionosphere and get

38
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

back over the horizon of sky waves. The propagation distance of both the waves is limited
to the visual horizon as short wavelengths bend or diffract little and travel in a line of sight.

How do radio waves carry information?

The basic principle is simple. At one end, a transmitter “encodes” or modulates messages
by varying the amplitude or frequency of the wave. At the other, a receiver tuned to the
same wavelength picks up the signal and ‘decodes’ it back to the desired form: sounds,
images, data, etc.
All wireless communication systems, from the home remote control up to the satellite, are
based on this principle, even though increasingly complex technologies are of course used
to encode these electromagnetic signals, improve their quality, increase the amount of
information or make transmissions secure.

We use radio waves in almost every aspect of our daily lives. Artificially formed radio
waves are used in radio communication, radar, computer networks, broadcasting,
different navigation systems, and different applications.

39
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Conclusion:
The electromagnetic spectrum is the organization of seven different wavelengths and each
of them is having their own use. An electromagnetic wave is any disturbance in the electric
and magnetic fields that propagates. All electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed of
light in a vacuum. The seemingly disparate phenomena of electricity, magnetism, and
optics are all related aspects of the larger phenomenon of electromagnetism.

40
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-8

Objective: - To design different types of Analog filters and implement the design using
MATLAB.

Apparatus Required: - MATLAB Software, Resistors, Capacitors, DSO, Power Supply

etc.

Theory: -
It is sometimes desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one frequency or range
of frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit. A circuit designed to perform
this frequency selection is called a filter circuit, or simply a filter. In the field of electronics,
there are many practical applications for filters. Examples include: -
• Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the desired signal
while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other signals have different
frequency content).
• DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e., noise)
that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used on a power supply's
output to reduce ripple.
• Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel low-
frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to mid-range speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.
• Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to
minimize aliasing.
The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass filter, the band-pass
filter and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-stop filter). Take note, however, that the
terms "low" and "high" do not refer to any absolute values of frequency, but rather they are
relative values with respect to the cut-off frequency.

41
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Low-Pass Filter: -
A low pass filter is a filter which passes low-frequency signals and blocks, or impedes, high-
frequency signals. In other words, low-frequency signals go through much easier and with
less resistance and high-frequency signals have a much harder getting through, which is why
it's a low pass filter.
A Low pass RC filter, again, is a filter circuit composed of a resistor and capacitor which
passes through low-frequency signals, while blocking high frequency signals. To create a low
pass RC filter, the resistor is placed in series to the input signal and the capacitor is placed in
parallel to the input signal, such as shown in the circuit below:

Fig: first order RC low-pass filter.

H(ω) = 1/(1 + jωRC)

Cut off frequency = 1/(2πRC)

42
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
clc;
clear all;
close all;
R2=1e+3;
c2=1e-8;
fh=1/(2*pi*R2*c2);%for low pass filter
f=0:1e+6;
g1=1./(1+1j*f./fh);
semilogx(f,g1);
title('Low-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

43
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

High-Pass Filter: -
A High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass filter circuit as the two components
have been interchanged with the filters output signal now being taken from across the resistor
Whereas the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off frequency point, ƒc,
the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes signals above the selected
cut-off point, ƒc eliminating any low frequency signals from the waveform. Consider the
circuit below.

Fig: first order RC high -pass filter.

H(ω) = jωRC /(1 + jωRC)

Cut off frequency = 1/(2πRC)

44
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

45
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
clc;
clear all;
close all;

R1=1e+4;
c1=1e-6;
fh=1/(2*pi*R1*c1);%for high pass filter
f=0:1e+6;
g1=1./(1-1j.*fh./f);
semilogx(f,g1);
title('High-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

46
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Band-Pass Filter: -
By connecting or “cascading” together a single Low Pass Filter circuit with a High Pass
Filter circuit, we can produce another type of passive RC filter that passes a selected range or
“band” of frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while attenuating all those outside of
this range. This new type of passive filter arrangement produces a frequency selective filter
known commonly as a Band Pass Filter or BPF for short.

Fig: - RC Band pass filter Circuit.

47
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
%for low pass filter
R2=1e+3;
c2=1e-8;
fh=1/(2*pi*R2*c2);
f=0:1e+6;
g2=1./(1+j*f./fh);
subplot(3,1,1);
semilogx(f,g2);
title('Low-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

%for high pass filter

R1=1e+4;
c1=1e-6;
fh=1/(2*pi*R1*c1);
f=0:1e+6;
g1=1./(1-1j.*fh./f);
subplot(3,1,2);
semilogx(f,g1);
title('High-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

% for Band pass filter

g3 =g1.*g2;
subplot(3,1,3);
semilogx(f,g3);
title('Band-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

48
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

49
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Band-Stop Filter: -
By combining a basic RC low-pass filter with a RC high-pass filter we can form a simple
band-pass filter that will pass a range or band of frequencies either side of two cut-off
frequency points. But we can also combine these low and high pass filter sections to produce
another kind of RC filter network called a band stop filter that can block or at least severely
attenuate a band of frequencies within these two cut-off frequency points.
The Band Stop Filter, (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that functions in
exactly the opposite way to the Band Pass Filter we looked at before. The band stop filter,
also known as a band reject filter, passes all frequencies with the exception of those within a
specified stop band which are greatly attenuated.

Fig: RC Band Stop Filter Circuit.

Low Cut-off frequency = 1/ (2 π R2 C2)
High Cut-off frequency = 1 / (2 π R1 C1)

50
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB Code: -
%for low pass filter
R2=1e+4;
c2=1e-6;
fh=1/(2*pi*R2*c2);
f=0:1e+6;
g2=1./(1+j*f./fh);
subplot(3,1,1);
semilogx(f,g2);
title('Low-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

%for high pass filter

R1=1e+3;
c1=1e-8;
fh=1/(2*pi*R1*c1);
f=0:1e+6;
g1=1./(1-1j.*fh./f);
subplot(3,1,2);
semilogx(f,g1);
title('High-pass filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

51
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

% for Band pass filter

g3 =g1+g2;
subplot(3,1,3);
semilogx(f,g3);
title('Band-Stop filter')
grid on;
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('Gain');

Conclusion: -
An introduction to analog RC filters has been presented. The main utility of the analysis
methods presented is in ascertaining how a given filter will affect the spectrum of a signal
passing through it. Some of the concepts introduced were transfer functions, amplitude
response, phase response, poles and zeros, filter stability, and the general use of complex
numbers to represent signals, spectra, and filters. Additionally, practical filtering in
MATLAB has been discussed.

52
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-9

Aim: - To study about modulation and demodulation.

Theory: -

Modulation:

Modulation is a very important step in the transmission of signal. Our message signal is
generally a low frequency signal and path loss of signal is proportional to the square of the
wavelength (and hence inversely proportional to the square of the frequency).
So, we have to find a method to devise a way to encode our message signal to higher
frequency signals. We can tinker with different properties of carrier signals like frequency,
phase, amplitude to encode our message signal on the carrier signal.
Block diagram for modulation

Reasons for Modulation:

● Modulation of signals is important to prevent mixing of message signals from

different transmitters and makes it easier to tune to the desired signal.
● Without modulation, the size of the antenna will become very large and it will
make the antenna size in order of km for the message signal of kHz order.
● For reliable and effective communication over long distance i.e., minimizing the
signal losses during transmission.
● As the signal band is limited (from few MHz to maybe some GHz) we have to use
as low bandwidth of signal as possible. (i.e., maximizing the use of bandwidth
allocated)

53
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

How to decide type of Modulation?

Basically, selection of modulation technique comes from your requirements and constraints.
There are many parameters that we have to look into, some are mentioned below:
● Transmission Rate required/ spectral efficiency.
● Acceptable Bit Error Rate (BER).
● Hardware availability / Complexity at reception side (if we want most people to
receive our signal, we'll use a popular modulation, like Continuous Wave)
● Bandwidth available

Types of Modulation: -

54
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

● Amplitude Modulation (AM) is efficient in terms of bandwidth and has simple

receiver circuit but subjected to amplitude variations due to noise and interference.

● Frequency Modulation (FM) is less susceptible to interference and noises. But

has complex circuits and requires large bandwidth.
● Phase Modulation (PM) is not affected by channel noise but on the other hand it
has complex circuit as compared to AM and FM.

55
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Advantages of modulation: -
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced.
The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without
getting distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.
● Antenna size gets reduced.
● No signal mixing occurs.
● Communication range increases.
● Multiplexing of signals occurs.
● Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
● Reception quality improves.

56
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Demodulation:

Demodulation is a technique to obtain message signal from the receive signal. Modulation
and demodulation go hand in hand.

57
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-10
Aim: - To study the different communication channels and signals.
Theory: -
Communication channel is a connection between transmitter and receiver through
which data can be transmitted. Communication channel also called as communication
media or transmission media.

The communication model is

A communication channel is characterized primarily by the signaling transmission method

used by its bandwidth or bit rate capacity by the direction or directions in which signals can
flow by its noise, attenuation, and distortion characteristics, by the time delay and time jitter
imposed by the channel and node connections; and by the medium used.
There are many different signaling methods in use, but the most important consideration is
whether a signaling method is analog or digital.
• Analog transmission uses a continuously varying waveform to carry data.
• Digital transmission carries data in digital form, using two different values of
electrical voltage or current or an on/off light source.
The choice of digital or analog transmission signaling depends upon a several factors.
Some media are only suitable for one or the other. Where either is suitable, the choice is
made based on other factors such as noise characteristics, the application, the bandwidth
requirements, and other uses for which the channel is to be shared.

58
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Types of Channels:

Communication channels are mainly of two types:

• Guided

• Unguided
Transmission media that confine the signal physically to a cable of some kind are called
guided media.
Media that broadcast the signal openly using radio waves, light, or sound are called
unguided media.

59
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

The Guided media is of three different types:

• Twisted pair

• Coaxial

• Optical Fiber

Twisted pair:
The most common electrical transmission medium is twisted pair. Twisted pair is used for
standard telephone and most local area network wiring.
Twisted pair consists of two wires twisted together. One wire act as the signal carrier, the
other is the ground return. Twisting the two wires together reduces noise interference
somewhat because the same noise presumably occurs in both wires, which cancels the noise
to some extent. Groups of twisted pairs are frequently bundled together in a larger cable.
There are several standardized types of twisted pair wiring.
There are also some wire pairs that are untwisted.

Coaxial cable:
Coaxial cable consists of a wire surrounded by insulation.
The second ‘’wire’’ consists of acopper shield that surrounds the insulation. The shield acts as a
signal return, but also prevents external noise signals from interfering with the signal carried by

60
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

the inner wire.

Coaxial cable is capable of high bandwidths. It can be used for high-speed transmission
of digital signals, at rates of up to 100 million bps, or even more. It can also carry wide-
bandwidth analog signals. The cable used to carry cable TV is usually coaxial cable.

Optical Fiber:
Fiber-optic cables carry signals in the form of light. Optical signals are produced by using
the electrical data signal to turn a light on and off very rapidly. A laser or light-emitting
diode is used as the light source. It is not possible to use a conventional light bulb, because
a light bulb cannot be switched on and
off rapidly enough. An optical detector at the other
end

61
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

of the cable converts the light signal back to electrical form. The cable itself consists of one
or more strands of glass fiber specially designed to carry waves of light.

Each strand is thinner than a human hair and may be tens or hundreds of miles long. The
bundle of fibers is surrounded by a plastic sheath, called cladding, to protect the fibers.
Fiber-optic cables are often grouped together in bundles, which are further protected by an
additional tough plastic jacket. Light is confined to the fibers, and attenuation is
exceptionally low. Fiber-optic cable is nearly invulnerable to most forms of noise, since the
signal is optical, not electrical. It is also difficult to tap into a fiber-optic cable, which offers
some measure of security.

The Unguided media is also of three different types: Terrestrial Microwave, Satellite
Microwave, Broadcast Radio

Terrestrial Microwave:
Requires fewer repeaters. Use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam 1-40GHz frequencies.

Satellite Microwave:

Receives on one frequency, & transmits on another frequency e.g., uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz
& downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz Height 35,784km Spaced at least 3-4° apar

Broadcast Radio:

Radio frequency range is 3kHz to 300GHz.Use broadcast radio of 30MHz - 1GHz, for FM
radio, UHF and VHF television Is unidirectional. Suffers from multipath interference
Reflections from land, water, other objects. Are used for multicasts communications, such as
radio and television, and paging system.

Fundamentals of Signaling:

Signals are the means used to communicate data. A signal is carried on a communication
channel as an electrical voltage, an electromagnetic radio wave, or a switched light. Data is
represented by changes in the signal as a function of time. The signal may take on a
continuous range of values, in which case it is known as an analog signal, or it can take on
62
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

only discrete values, in which case it is known as a discrete signal. A binary discrete signal
is usually called a digital signal. A representation of a signal shown as a function of time is
called a waveform.

Analog Signaling:
Although digital transmission is favored for most use these days, analog transmission
methods are required for wireless media, such as radio and sound, for wireless networking,
and for other forms of wireless data communication. Radio transmission methods include
satellite, cellular phone, wireless networking, and microwave communications. Radio
waves can also be converted to equivalent electrical signals and used with wire media and
may be preferred when a mixture of digital and analog data is being transmitted through
the cable, such as cable TV with a digital Internet feed, though most cable TV is now
digitally distributed and converted, if necessary, to analog at the customer’s site. Both wired
and wireless analog signals are particularly susceptible to noise and attenuation and other forms
of distortion in a channel because the distortion created cannot be detected and reversed.
There is also interference from other signals operating nearby in the same spectrum. In
addition, analog signals are susceptible to distortion of the waveform that results from
variations in attenuation and phase shifts that occur across the channel spectrum.
Digital Signaling:
Digital data being carried by a digital communication channel is already in correct format,
so theoretically no conversion is necessary. In practice, the situation is somewhat different.
Since there is no carrier present on the channel, there may be no way to detect a string of
bits at the receiving end of the channel for some signals. The signal in Figure 14.14, for
example, consists of a string of twelve zeros, but there’s no way to tell. A ‘‘0’’ is represented by a
value of 0 volts, and the state of the line when no signal is present is also 0 volts. Obviously,
there is no way to determine the presence of this signal.

Conclusion: -
• Communication channel is essential for communication systems.
• The transmission characteristics are important in selecting channel
because they directly affect the communication quality.
• Different types of communication channels have different transmission
characteristics and costs, they are used in different applications.

63
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-11
Objective: - To perform Frequency Division multiplexing (FDM).

Software Used: - MATLAB R2018b

Theory: -

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): It is most popular and is used extensively in

radio and TV transmission. Here the frequency spectrum is divided into several logical
channels, giving each user exclusive possession of a particular frequency band

In frequency division multiplexing, the available bandwidth of a single physical medium is

subdivided into several independent frequency channels. Independent message signals are
translatedinto different frequency bands using modulation techniques, which are combined
by a linear summing circuit in the multiplexer, to a composite signal. The resulting signal is
then transmitted along the single channel by electromagnetic means.Basic approach is to
divide the available bandwidth of a single physical medium into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels. Using modulation, independent message signals are
translated into different frequency bands. All the modulated signals are combined in a linear
summing circuit to form a composite signal for transmission. The carriers used to modulate
the individual message signals are called sub-carriers, shown as f1, f2, …, fn.
FDM is usually used for analog data. Some of the commutation systems that use FDM include
cable TV (each signal gets a 6MHz channel), FM stereo broadcasting (for Left and Right,
and for Radio Data System (RDS)).

64
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Advantages of FDM: -
• A large number of signals (channels) can be transmittedsimultaneously.
• FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter andreceiver for proper
operation.
• Demodulation of FDM is easy.
• Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.

Disadvantages of FDM: -

• The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.

• Intermodulation distortion takes place.
• Large number of modulators and filters are required.
• FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
65
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Applications of FDM: -

1. FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting. Each AM and FM radio station uses a
different carrier frequency. In AM broadcasting, these frequencies use a special band from
530 to 1700 KHz. All these signals/frequencies are multiplexed and are transmitted in air.
A receiver receives all these signals but tunes only one which is required. Similarly, FM
broadcasting uses a bandwidth of 88 to 108 MHz
2. FDM is used in television broadcasting.
3. First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

MATLAB CODE

close all;
clear all;
clc;

Fs = 100; % sampling freq

t = [0:2*Fs+1]'/Fs;

x1 = sin(2*pi*2*t); % signal 1
z1 = fft(x1);
z1=abs(z1);
x2 = sin(2*pi*10*t); % signal 2

z2 = fft(x2);
z2=abs(z2);

figure; subplot(4,1,1); plot(x1);

title('signal 1'); xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

subplot(4,1,2); plot(x2);
title('signal 2'); xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

subplot(4,1,3);
plot(z1);
title('Spectrum of
signal 1');
66
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

xlabel('freqency');
ylabel('magnitude');

subplot(4,1,4);
plot(z2);
title('Spectrum of signal 2');
xlabel('freqency');

ylabel('magnitude');
z=z1+z2;
% freqency multiplexingfigure;
plot(z);
title('frequency multiplexed signals');

% freqency demultiplexingfigure;
f1=[ones(10,1);
zeros(182,1);

ones(10,1)];
%applying filter for signal 1dz1=z.*f1;
d1 = ifft(dz1);
subplot(2,1,1) plot(t*100,d1);
title('recovered signal 1');

xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

f2=[zeros(10,1);

ones(182,1);

zeros(10,1)];
% applying filter for signal 2dz2=z.*f2;
d2 = ifft(dz2);
subplot(2,1,2) plot(t*100,d2);
title('recovered signal 2');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

67
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

MATLAB OUTPUT: -

68
Lab Manual for Analog communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

69
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Conclusion: -
We successfully Multiplexed two monotone signal and obtained theOriginal Signal
through Demultiplexing.

70
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Experiment-12
Objective: -
To study and generate pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse width modulation (PWM),
pulse position modulation (PPM) using MATLAB, take input (amplitude of modulating
wave, amplitude of carrier wave, frequency of modulating wave, frequency of carrier wave,
sampling frequency) from the user.

Theory: -

PAM: -
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulation scheme in which the amplitude
of the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
The pulse amplitude modulated signal, will follow the amplitude of the original signal, as the
signal traces out the path of the whole wave. In natural PAM, a signal sampled at the Nyquist
rate is reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Frequency (LPF) with exact
cutoff frequency.

PWM: -
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time
Modulation (PTM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the duration or width or time of
the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. The
width of the pulse varies in this method, but the amplitude of the signal remains constant.
Amplitude limiters are used to make the amplitude of the signal constant. These circuits clip
off the amplitude, to a desired level and hence the noise is limited.

PPM: -
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude
and width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to
the position of a reference pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value of the
message signal. The transmitter must send synchronizing pulses (or simply sync pulses) to
keep the transmitter and receiver in synchronism. These sync pulses help maintain the
position of the pulses.

71
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Code: -

PAM: -
close all
clear all
clc
t = 0: 1/1e3: 5;
d = 0: 1/5: 10;
x = 1+sin(2*pi*t);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(x);
title('message');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
y = pulstran(t, d,'rectpuls',0.1);
subplot (3,1,2)
plot(y);
title ('Pulse Input ');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
z=x.*y; % PAM output
subplot (3,1,3)
plot(z);
title('PAM modulation ');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

PWM: -
clc;
close all;
clear all;
t=0:0.0001:1;
s=sawtooth(2*pi*10*t+pi);
plot(s);
m=0.75*sin(2*pi*1*t);
n=length(s);

72
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

for i=1:n
if (m(i)>=s(i)) pwm(i)=1;
elseif (m(i)<=s(i)) pwm(i)=0;
end
end
plot(t,pwm,'g',t,m,'r',t,s,'b');
xlabel('time index');
ylabel('amplitide');
grid on;
axis([0 1 -1.5 1.5]);
title('PWM Wave')

Graph: -

PPM: -
clc;
close all;
clear all;
fc=1000;
fs=10000;
fm=200;
t=0:1/fs:((2/fm)-(1/fs));
x=0.5*cos(2*pi*fm*t)+0.5;
y=modulate(x,fc,fs,'PPM');
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(x);
title('msg signal');
subplot(2,1,2);

73
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

plot(y);
axis([0 500 -0.2 1.2]);
title('PPM');

Graph: -

Conclusion: -
The main advantage of PAM is better noise immunity and possibility of use of repeaters
which makes communication more reliable and error free. PWM converts an audio signal into
a sequence of pulses having constant amplitude, but the width is proportional to the
amplitude of an audio signal.PPM pulses having the same amplitude and width. The
information is conveyed via changing position of pulses.

74
Lab Manual for Analog Communication Lab (ECP 212 B Tech IV Semester)

Appendix

75