Unit II part II

Design Errors and Construction Errors:

Design Errors
Design errors may be divided into two general types:
1. Those resulting from inadequate structural design
2. Those resulting from lack of attention to relatively minor design details.
Each of the two types of design errors is discussed below.
(1) Inadequate structural design.
(a) Mechanism. The failure mechanism is simple – the concrete is exposed to greater stress than
it is capable of carrying or it sustains greater strain than its strain capacity.
(b) Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural design will
usually show one of two symptoms.
1. First, errors in design resulting in excessively high compressive stresses will result in
spalling. Similarly, high torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling or cracking.
2. Second, high tensile stresses will result in cracking.
To identify inadequate design as a cause of damage, the locations of the damage should
be compared to the types of stresses that should be present in the concrete. For example, if spalls
are present on the underside of a simple-supported beam, high compressive stresses are not
present and inadequate design may be eliminated as a cause. However, if the type and location of
the damage and the probable stress are in agreement, a detailed stress analysis will be required to
determine whether inadequate design is the cause. Laboratory analysis is generally not applicable
in the case of suspected inadequate design. However, for rehabilitation projects, thorough petro
graphic analysis and strength testing of concrete from elements to be reused will be necessary.
(c) Prevention.
Inadequate design in prevented by thorough and careful review of all design
calculations. Any rehabilitation method that makes use of existing concrete structural members
must be carefully reviewed.
(2) Poor design details
A structure may be adequately designed to meet loadings and other overall requirements,
poor detailing may result in localized concentrations of high stresses in otherwise satisfactory
concrete. These high stresses may result in cracking that allows water or chemicals access to the
concrete. In other cases, poor design detailing may simply allow water to pond on a structure,
resulting in saturated concrete. In general, poor detailing does not lead directly to concrete
failure; rather, it contributes to the action of one of the other causes of concrete deterioration
described in this chapter. Several specific types of poor detailing and their possible effects on a
structure are described in the following paragraphs. In general, all of these problems can be
prevented by a thorough and careful review of plans and specifications for the project. In the
case of existing structures, problems resulting from poor detailing should be handled by
correcting the detailing and not by simply responding to the symptoms.
(a) Abrupt changes in section.
Abrupt changes n section may cause stress concentrations that may result in cracking. Typical
examples would include the use of relatively thin sections such as bridge decks rigidly tied into
massive abutments or patches and replacement concrete that are not uniform in plan dimensions.
(b) Insufficient reinforcement at reentrant corners and openings.
Reentrant corners and openings also tend to cause stress concentrations that may cause cracking.
In this case, the best prevention is to provide additional reinforcement in areas where stress
concentrations are expected to occur.
(c) Inadequate provision for deflection.
Deflection in excess of those anticipated may result in loading of members or sections beyond
the capacities for which they were designed. Typically, these loadings will be induced in walls or
partitions, resulting in cracking.
(d) Inadequate provision for drainage.
Poor attention to the details of draining a structure may result in the ponding of water. This
ponding may result in leakage or saturation of concrete. Leakage may result in damage to the
interior of the structure or in staining and encrustations on the structure. Saturation may result in
severely damaged concrete if the structure is in an area that is subjected to freezing and thawing.
(e) Insufficient travel in expansion joints.
Inadequately designed expansion joints may result in spalling of concrete adjacent to the joints.
The full range of possible temperature differentials that a concrete may be expected to
experience should be taken into account in the specification for expansion joints. There is no
single expansion joint that will work for all cases of temperature differential.
(f) Incompatibility of materials.
The use of materials with different properties (modulus of elasticity or coefficient of thermal
expansion) adjacent to one another may result in cracking or spalling as the structure is loaded or
as it is subjected to daily or annual temperature variations.
(g) Neglect of creep effect.
Neglect of creep may have similar effects as noted earlier for inadequate provision for
deflections. Additionally, neglect of creep in prestressed concrete members may lead to
excessive prestress loss that in turn results in cracking as loads are applied.
(h) Rigid joints between precast units.
Designs utilizing precast elements must provide for movement between adjacent precast
elements or between the precast elements and the supporting frame. Failure to provide for this
movement can result in cracking or spalling.
(i) Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, or abutments.
Through lack of maintenance, expansion bearing assembles are allowed to become frozen,
horizon-tal loading may be transferred to the concrete elements supporting the bearings. The
result will be cracking in the concrete, usually compounded by other problems which will be
caused by the entry of water into the concrete.
Construction Errors:
Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may lead
to a number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors. Most of these
errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete. Instead, they enhance the
adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Each error will be briefly described along with
preventative methods. In general, the best preventive measure is a thorough knowledge of what
these construction errors are, plus an aggressive inspection program. It should be noted that
errors of the type described in this section are equally as likely to occur during repair or
rehabilitation projects as they are likely to occur during new construction.
(a) Adding water to concrete. Water is usually added to concrete in one or both of the
following circumstances:
1. First, water is added to the concrete in a delivery truck to increase slump and decrease
emplacement effort. This practice will generally lead to concrete with lowered strength
 and reduced durability. As the w/c of the concrete increases, the strength and durability
will decrease.
2. In the second case, water is commonly added during finishing of flatwork. This practice
leads to scaling, crazing, and dusting of the concrete in service.
(b) Improper alignment of formwork.
Improper alignment of the formwork will lead to discontinuities on the surface of the concrete.
While these discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances, their occurrence may be more
critical in areas that are subjected to high-velocity flow of water, where cavitations erosion may
be induced, or in lock chambers where the “rubbing” surfaces must be straight.
(c) Improper consolidation.
Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the most common being
bugholes, honeycombing, and cold joints.
“Bugholes” are formed when small pockets of air or water are trapped against the forms.
A change in the mixture to make it less “sticky” or the use of small vibrators worked near the
form has been used to help eliminate bugholes.
Honeycombing can be reduced by inserting the vibrator more frequently, inserting the
vibrator as close as possible to the form face without touching the form, and slower withdrawal
of the vibrator. Obviously, all of these defects make it much easier for any damage-causing
mechanism to initiate deterioration of the concrete.
Frequently, a fear of “overconsolidation” is used to justify a lack of effort in
consolidating concrete. Overconsolidation is usually defined as a situation in which the
consolidation effort causes all of the coarse aggregate to settle to the bottom while the paste rises
to the surface. If this situation occurs, it is reasonable to conclude that there is a problem of a
poorly proportioned concrete rather than too much consolidation.
(d) Improper curing.
Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction process. Unless concrete
is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will not develop the
characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to pro-vide durability. Symptoms of
improperly cured concrete can include various types of cracking and surface disintegration. In
extreme cases where poor curing leads to failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths,
structural cracking may occur.
(e) Improper location of reinforcing steel.
This section refers to reinforcing steel that is improperly located or is not adequately secured in
the proper location. Either of these faults may lead to two general types of problems.
1. First, the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural
cracking or failure. A particularly prevalent example is the placement of welded wire mesh in
floor slabs. In many case, the mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently
crack because the steel is not in the proper location.
2. The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing
steel is one of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the surface of the
concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much easier for corrosion to begin.
(f) Movement of formwork
Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is going from fluid to a rigid
material may induce cracking and separation within the concrete. A crack open to the surface
will allow access of water to the interior of the concrete. An internal void may give rise to
freezing or corrosion problems if the void becomes saturated.
(g) Premature removal of shores or reshores.
If shores or reshores are removed too soon, the concrete affected may become overstressed and
cracked. In extreme cases there may be major failures.
(h) Settling of the concrete.
During the period between placing and initial setting of the concrete, the heavier components of
the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity. This situation may be aggravated by the
use of highly fluid concretes. If any restraint tends to prevent this settling, cracking or
separations may result. These cracks or separations may also develop problems of corrosion or
freezing if saturated.
(i) Settling of subgrade.
If there is any settling of the subgrade during the period after the concrete begins to become rigid
but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight, cracking may also occur.
(j) Vibration of freshly placed concrete.
Most construction sites are subjected to vibration from various sources, such as blasting, pile
driving, and form the operation of construction equipment.
Freshly placed concrete is vulnerable to weakening of its properties if subjected to forces which
disrupt the concrete matrix during setting.
(k) Improper finishing of flat work.
The most common improper finishing procedures which are detrimental to the durability of flat
work are discussed below.
(1) Adding water to the surface. Evidence that water is being added to the surface is the
presence of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The brush is dipped in water and
water is “slung” onto the surface being finished.
(2) Timing and finishing. Final finishing operations must be done after the concrete has
taken its initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period depends on the amouts of water,
cement, and admixtures in the mixture but primarily on the temperatures of the concrete surface.
On a partially shaded slab, the part in the sun will usually be ready to finish before the part in the
shade.
(3) Adding cement to the surface. This practice is often done to dry up bleed water to
allow finishing to proceed and will result in a thin cement-rich coating which will craze or flake
off easily.
Effect of Cover Thickness
There is a substantial experience which relates durability and the amount of water. The
thicker the cover over the steel is, the longer it will take the chloride ions to reach the steel and
reduce the pH and passivity provided by the cement. However, excessive cover can led to the
development of a few wide cracks under overstress, whereas a thinner cover results in many
small cracks.
As opposed to the above mentioned facts, which appear to justify the rigid rules on cover,
are the fallowing facts.
Ships built during World War I and II had covers of only about 20mm, yet they
did not suffer corrosion steel.
In the erstwhile USSR, many floating dry-docks have been built with covers of
15 and 20mm with highly successful durability over many years of adverse
exposure.
 It is confirmed opinion that the impermeability of the cover is of major importance. The
thickness should be related to the steel bar diameter and the maximum size of the coarse
aggregate.
The general factors affecting permeability, such as cement content, water/cement ratio,
compaction and consolidation of the concrete, and curing are important. While many fee that
prestressing steel should have a greater cover than non-stressed steel, because of the more
serious consequences of corrosion. Prestressed concrete pilling by hundreds of thousands are
rendering completely successful service with only 4-6cm of cover. Other factors affecting cover
are the tolerances of placement of steel and forms, and the depths of honeycombs and bug holes
and other surface defects.
Lack of adequate cover contributes much to corrosion in an aggressive environment. A
well compacted and continuous, even if thin, cover of good quality concrete on reinforcement is
sufficient to protect it from corrosion. The following are the reinforcement thickness of covers
for various levels of exposure.
For normal exposure : At least 50mm thickness
For moderate exposure : At least 40mm thickness
For mild exposure : At least 30mm thickness
For normal exposure : At least 20mm thickness

Cover Meter
When a metallic object is placed in the varying magnetic field of coil, the field induces eddy
currents in the object. These eddy currents in turn produce an additional magnetic field in the
vicinity of the magnetic object. A magnetic field gets superimposed and the magnetic field near
the coil also gets modified in the presence of metal. This modification has the same effect as
would be obtained if the characteristic of the coil itself had been changed. The change depends
upon the electrical conductivity, dimension, magnetic permeability, presence of discontinuity
such as crack, frequency of the field of the coil, size and shape of the coil, and the distance of the
coil from the metallic object.
It is possible to measure the cover thickness for a known diameter by keeping all other
parameters constant. By placing the soil at two different distances from the rebar, both the cover
thickness and the diameter of the rebar can be found.
 Effect of Cracking
The formation of cracks is dangerous for protection
against corrosion. Once concrete cracks, the external depassivating
agents can penetrate deep into concrete and set off the process of
corrosion. Cracks running transversely to the reinforcement are less
harmful than the longitudinal cracks along the reinforcement.
Thus in the order to induce the process of corrosion and to
keep it going, at least one of the following conditions must exist in
any RC structure.
Chloride ion concentration in excess of the threshold value at the
interface of the reinforcement and concrete or sufficient
advancement of the carbonation front to destroy the passivity of the
ferric oxide surface layer of the reinforcement.
Adequate moisture in the concrete to facilitate the movement of
chloride ions and provide a conduction path between the anodic and
the cathodic areas on the steel.
Sufficient oxygen supply to the cathodic areas in order to maintain
such areas in a depolarized condition.
Difference in electrochemical potentials at the
surface of the reinforcement. Low values of
electrical resistivity of concrete.
Relative humidity in the range 50-70%.
Higher ambient temperature.