10/12/2024

Aircraft
performance

Syllabus

1. Overview, introduction & overall configuration

2. Weight estimation
3. Fuselage design and landing gear
4. Aerodynamic design
5. Sizing and propulsion
6. Performance
7. Stability control and structural design
8. Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization
9. Introduction to UAV design
10. Mid-term design project tutorial/presentation
11. Requirement developments
12. Aviation Economics
13. Sustainable consideration; design for environment; certification issues
14. Design project presentation

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Performance topics

Role of performance analysis

Basic concepts and equations
Performance analysis for different segments in a typical flight mission,
including
Takeoff
Steady level flight
Steady climbing and descent flight
Level turning flight
Gliding flight
Landing
Summary

Overview

Aircraft performance analysis treats aircraft as a point mass, not a rigid

body as is done in aircraft stability analysis

Aircraft performance calculation is an important part in conceptual

design, which links design parameters with performance requirements

Aerodynamic forces Engine data Weight estimations

Aircraft performance calculations

Flight envelope Payload range Take-off Landing Cruise

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Role of performance analysis

Aircraft life cycle (i.e. Design  Manufacture  Flight Test  Operations)

Project design stage: requirement analysis, engine data (thrust, SFC (or 𝐸 ∗ ),
efficiency), etc.

Detailed design: wind tunnel data, CFD, CAD drawings, certification data,
operational manual, flight test plan, etc.

Manufacture: validation of design, full set of technical manuals, etc.

Flight tests: cross validation with wind tunnel data, certificate documents, fault
analysis, etc.

Input & output of performance calculations

→ Aerodynamic forces from engineering estimation

methods/CFD/wind tunnel data.
Input

→ Engine data from engine supplier.

→ Weight estimation including C.G. locations from initial
sizing.

→ Take-off and initial climb.

→ Climb to operating altitude.
Output

→ Cruise.
→ Descend.
→ Approach and landing.
→ Payload range graph.
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Basic concepts – various speeds

Instrument airspeed (𝑉 ) Calibrated airspeed (𝑉 or 𝐂𝐀𝐒)

Readings from speedometer without 𝑉 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉
instrument corrections
Equivalent airspeed (𝑉 or 𝐄𝐀𝐒)
Measurement errors of True airspeed converted to sea level
speedometer (∆𝑉 ) condition, 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑉 ,where
Given by manufacturers 𝜌 is air density at sea level, where 𝑉 is
Indicated airspeed (𝑉 or 𝐈𝐀𝐒) calculated from 𝑉 after compressibility
correction
𝑉 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉
Installation correction (∆𝑉 ) True Airspeed (𝑉 or 𝐓𝐀𝐒)
The speed of the aircraft relative to the
Depends on where the speedometer
airmass which is flying
is installed
Obtained from 𝑉
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Basic concepts – various speeds

Ground speed (𝑉 )
The aircraft speed relative to the ground. It calculated from TAS (𝑉 ) and wind
speed (𝑉 )

𝑉
𝑉

True airspeed is the speed at which an aircraft is

moving relative to the air it is flying in.
Ground speed is the speed of aircraft relative to
Airspeed as a function of altitude
the surface of the Earth; its horizontal rather than
vertical speed – an aircraft climbing completely
vertically would have a ground speed of zero! 8

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Basic concepts – various speeds

Indicated Airspeed (𝐼𝐴𝑆)

Calibrated Airspeed (𝐶𝐴𝑆)
± 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐶𝐴𝑆 = 𝐼𝐴𝑆 ± 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
± 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
Equivalent Airspeed (𝐸𝐴𝑆)
𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝐶𝐴𝑆 + 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
True Airspeed (𝑇𝐴𝑆) EAS is always lower or equal to CAS
𝜌 𝐸𝐴𝑆
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝐸𝐴𝑆 × =
𝜌 𝜎
𝜌 : standard sea level density
𝜌: actual air density

Basic concepts - ISA

International standard atmosphere (ISA)
Developed by the International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO).
Used as standard reference for pressure, density,
viscosity and temperature at different altitudes.
A model of air, developed from ideal gas law.
Viscosity and speed of sound are can be calculated by
/
𝑇 (𝑇 + 110.4)
𝜇=𝜇 𝑎= 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑇 (𝑇 + 110.4)

Flight instruments often include

Altimeter
Airspeed indicator (ASI)
Vertical speed indicator (VSI)
Manifold pressure gauge Source: Wikipedia
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True altitude vs pressure altitude

True altitude (𝐻) – the absolute altitude above sea level
Pressure altitude (𝐻 ), the ISA true altitude with the same pressure level
For a hot day, 𝐻 lower than true altitude
For a cold day, 𝐻 higher than true altitude
𝑯 = 𝟎~𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
─ 𝐻 = 𝐻 − 153.846 Δ𝑇 𝑙𝑛 1 − 2.25577 × 10 𝐻 𝑚
─ 𝐻 = 𝐻 − 504.745 Δ𝑇 𝑙𝑛 1 − 6.87559 × 10 𝐻 𝑓𝑡
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎~𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
─ 𝐻 = 1+ 𝐻 − 6.8971ΔT(𝑚)
.
─ 𝐻 = 1+ 𝐻 − 22.628ΔT(𝑓𝑡)
.
As air becomes less dense (with increasing altitude, comes pressure reduction), it reduces:
Power, because the engine takes in less air
Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air
Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
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Kinematic equations of motion in spherical coordinate system.

Spherical coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑) as commonly used in physics (ISO 80000-2:2019

convention):
radial distance 𝑟,
polar angle 𝜃 (theta), and 𝑑𝑋
= −𝑉 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑
azimuthal angle 𝜑 (phi). 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝑌
𝑧
=𝑽 ⟹ = 𝑉 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑋 ,𝑌 ,𝑍
𝑑𝑍
= 𝑉 sin 𝜃
𝑽 𝑑𝑡

𝑦
𝜑
𝑥 12

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Basic equations of motion (cont.)

Equations of motion in flight path coordinate system
𝑑𝑉
= 𝑇 cos 𝛼 +𝜓 cos 𝛽 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾
𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
−𝑚𝑉 = 𝑇 cos 𝛼 +𝜓 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾 + sin 𝛼 +𝜓 cos 𝛾 + 𝐿 cos 𝛾 − 𝐹 sin 𝛾 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑
𝑚𝑉 sin 𝜃 = 𝑇 −cos 𝛼 +𝜓 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾 + sin 𝛼 +𝜓 sin 𝛾 + 𝐿 sin 𝛾 + 𝐹 cos 𝛾
𝑑𝑡
𝛼: angle of attack
L
𝛽: sideslip angle
𝛾: climb angle
𝐹 : side force
𝜃: angle between aircraft position
vector and z-axis (slide 12)
𝜑: angle between the projected
aircraft position on the horizontal
𝑧 plane and x-axis (slide 12)
𝜓 𝜓 : alignment angle between engine
thrust and body axis
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𝑥

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Typical flight profile of a civil transport plane

MCRUISE

MCRUISE

MDESCENT
VCLIMB, M = 0.6
VDESCENT 20000 ft
MCLIMB
Take-off Landing weight
weight 250 kts 250 kts Empty weight
10000 ft
CAS CAS
250 kts 250 kts

CAS CAS
1500 ft

Sea level

Warm- Climb Approach Diversion Flight

Take-off Cruise Descent Approach
up & landing
& landing
&Taxi acceleration
& climb
Range Taxi Reserve fuel

Mission time; mission fuel

Off-block time; off-block fuel 14

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Take-off performance

Take-off is the phase of flight in which an aerial vehicle

leaves the ground and becomes airborne. For aircraft that
take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a
transition from moving along the ground on a runway.
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Decision “points” (speeds) for take-off

35ft

𝑉3 𝑉2 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝑅 𝑉1 or 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑓
Climb Take-off Lift-off Rotation Decision Speed

V-speed Description
designator
𝑉1 or 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑓 Engine failure recognition speed/ Critical engine failure speed.
𝑉𝑅 Rotation speed. The speed at which the aircraft's nose-wheel leaves the ground.
𝑉LOF Lift-off speed, the aircraft becomes airborne, can be close to 𝑉𝑅

𝑉2 Take-off safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne
with one engine inoperative at a height of 35 ft at the end of the required runway
distance.
𝑉3 Flap retraction speed (400ft+).

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Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) take-off field length

Considers the most limiting of the following criterion:

1. All-engine go distance
─ 115% of the actual distance required to accelerate, lift-off and reach a point 35 feet above the
runway with all engines operating.

2. Engine-out accelerate-go distance

─ The distance required to accelerate with all engines operating, have one engine fail at
𝑉 at least one second before V1, continue the take-off, lift-off and reach a point
35 feet above the runway surface at V2 speed.

3. Accelerate-stop distance
─ The distance required to accelerate with all engines operating, have an engine failure or
other event at 𝑉 at least one second before V1, recognize the event, reconfigure for
stopping and bring the aircraft to a stop using maximum wheel braking with the speed
brakes extended. Reverse thrust is not used to determine the FAR accelerate-stop distance
except for the wet runway case for airplanes certified under FAR Amendment 25-92.
.17

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FAR take-off field length

Considers the most limiting of the following criteria:

1. All-engine go
distance

2. Engine-out
accelerate-go distance

3. Accelerate-stop
distance
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From Pilot Guide to Take-off Safety - FAA

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Schematic of distances
Take-off distance = max(ASDOEI, TODOEI, 1.15TORAEO)
Available take-off distance
TORA: Take-off run available = runway length available
TODA: Take-off distance available = runway length available + clearway if available
ASDA: Accelerate-stop distance available = runway length available + stopway if available

Runway Stopway Clearway

Clearway, CWY, 净空道

Stopway, SWY, 停止道
Obstruction 35 ft.
(10.7m) height
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Take-off distance – with one engine failed

Balanced field length: when “accelerate-go” distance is equal to the

“accelerate-stop” distance

Take-off to 35 ft

Balanced field length

Decision speed

Accelerate-stop

Decision speed 𝑽𝟏 Kts EAS

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Take-off path in detail

T/O path

T/O distance T/O flight path

Critical Minimum acceleration height = 400 ft

engine
is made
inoperative End = the higher of either:
- 1500 ft, or
V2 - the point where en-route configuration is achieved,
with remaining engine(s) at Max Continuous Thrust (MCT),
and minimum climb gradient.

BR VEF
35 ft

AEO OEI

Example: a 10% increase in take-off weight would cause:

- A 5% increase in take-off velocity
BR: Brake Release
- At least a 9% decrease in rate of acceleration
AEO: All Engine Operative - At least a 21% increase in take-off distance
OEI: One-Engine Inoperative https://www.flightliteracy.com/takeoff-and-landing-performance-takeoff-performance/

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Aircraft characteristics and airport planning

Aircraft manufacturers provide runway chart:

Sea-level, standard day
Balanced field length
Should be adjusted based on takeoff weight, altitude, pressure, surface
conditions, etc.

FAR Take-off Field/Runway Length definition:

max (All-engine go distance, Engine-out accelerate go distance, Accelerate
stop distance)
TOR(Takeoff Run) ≤ TORA (Takeoff Run Available)
TOD(Takeoff Distance) ≤ TODA (Takeoff Distance Available)
ASD(Accelerate-Stop Distance) ≤ ASDA (Accelerate-Stop Distance Available)
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Source: http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/aviation_industry/airline_operators/training/media/takeoff_safety.pdf

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Take-off distance: AEO (1a)

Lift=𝐿
Aircraft speed= 𝑉

Thrust=𝑇 Drag=𝐷

Wheel reaction=𝑅 Rolling resistance=𝐷 = 𝜇𝑅

Weight=𝑚𝑔 Runway

Finding the acceleration of the aircraft:

𝑑𝑉 1
𝑇 = 𝐷+𝑚 + 𝜇𝑅 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐿 𝐷=𝑞 𝑆 𝐶 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝑉 𝐶 =𝐶 + 𝐾𝐶
𝑚 = 𝐹 = 𝑇−𝐷−𝐷 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇(𝑚𝑔 − 𝐿)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝜌
= −𝜇 + −𝐶 − 𝐾𝐶 + 𝜇𝐶 𝑉 𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝑊 2 𝑊 ⁄𝑆 23

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Take-off distance: AEO (1b)

Ground roll distance can be computed by integral

𝑚𝑉𝑑𝑉 1
𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 = = 𝑑𝑉
𝐹 𝐷+𝐷
2𝑔 𝑇⁄𝑊 −
𝑊
Approximation can be assumed by

5 + 𝐵𝑃𝑅 𝐷+𝐷
𝑇 = 0.75𝑇 and 𝜇 = = 0.02 + 0.01𝐶 , ,
4 + 𝐵𝑃𝑅 𝑊

𝑉
𝑠 =
𝑇 5 + 𝐵𝑃𝑅
2𝑔 0.75 − 0.02 + 0.01𝑐 , ,
𝑊 4 + 𝐵𝑃𝑅

BPR: bypass ratio of turbofan engine 24

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Take-off distance: AEO (2)

Transition flight path

Centre of arc

Thrust=𝑇
𝛾
Lift=𝐿

Drag=𝐷

Weight=𝑚𝑔
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Take-off distance: AEO (3)

𝑆
𝑆

𝑉
𝑉

𝑟 𝛾
𝑟 𝛾
𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝛾 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ
ℎ ℎ
ℎ

𝑆
𝑟: radius of rotation arc 𝑉
ℎ : screen height (35ft)
𝑆 : level distance travelled during rotation phase,
𝛾
corresponding to the ℎ 𝑟
ℎ : height travelled during the rotation phase 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑆 : level distance travelled when reaching screen ℎ 𝑆 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾 ℎ
height ℎ , can be calculated for the three cases separately 26

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Take-off distance: AEO (4)

Transition to climb 𝑆
𝑉
Aircraft accelerate from 𝑉 to 𝑉
Simple estimation can be made by assuming that 𝛾
𝑟
𝐶 = 0.9 𝐶 , 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝛾 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 /2 ℎ ℎ

Flying along an arc

𝑉
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 + 𝑚
𝑟
𝑉
⟹𝑟= 𝑛= load factor Area
𝑔(𝑛 − 1)
𝐿 = 0.5 ⋅ 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑆 ⋅ (0.9 ⋅ 𝐶 )(
cos 𝛾 ≈ 1 (small angle assumption)
𝑠 =𝑟⋅𝛾 ℎ ≈ 𝑟 ⋅ 𝛾 ⋅ 𝛾 ⁄2 sin 𝛾 ≈ 𝛾
ℎ : screen height
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Take-off distance – AEO (5)

Climb after transition to screen height.

Climb distance: the ground distance from the end of transition to the screen
height. 𝑠 is for the third case where aircraft continues to clime at the
ℎ −ℎ best climb angle at the end of rotation because the best climb
𝑠 =
tan 𝛾 angle might not give sufficient height to reach screen height. The
angle of rotation is then decided by the best climb angle.
where, ℎ is screen height, ℎ is the height at the end of transition, γ is the
best climb angle

Total distance for take-off is the sum of ground roll, transition, and climb
distance
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A climb is the operation of increasing the altitude of an aircraft to a

predetermined level. It is the flight phase that follows the take-
off and preceding the cruise. A steady climb is made possible by
using excess thrust.

Steady climb & descent flight

A descent flight operation of an aircraft decreases altitude, as part of
normal procedures, or in emergencies, such as rapid or explosive
decompression, forcing an emergency descent to below 3,000m and
preferably below 2,400m, respectively the max. temporary safe
altitude for an unpressurized aircraft and the max. safe altitude for
extended duration.
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Typical climb profile and speed

Z (×1000 ft)
M=0.86
36
constant Mach number climb
25
constant equivalent
airspeed climb

10
constant equivalent
airspeed climb
0
0 150 250 320 500 VE(kts)

Climb made mainly at constant equivalent airspeed or constant Mach number

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Initial climb to 1500ft after take-off (1)

Initial climb is typically divided into four segments
Gradient (%) number of engines

Segment Height Flap Landing Rating 2 3 4

Gear
1st 0-35 ft TO Down TO +’ve 0.3 0.5
2nd 400 ft TO Up TO 2.4 2.7 3.0
3rd 400+ ft Variable Up Max. Cont. Level flight acceleration
4th 1500 ft En-route Up Max. Cont. 1.2 1.5 1.7

Airworthiness demands certain climb gradient with one engine failure for twin-
engine or four-engine aircraft – refer to certification code.
Take-off climb performance is usually defined by the 2nd segment performance
requirement which is the most critical. The 2nd segment climb gradient is specified
in certification code and must be met.
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Engine ratings

Engines are certified to deliver standard thrusts depending upon flight

conditions. Thrust is typically measured in kN or lbs. A 'rating' is a predefined
power setting that the pilot can select which may be appropriate for particular
flight conditions.
→ Maximum Take-Off thrust (MTO): the maximum thrust that the engine can
deliver for 5 minutes in the take-off envelope of the aircraft.
→ Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT): outside the MTO flight envelope, the
MCT rating defines the maximum thrust that can be demanded by the pilot
from the engine.
→ Maximum Climb thrust (MCL): thrust rating the manufacturer recommends
be used during the climb phase of a typical flight.
→ Maximum Cruise thrust: as name suggest.

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Initial climb to 1500ft after take-off (2)

Rate of climb (vertical velocity) can be obtained by analyzing forces
𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 𝐿
𝑇
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 ≈ 𝑊
𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜃 Horizontal
𝜃 = sin = sin −
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿/𝐷
𝑇 1
≅ sin − 𝐷
𝑊 𝐿/𝐷 𝜃
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1 𝑊
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉 ≅V −
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿/𝐷
Therefore, the climb rate is related to thrust, drag, and weight of the aircraft
Thrust is 85% of the static value
Drag of the basic configuration
The asymmetric drag due to a failed engine,
─ Windmill drag
─ Additional trim drag, 5% of the basic profile drag 33

33

Climb performance: further analysis

Given a climb angle:

2 𝑊 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1
𝑉= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≅ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜌𝐶 𝑆 𝑊 𝐿/𝐷 𝐿
𝐷
Best rate of climb and best angle of climb
Best rate of climb provides the max climb rate
Best angle of climb provides the max climb angle
Difference between the two modes of climb:
• Best rate of climb gives higher altitude for a given time.
• Best angle of climb gains more altitude for a given horizontal distance;
good for fly over obstacles.
Time to climb and fuel to climb
Time to climb a certain distance and corresponding fuel used can be calculated as follows
Integration or approximation can be used to calculate from 𝑡 to 𝑡
Fuel to climb, expressed in finite terms: 𝑑𝑊 = − 𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑ℎ/𝑉
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Steady level flight

Steady flight, unaccelerated flight, or equilibrium flight is a

special case in flight dynamics where the linear and angular
velocities of an aircraft are constant in a body-fixed reference
frame.

35

Equations for level cruise

Force balance equations:

𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾 ≈ 𝐷
L
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 ≈ 𝑊

𝑧
𝜓
𝑥
Rate of change in aircraft weight:
𝑑𝑊
= −𝑆𝐹𝐶 ⋅ 𝑇
𝑑𝑡
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Steady level cruise analysis

Analysis for non-accelerating level flight

𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶 + 𝐾𝐶
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶
These equations can be used in further analysis
Minimum cruise thrust requirement for jet aircraft
Minimum cruise power requirement for propeller aircraft

Parasite drag
predominates at high
speed.
Induced drag
predominates at low speed

Stall speed: minimum

steady flight speed at
which the aircraft is
controllable.
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37

Cruise with minimum thrust — jet aircraft

Lift and drag coefficient for the minimum drag cruise

𝜕 𝑇 𝑊 𝜌𝑉𝐶 𝑊 2𝐾 𝜕 𝑇 𝑊 𝐶
=0 ⇒ − =0 =0 ⇒− +𝐾 =0
𝜕𝑉 𝑊/𝑆 𝑆 0.5𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝐶 𝐶

2𝑊 𝐾 𝐶
𝑉 = 𝐶 , =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶 𝐾

𝐶
𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶 +𝐾 = 𝑞𝑆(𝐶 +𝐶 )
𝐾
1
𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉
At any given weight, the aircraft can be flown at the optimal lift coefficient 2
for minimum drag by varying velocity or air density (altitude).

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Cruise with minimum power — turboprop aircraft

For turboprop engines, the minimum power required for level flight
1
𝑃 = 𝑇 𝑉 = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶 + 𝐾𝐶 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝐶 + 𝐾𝐶
2
1 𝐾𝑊
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 +
2 0.5𝜌𝑉𝑆
Lift and drag coefficient for minimum power cruise

= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 − =0 ⟹𝑉 =
.

and also 𝐶 , = 𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆(𝐶 + 3𝐶 )

For max range (total distance aloft on a tank of fuel) need to maximise

39

Breguet range equation for conventional aircraft

The Breguet range equation for conventional aircraft is structure

1 ∗ 𝐿 𝑊 See derivation
𝑅= 𝐸 𝜂 𝑙𝑛 in Lecture 2
𝑔 𝐷 𝑊

where propulsion aerodynamics

R is the range, in metres.
E* is the fuel energy per unit mass, J/kg.
𝜂 is the overall propulsion system efficiency.
L/D is the aircraft’s lift/drag ratio.
Wi is the aircraft weight (a measure of the
vehicle size) at the beginning of a flight segment.
Wi+1 is the weight of aircraft at the end of a flight segment.
40

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Payload-range diagram for turbo powered aircraft

Illustrates the trade-off between payload and range for
the aircraft (e.g. payload for commercial flight is the
revenue generating cargo and carrying passengers).

Aircraft is designed to sustain certain amount of loads, Maximum

which depends on aircraft weight. Point A
payload
Maximum

Payload
When the aircraft is loaded with the maximum amount take-off
of payload weight
The amount of fuel that can be embarked to fly is
limited by the maximum take-off weight (Point A). Point B

Maximum
When the aircraft is carrying maximum capacity of fuel fuel capacity
in the fuel tank
Payload can still be carried denoted by Point B.
Range
Further reducing payload from point B reduces the
aircraft weight, hence the aircraft flies more
efficiently and increases range.

41

Range equation for electrically-powered aircraft

Range equation for electrically-powered aircraft is structure

1 ∗ 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅= 𝐸 η
𝑔 𝐷 𝑊 See derivation
in Lecture 2

where propulsion aerodynamics

R is the range, in metres.
g is the gravitational constant.
E* is the battery specific energy in J/kg.
𝜂 is the whole-chain propulsion efficiency.
L/D is the aircraft’s lift/drag ratio.
Wbatt is the battery weight.
W is the total weight of aircraft (constant).
42

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Payload-range diagram for electrically-powered aircraft

Depends on the architecture of the electrically-powered aircraft, the payload-range

diagrams can be of different shapes
The payload-range diagrams below only showed 2 of the possible shapes

1) Fully electric, batteries 2) Fully electric, batteries can be

cannot be added or removed added or removed

Maximum Maximum
payload payload Maximum
Payload

Payload
take-off
Fixed
weight
amount of
batteries
Maximum
batteries

Range Range

43

Level turning flight

A level turn is one in which the flight path is in a horizontal plane

parallel to the ground; in a level turn the altitude remains
constant. Level flight requires the forces in the vertical direction to
balance. This requirement puts a limit on our turning performance.
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Analysis of level turning

𝐿
𝐿
Turn-rate or rate of turn (ROT)
Defined as radial acceleration divided by the velocity
𝐿
Angular velocity
Turning
axis
Turning
Force analysis radius

Vertical lift component equals weight

𝜓̇ tuning rate
Load factor is 𝑛
Therefore, the turning rate is

𝑊 𝑛 −1 𝑔 𝑛 −1 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊 𝐿 =𝑊
𝜓̇ = =
𝑊 ⁄𝑔 𝑉 𝑉
𝐿
=𝑊 𝑛 −1

45

45

Analysis of level turning (Cont.)

𝐿
Level turn geometry
Turning radius 𝐿

𝑉 𝑉 𝐿
𝑅= = Turning
𝜔 𝑔 𝑛 −1 axis
Turning
radius

Smaller 𝑉 and higher n gives smaller 𝑅.

𝜓̇ tuning
rate

Two types of turning, depends on time:

I. Instantaneous, for short period of
time.
𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊 𝐿 =𝑊
II. Sustained turning, for an extended
period of time.
𝐿
=𝑊 𝑛 −1

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Instantaneous turning

Instantaneous turn – aircraft is allowed

to slow down during the turn
The load factor 𝑛 will only be limited
by the maximum lift coefficient
(stall) or structural strength.
Corner speed is important in air
combat (dog fight).

Drag is greater than thrust.

Turning rate higher than sustained

turning.

47

47

Sustained turning

In sustained turning, the aircraft is not allowed to slow down or lose

altitude, which implies that
𝑇 = 𝐷 and 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊
Based on this, the following equation holds
𝑛𝑊
𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶 + 𝐾𝐶 with 𝐶 =
𝑞𝑆
This gives the load factor n
𝑞 𝑇 𝑞𝐶
𝑛= −
𝐾(𝑊/𝑆) 𝑊 𝑊/𝑆 Iterative process is
required to solve this as
K and n are both
functions of the CL 48

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Sustained turning rate

In a sustained turning given flight conditions (speed, altitude, payload), 𝑛 satisfy the
following equation
𝑇 𝐿
𝑛= Maximum n can be achieved with min drag
𝑊𝐷
From minimum drag level flight analysis, there is

2𝑊 𝐾 𝐶
𝑉 = and 𝐶 , =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶 𝐾

The maximum sustained-turn load factor can be solved using

𝐶 𝑞𝑆 𝐶
𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊 = 𝑞𝑆 ⇒𝑛=
𝐾 𝑊 𝐾

𝑊 𝑛 −1 𝑔 𝑛 −1
⇒ 𝜓̇ = =
𝑊 ⁄𝑔 𝑉 𝑉

49

Gliding flight

Gliding flight is heavier-than-air flight without the use of

thrust.

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Straight gliding flight

Conditions for straight gliding flight
The thrust is set to zero
The gliding angle is downward pointing
𝐷 = 𝑊 sin 𝛾 and 𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 1
= = cot 𝛾 ≅
𝐷 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝛾
𝐿
𝑇=0
Horizontal axis
D
γ
α
γ<0 𝑉

51

Glide ratio

Glide ratio is defined as the ratio between horizontal distance travelled and
altitude lost.
Glide ratio is equal to the lift-to-drag ratio.
Max glide ratio gives the maximum range for gliding flight, therefore requires
flying at max 𝐿/𝐷 – min 𝐶

2𝑊 𝐾 𝐶
𝑉 = and 𝐶 =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶 𝐾

𝐿 1 1 𝜋𝐴𝜀
⟹ = =
𝐷 2 𝐶 𝐾 2 𝐶

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Sink rate
Another parameter of interest for gliding flight 𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
=
Determine the time that a glider may remain in the air 𝐷 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
Vertical velocity, 𝑉
𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 =
𝑊 2 cos 𝛾 𝑊 2 cos 𝛾𝐶 𝐶
𝑉 = Vsin γ = sin 𝛾 =
𝑆 𝜌𝐶 𝑆 𝜌𝐶

𝑊 2
𝑉 ≅
𝑆 𝜌𝐶 /𝐶
Minimum sink rate can be obtained by maximizing 𝐶 /𝐶 , which leads to

3𝐶 𝐿 3 3𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐶 , = , and = =
𝐾 𝐷 16𝐾𝐶 16𝐶

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53

Turning gliding flight

When a glider turns at a bank angle 𝜙,

the following relation holds (a
component of the lift is used to turn)

𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

This leads to a modified sink rate

1 𝑊 2
𝑉 ≅ /
cos 𝜙 𝑆 𝜌𝐶 /𝐶

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Sink rate and glide ratio

Difference between sink rate and glide ratio Minimum sink rate:

2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉 ≅
𝜌𝑆 3𝐶

Best glide ratio:

2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉 =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶

The velocity for min sink rate is 76% of that for best glide ratio
55

55

Landing performance

Landing performance mainly concerns the distance required to

bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions, assuming the
aircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the
correct speed. The performance data for landing an aircraft can be
obtained from the flight manual or pilot's operating handbook.
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Approach and landing sequence

The landing phase is split into several segments and distances:
1) Approach, 𝑆
2) Flare, 𝑆
3) Ground roll, 𝑆 +𝑆
Total landing distance is the sum of distances required by each phase

Example: a 10% increase in landing

weight would cause:
- A 5% increase in landing velocity
- A 10% increase in landing distance

https://www.flightliteracy.com/takeoff-and- 57
landing-performance-landing-performance/

57

Instrument landing system

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a system that works by sending

radio waves downrange from the runway end, with aircraft that intercept
it using the radio waves to guide them onto the runway.

The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains
centered on the display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path of
approximately 3 degrees above horizontal (ground level) to remain above
obstructions and reach the runway at the proper touchdown point (i.e. it
provides vertical guidance).

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Diagram of an instrument landing system (ILS) approach

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59

Approach distance 𝑆

The approach path is typically made at 3 degrees to the horizontal.

FAR certification specifies the approach starts at a screen height of 50ft
and ends at the flare height ℎ
Approach speed is defined as (1.2~1.3) 𝑉
obstacle height − ℎ
𝑆 =
tan 𝛾
𝛾
ℎ =𝑟⋅𝛾 ⋅ ℎ =𝑟 1− 1−𝛾
2
and
𝛾
1−𝛾 ≈ 1−
2 60

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Force balance in flare – air turn

𝑑𝑉
𝑇 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾 – 𝐷 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑟𝑑𝛾
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 – 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 𝑚 ≈0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉 𝑊 𝑑𝑉
𝑇– 𝐷 + 𝑊 𝛾 = 𝑚𝑉 =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑔 𝑑𝑥
𝐿– 𝑊 = 0

𝑑𝑉 𝑇−𝐷
= 2𝑔 +𝛾
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
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61

Flare – air run distance 𝑆

A simplified approach assumes that the angular acceleration may be ignored. Assuming
𝑇=0, and 𝛾 takes the average value. We have

𝐷
𝑉 −𝑉 = 2𝑔 − +𝛾 𝑆
𝐿

1 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑆 = Assuming 𝑉 = (1.2 − 1.25)𝑉 , and 𝑆
2𝑔 𝐷 −γ 𝑉 = 1.3𝑉 takes the average value
𝐿

𝑊 𝛾
𝑆 𝐷 𝑟
𝑆 = 𝐿 −𝛾 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
4𝑔𝜌 𝜎𝐶 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝛾
ℎ ℎ

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Case Study

63

Case study - mission profile fuel vs electric

Assumed aircraft Cessna 172
Lift and drag polar from wind tunnel experiment
(http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0184.shtml)
Fuel tank (167 kg of fuel) compared to battery of the same mass

https://cessna.txtav.com/en/piston/cessna-skyhawk?_ga=2.188644200.1536394454.1604118761-270052030.1604118761 64

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Case study - mission profile fuel vs electric

For climb:
→ Assumed constant mass (MTOW 1111kg)
→ Propulsion efficiency:
• electric: 70%
• fuel: 40% (assumed at sea-level)
→ Input aircraft available power (max engine power 120 kW) and climb speed V
→ Compute mass of energy used (fuel or electric equivalent) using energy consumed and energy density

For cruise:
→ Used fuel-based and electric-based Brequet range equations
→ Initial mass: MTOW- energy mass used during climb
→ Assumed 𝐿/𝐷 = 11
→ Assumed cruise speed 62.8 m/s
→ Propulsion efficiency:
• electric: 70%
• fuel: 26% (lower due to altitude)

For decent:
→ Assumed zero thrust
→ Assumed constant weight (empty fuel tank for fuel aircraft 944 kg, MTOW for electric aircraft)
→ Input aircraft AoA 65

65

Simplified mission profile (climb, cruise, decent)

Computed using 3 Matlab codes:
→ Climb range estimate
→ Cruise range estimate (presented in previous lecture)
→ Sink range estimate

2139.74 km 128.90 km
2140.15 km 129.53 km
Tot. Range 134.19 km
Tot. Range
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Inputs/Outputs summary climb, cruise, decent

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Fuel Elec Fuel Elec Elec
Climb
Inputs
Climb velocity (m/s) 35 35 30 30 30
Max gliding Min sink
Available power (kW) 48 96 48 96 67 (70%) range rate
Decent
Outputs Fuel Elec Fuel Elec
Climb angle (deg) 3.09 10.41 4.09 12.72 6.0
Inputs
Climb rate (m/s) 1.88 6.33 2.14 6.61 3.66
Aircraft AoA (deg) 5 5 15 15
Climb time (min) 32.35 9.64 28.51 9.23 16.67
Outputs
Energy used mass (kg) 5.22 77.09 4.6 73.82 93.37
Glide angle (deg) -4.21 -4.21 -4.88 -4.88
Cruise
Sing rate (m/s) -2.60 -2.82 -2.23 -2.06
Inputs
Decent time (min) 23.42 21.59 27.29 29.61
Mass at cruise start (kg) 1103.8 1031.9 1104.4 1035.2 1015.6
Decent velocity (m/s) 35.34 38.34 26.13 24.08
Outputs
Ideal cruise time (hour) 8.99 0.27 9.02 0.28 0.23
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67

Climb: key equations and derivation

The solution is not straightforward as sin 𝜃 depends on 𝑇 − 𝐷 and the drag in climb
𝐷 depends on the lift in climb 𝐿, which in turn depends on 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

The vertical climbing speed is

𝑉
= sin 𝜃
𝑉
The force balance relation for lift is
𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑊 1 − sin (𝜃)
hence the lift coefficient
𝑉
𝑤 1−
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑉
𝐶 = =
1 1
𝜌V 𝑆 𝜌V 𝑆
2 2
And the drag is
𝑉
𝑘𝑤 1−
1 1 1 𝑉
𝐷 = 𝜌V 𝑆𝐶 = 𝜌V 𝑆(𝐶 + 𝑘𝐶 ) = 𝜌V 𝑆𝐶 +
2 2 2 1
𝜌V 𝑆
2
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Climb: key equations and derivation

The power available is
𝑃 =𝑃 η = 𝑇𝑉
This gives the thrust as
𝑉
𝑘𝑤 1−
𝑃 𝑊𝑉 𝑊𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑇= = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝐷 = +𝐷 = + 𝜌V 𝑆𝐶 +
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 2 1
𝜌V 𝑆
2
which is a quadratic equation of the format A +𝐵 +𝐶 =0

has two solutions (roots); The solution ≤1, is the valid solution because −1 < = sin 𝜃 < 1

The climb range

𝑅𝑐 = 𝑡𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
The mass of energy used
𝑃 𝑡
m=
𝐸∗η

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69

Descent: key equations and derivation

The descent angle is

𝐿
𝛾 = tan
𝐷
which is non-dependant of mass (same for fuel and electric Cessna)

The vertical decent speed

𝑊 2
𝑉 ≅
𝑆 𝜌𝐶 /𝐶
The descent range
𝐿
𝑅𝑐 = ℎ
𝐷
The descent velocity
𝑉
𝑉=
sin 𝛾
dependant of mass (different for fuel and electric Cessna)
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Summary

Performance analysis takes input from Quiz: Understanding Aircraft Performance

By Chris Clarke -January 7, 2019
Engine data
Aerodynamics data https://studentpilotnews.com/2019/01/07/q
Other configuration parameters uiz-aircraft-performance/

Allow analysis on
Take-off performance Additional sample problems:
Landing performance
https://www.flightliteracy.com/aircraft-
Cruise performance performance-charts-part-one/
Turning and gliding performance
https://www.flightliteracy.com/aircraft-
Range evaluation
performance-charts-part-two/

Also used in https://www.flightliteracy.com/aircraft-

Setting flight profiles, etc performance-charts-part-three/
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