Department of

Automation and Robotics Engineering

Contents
 Time Domain Analysis – Unit step Response analysis via
Subject: Signal Processing and Conditioning Transient response specifications (Percentage overshoot, Rise
time, Delay time, Steady state error etc.)
UNIT NO.5:
Frequency Domain Analysis – Frequency Domain Parameters -
TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
Natural Frequency, Damping Frequency and Damping Factor;
Mapping of Pole Zero plot with damping factor, natural frequency
and unit step response ; Introduction to Bode Plot, Gain Margin,
Phase Margin

Presented by: Prof. D. P. Patil

When we study the analysis of the transient state and

steady state response of control system it is very essential
Time Domain Analysis to know a few basic terms and these are described below.
Standard Input Signals : These are also known as test
Unit step Response analysis via Transient input signals. The input signal is very complex in nature, it
response specifications (Percentage overshoot, is complex because it may be a combination of various other
signals. Thus it is very difficult to analyze characteristic
Rise time, Delay time, Steady state error etc.) performance of any system by applying these signals. So we
use test signals or standard input signals which are very
easy to deal with. We can easily analyze the characteristic
performance of any system more easily as compared to non
standard input signals. Now there are various types of
standard input signals and they are written below:

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Unit Impulse Signal : Unit Step Signal :
In the time domain it is represented by ∂(t). The Laplace In the time domain it is represented by u (t). The Laplace
transformation of unit impulse function is 1 and the transformation of unit step function is 1/s and the corresponding
corresponding waveform associated with the unit impulse waveform associated with the unit step function is shown below.
function is shown below.

Unit Ramp Signal : Parabolic Type Signal :

In the time domain it is represented by r (t). The Laplace In the time domain it is represented by t2/2. The Laplace
transformation of unit ramp function is 1/s2 and the transformation of parabolic type of the function is 1/s3 and the
corresponding waveform associated with the unit ramp function corresponding waveform associated with the parabolic type of the
is shown below. function is shown below.

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Sinusoidal Type Signal : Cosine Type of Signal :
In the time domain it is represented by sin (ωt).The Laplace In the time domain it is represented by cos (ωt). The Laplace
transformation of sinusoidal type of the function is ω / (s2 + ω2) transformation of the cosine type of the function is s/ (s2 + ω2) and
and the corresponding waveform associated with the sinusoidal the corresponding waveform associated with the cosine type of
type of the function is shown below. the function is shown below

Transient Response of Control System Steady State Response of Control System

As the name suggests transient response of control system Steady state occurs after the system becomes settled and at the
means changing so, this occurs mainly after two conditions and steady system starts working normally. Steady state response of
these two conditions are written as follows- control system is a function of input signal and it is also called as
forced response.
•Condition one : Just after switching ‘on’ the system that means at
the time of application of an input signal to the system. Now the transient state response of control system gives a clear
description of how the system functions during transient state
•Condition second : Just after any abnormal conditions. Abnormal and steady state response of control system gives a clear
conditions may include sudden change in the load, short description of how the system functions during steady state.
circuiting etc. Therefore the time analysis of both states is very essential. We will
separately analyze both the types of responses. Let us first
analyze the transient response. In order to analyze the transient
response, we have some time specifications and they are written
as follows:

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Delay Time : This time is represented by td. The time required by Peak Time: This time is represented by tp. The time required by the
the response to reach 50 percent of the final value for the first response to reach the peak value for the first time, this time is known as
time, this time is known as delay time. Delay time is clearly peak time. Peak time is clearly shown in the time response specification
shown in the time response specification curve. curve.
Settling Time: This time is represented by ts, and can be calculated
Rise Time: This time is represented by tr, and can be calculated using the settling time formula. The time required by the response to
using the rise time formula. We define rise time in two cases:
reach and within the specified range of about ( 2 percent to 5 percent) of
1.In case of under damped systems where the value of ζ is less its final value for the first time, this time is known as settling time.
than one, in this case rise time is defined as the time required by Settling time is clearly shown in the time response specification curve.
the response to reach from zero value to hundred percent value of Maximum Overshoot: It is expressed (in general) in percentage of the
final value. steady state value and it is defined as the maximum positive deviation
2.In case of over damped systems where the value of ζ is greater of the response from its desired value. Here desired value is steady
than one, in this case rise time is defined as the time required by state value.
the response to reach from ten percent value to ninety percent Steady state error: Defined as the difference between the actual output
value of final value. and the desired output as time tends to infinity. Now we are in position
to do a time response analysis of a first order system.

Transient State and Steady State

Response of First Order Control System

Let us consider the block diagram of the first order system.

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 Now taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation,
From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function we have
which is linear in nature. The transfer function of the first order
system is 1/((sT+1)). We are going to analyze the steady state and
transient response of control system for the following standard
signal. It is clear that the steady state response of control system depends
1.Unit impulse. only on the time constant ‘T’ and it is decaying in nature.
Unit Step Response : We have Laplace transform of the unit step is
2.Unit step. 1/s. Now let us give this standard input to first order system, we
3.Unit ramp have

Unit impulse response : We have Laplace transform of the unit

impulse is 1. Now let us give this standard input to a first order
system, we have
With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse Laplace
transform of the above equation, we have

It is clear that the time response depends only on the time constant
‘T’. In this case the steady state error is zero by putting the limit t is
tending to zero. Transient State and Steady State Response of
Second Order Control System
 Unit Ramp Response: We have Laplace transform of the unit
ramp is 1/s2. Now let us give this standard input to first order Let us consider the block diagram of the second order system.
system, we have

With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse Laplace

transform of the above equation we have

From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function

which is nonlinear in nature. The transfer function of the second
On plotting the exponential function of time we have zero by order system is (ω2) / {s (s + 2ζω )}. We are going to analyze the
putting the limit t is tending to zero. transient state response of control system for the following
standard signal.

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Now we will see the effect of different values of ζ on the response. We
have three types of systems on the basis of different values of ζ.
1.Under Damped System : A system is said to be under damped system
when the value of ζ is less than one. In this case roots are complex in
nature and the real parts are always negative. System is asymptotically
stable. Rise time is lesser than the other system with the presence of
finite overshoot.
2.Critically Damped System : A system is said to be critically damped
system when the value of ζ is one. In this case roots are real in nature
and the real parts are always repetitive in nature. System is
asymptotically stable. Rise time is less in this system and there is no
presence of finite overshoot.
3.Over Damped System : A system is said to be over damped system
when the value of ζ is greater than one. In this case roots are real and
distinct in nature and the real parts are always negative. System is
asymptotically stable. Rise time is greater than the other system and
there is no presence of finite overshoot.
4.Sustained Oscillations : A system is said to be sustain damped system
when the value of zeta is zero. No damping occurs in this case.

Now let us derive the expressions for rise time, peak time, maximum
overshoot, settling time and steady state error with a unit step input
for second order system.

Rise Time : In order to derive the expression for the rise time we have
to equate the expression for c(t) = 1. From the above we have

On solving above equation we have expression for rise time equal to

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 Peak Time : On differentiating the expression of c(t) we can obtain
the expression for peak time. dc(t)/ dt = 0 we have expression for
peak time,

Maximum Overshoot : Now it is clear from the figure that the

maximum overshoot will occur at peak time tp hence on putting
the value of peak time we will get maximum overshoot as

Settling Time : Settling time is given by the expression

Steady State Error : The steady state error is difference between the
actual output and the desired output hence at time tending to
infinity the steady state error is zero.

5. Settling time, ts: The settling time is the time required for the response
curve to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size specified
by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%). The settling
time is related to the largest time constant of the control system.

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Effect of Damping and Natural Frequency in Time Domain

 Response of system depends on damping ζ and natural

frequency ωn

 Settling time and rise time of the system reduces with increase

in the natural frequency, ωn

 As damping decreases below 1, the response overshoots and

oscillates about final value

 Smaller the value of damping: larger the overshoot and

longer it takes for the oscillations to die

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 Effect of Damping on System Response Effect of Natural Frequency on System Response
Response of second order system: change in natural frequency
Response of second order system: change in damping 2 2
1.8 w1=2 w2=4
zeta1=0.1
1.5 1.5

Displacement

Displacement
1.6 zeta2=0.2
zeta3=0.4 1 1
1.4 zeta4=0.7
zeta5=1.0 0.5 0.5
1.2 zeta6=2.0
0 0
Displacement

0 5 10 0 5 10
1
Time Time

0.8 2 2
w3=6 w4=8
0.6 1.5 1.5

Displacement

Displacement
0.4 1 1

0.5 0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0 5 10 0 5 10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time Time
Time

Frequency Domain Analysis of System

Frequency Domain Analysis  The frequency domain analysis of a system is defined as the steady-
Frequency Domain Parameters - Natural Frequency, Damping state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal.
Frequency and Damping Factor; Mapping of Pole Zero plot with
damping factor, natural frequency and unit step response ; Introduction  The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal
to Bode Plot, Gain Margin, Phase Margin
for a linear system, as well as signals throughout the system, is
sinusoidal in the steady state.
 Output differs from the input only in amplitude and phase.

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 Frequency Domain Analysis of System

 Frequency domain analysis is a better option w.r.t to higher order

system

 Time response of a higher order system is difficult to determine,

analytically.

 Frequency domain analysis is better suited when it comes to

determining sensitivity of system to uncertainty (parameter/process
variation, mechanical / electrical noise)

 Frequency domain analysis is better suited when it comes to accessing

relative stability of a system.

Frequency Domain Specifications

Frequency Domain Analysis using Bode Plot
 Resonant Peak (Mr): It is the maximum value of the magnitude.
 Steady state performance can be characterised in the form of
Mr gives indication on the relative stability of a stable closed-loop system.
magnitude and phase shift w.r.t to frequency (ω)
Normally, a large Mr corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the step
response. For most control systems, it is generally accepted in practice that
the desirable value of Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5.
 Resonant Frequency (ωr): It is the frequency at which peak resonance, Mr,
occurs.
 Bandwidth (BW): It is the frequency range over which the magnitude drops
3 decibels (dB) from its zero frequency value.
 BW gives indications of the transient response properties in time domain. A
large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time.

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 Gain & Phase Margin from Bode Plot
Simply knowing that system is stable is not enough
 Important to access relative stability

Stability Margins help accessing the relative stability

Gain Margin: It is the factor by which system gain can be
increased before the system becomes un-stable in closed loop.
 Gain Margin should be > 1 for system to be stable in closed loop.
 Gain Margin is determined at phase cross over

Phase Margin: It is the amount by which the phase exceeds -

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 Phase Margin should be > 0 for system to be stable in closed loop
 Phase Margin is determined at gain cross over

Closed Loop Stability of System based on Gain &

Phase Margin
What is a Bode Plot
A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system
engineering to determine the stability of a control system. A Bode
plot maps the frequency response of the system through two
graphs – the Bode magnitude plot (expressing the magnitude in
decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in
degrees).
Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s by Hendrik Wade
Bode while he was working at Bell Labs in the United States.
Although Bode plots offer a relatively simple method to calculate
system stability, they can not handle transfer functions with right
half plane singularities

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 Gain Margin
The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of
the system. The gain margin refers to the amount of gain,
which can be increased or decreased without making the
system unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.
We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode
plot (as shown in the diagram above). This is done by
calculating the vertical distance between the magnitude curve
(on the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the frequency
where the Bode phase plot = 180°. This point is known as the
phase crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin
are not the same things. In fact, the Gain Margin is the
negative of the gain (in decibels, dB). This will make sense
when we look at the Gain margin formula.

Gain Margin Formula Phase Margin

The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the
stability of the system. The phase margin refers to the amount of
phase, which can be increased or decreased without making the
system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot
(as shown in the diagram above). This is done by calculating the
vertical distance between the phase curve (on the Bode phase
plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode magnitude
plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin
are not the same things. This will make sense when we look at
the phase margin formula.

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 Bode Plot Stability
Below is a summarized list of criterion relevant to drawing Bode plots
(and calculating their stability):
Phase Margin Formula
1.Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is
usually expressed in dB.
2.Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the phase which can be increased or
decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually
expressed in phase.
3.Gain Crossover Frequency:It refers to the frequency at which the
magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.
4.Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which
phase curve cuts the negative times the 180o axis in this plot.

Now there are some results that one should remember in order to plot
the Bode curve. These results are written below:
5. Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two
asymptotes cuts or meet each other is known as break
frequency or corner frequency.
6. Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the
modulus of G (jω) has a peak value is known as the resonant
frequency.
7. Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product
of various factors like constant term K, Integral factors (jω),
first-order factors ( 1 + jωT)(± n) where n is an integer, second-
order or quadratic factors.
8. Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope
for each factor is expressed in the dB per decade.
9. Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and
angle for each factor is expressed in the degrees.

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How to Draw Bode Plot

For drawing the Bode phase plot: Bode Stability Criterion

1. Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors. Stability conditions are given below:
2. Substitute various values to the above function in order to find 1.For a Stable System: Both the margins should be positive or
out the phase at different points and plot a curve. You will get a phase margin should be greater than the gain margin.
phase curve.
2.For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins should be
3. Calculate the phase margin.
zero or phase margin should be equal to the gain margin.
3.For Unstable System: If any of them is negative or phase
margin should be less than the gain margin.

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Advantages of a Bode Plot
1.It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which
provides a simple method to plot the logarithmic
magnitude curve.
2.The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the
transfer function can be treated as an addition, while
division can be treated as subtraction as we are using a
logarithmic scale.
3.With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on
the stability of the system without doing any calculations.
4.Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain
margin and phase margin.
5.It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.

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Free Body Diagram
The free body diagram (FBD) is a type of diagram used in mechanics to represent the
different forces are acting on a body in different directions. Additionally, it also tells the
state of the system, static or dynamic.

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Assuming the values of mass, damping and stiffness to be: m=1 unit, k=2 unit
The poles, determined above, are a complex conjugate pair. In this pair, the
and b=0.5 unit, the transfer function of the spring-mass-damper system can be
real part is negative. Thus, we can conclude that the spring-mass-damper
re-written as:
system is relatively stable. In addition, the poles being a complex conjugate
pair helps concluding that this system is a under damper system.

Estimation of Poles and Zeros The zeros of a transfer function are the roots of the characteristic equation
The location of the poles and zeros of the spring-mass-damper system is in the numerator of the transfer function. In this case, the zeros are
determined from the transfer function, which was derived in the previous section. determined as below.
The poles of a transfer function are the roots of the characteristic equation in the
denominator of the transfer function. In this case, the poles are determined as
below.

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