9/11/2024

Aircraft Design

Syllabus

1. Overview, introduction & overall configuration

2. Weight estimation
3. Fuselage design and landing gear A key performance
4. Aerodynamic design metric; important for
5. Sizing and propulsion sizing and range.
6. Performance
7. Stability control and structural design According to Lufthansa,
8. Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization by reducing fuel by one
9. Introduction to UAV design
10. Mid-term design project tutorial/presentation
kilo on all aircraft saves
11. Requirement development the airline 30 tons of fuel
12. Aviation Economics per year (2011).
13. Sustainable consideration; design for environment; certification issues
14. Design project presentation

1
 9/11/2024

Weight estimation

Overview

Mission-based weight estimates

Sizing process
Mission profiles
Weight ratios
Breguet range equation (l’équation de Breguet)

Refined weight estimate

Component based weight estimate

2
 9/11/2024

Aircraft sizing process

Market Survey
Initial Layout
and Analysis

Design
Requirements
Aerodynamics
Design Technology
Initial Concept Propulsion
Database Evaluation

Initial Calculation Weight

• Aerodynamics (𝐿/𝐷)
• Propulsion (𝑆𝐹𝐶, 𝐸 ∗ , 𝜂)
• Weights (𝑊 ,𝑊 ) Trade-off and
Optimization

First Estimate Design Freeze

Preliminary weight estimation

Mission statement:
Each transport aircraft is designed to carry a number of passengers
and payload at a speed of 𝑉 over a range of 𝑅.

3
 9/11/2024

Starting point for a design

Request for Proposal (RFP) An iterative

From customers process
The first order for the 747 began with a
December 1965 conversation between Task Proposal
Boeing President William Allen and Pan • Range
Am President Juan Trippe, and was said • Number of passengers
to have gone something like this: • Cruise speed
• Cruise altitude
Trippe: If you’ll build it, I’ll buy it.
• Approach speed
Allen: If you buy it, I’ll build it.
• Landing field length
• Take-off field length
• Airport compatibility
• Design target – low cost, fast turn
Market analysis & around at airport gate, eco-friendly,
Technology regulation and certification
compliance, etc. 7

Typical mission profile for a fighter jet

Mission terminology
1-2: warm-up and takeoff
Phase: flight between two numbers
2-3: accelerate to climb speed and
minimum power climb Segments: different types within a phase
3-4: subsonic cruise Leg: with distinct flight characteristics,
4-5: descent to 30,000ft i.e. constant speed/Ma
5-6: combat air patrol
6-7: supersonic penetration
7-8: combat
8-9: escape dash
9-10: minimum time climb
10-11: subsonic cruise
11-12: descent to 10,000ft
12-13: loiter
Nothing to do
13-14: descent and land
with us 8

4
 9/11/2024

A typical civil, domestic flight profile

MCRUISE
CAS: calibrated airspeed

MCRUISE

MDESCENT
VCLIMB, M = 0.6
VDESCENT 20000 ft
MCLIMB
Take-off Landing weight
weight 250 kts 250 kts Empty weight
10000 ft CAS CAS
250 kts 250 kts
CAS CAS
1500 ft

Sea level
Warm- Climb Approach Diversion Flight
Take-off Cruise Descent Approach
up & landing
& landing
&Taxi acceleration
& climb
Range Taxi Reserve fuel

Mission time; mission fuel

Off-block time; off-block fuel 9

Typical single-aisle aircraft power by mission segment

Peak power required [kw] Energy [kw]

40,000 40,000
Cumulative

30,000 30,000

20,000 20,000

10,000 10,000

0 0

Source: Epstein, Alan H., and Steven M. O’Flarity. "Considerations for reducing aviation’s co2 with aircraft electric propulsion." Journal of Propulsion and Power 35.3 10
(2019): 572-582. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/full/10.2514/1.B37015

10

5
 9/11/2024

Maximum take-off weight (MTOW) vs. range

MTOW [1000kg]
420
B747-400
B747-200
370 A340-600 A340-500

B747-100
B777-200X2
320
B777-300 B777-200X1 B777-100X2
B777-100X1
270 A340-300
A340-200
B777-200
A330-300 A330-200
220
B767-300ER
A300-600R
170 B767-200ER
B707-320C B767-300 A310-300
B767-200
120 B757-200
B727-2
A321-200
A320-200
70 B737-500 B737-400 A319-100
B717-2 B737-600
B737-2 B737-300
20
500 1,500 2,500 3,500 4,500 5,500 6,500 7,500 8,500 9,500
Design range [nautical mile] 11

11

Maximum take-off weight (MTOW) vs. range

600000

A380
500000

400000 B747-400
B747-200
A340-600 A340-500
MTOW (kg)

B747-100
B777-200X2
300000 B777-300 B777-200X1 B777-100X2
B777-100X1
A340-300
A340-200
B777-200
A330-300 A330-200
200000
B767-300ER B767-200ER
A300-600R
B707-320C B767-300
A310-300
B767-200
B757-200
100000 B727-2 A321-200
B737-500 B737-400 A320-200
A319-100
B717-2 B737-2 B737-600
B737-300
0
500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 7500 8500 9500

Design Range (nautical mile)

12

12

6
 9/11/2024

Weight data for some transport aircraft

Type MTOW [kg] MLW [tons] TOR [m] LR [m] ICAO category
Antonov An-225 640,000 591.7 3500 Heavy
Airbus A380-800 575,000 394 3100 1930 Heavy
Boeing 747-8 443,613 306.175 3100 Heavy
Antonov An-124-100M 405,060 330 2520 900 Heavy
Airbus A340-500 371,950 240 3050 2010 Heavy
Boeing 777-300ER 351,800 251.29 3100 Heavy
McDonnell Douglas MD-11 273,300 185 2990 1890 Heavy
Airbus A350-900 270,000 175 2670 1860 Heavy
Ilyushin Il-96M 270,000 195.04 3115 2118 Heavy
McDonnell Douglas DC-10 256,280 183 2990 1890 Heavy
Boeing 787-9 254,000 192.777 2900 Heavy
Airbus A330-300 242,000 185 2500 1750 Heavy
Boeing 737-900 85,000 66.36 2500 1704 Medium
Airbus A320-100 68,000 66 1955 1490 Medium
Embraer 190 48,000 43 2056 1323 Medium
Fokker 100 46,000 39.95 1621 1350 Medium
Bombardier CRJ900 36,500 33.345 1778 1596 Medium

MTOW = Maximum take-off weight, MLW = Maximum landing weight, TOR = Take-off run (SL, ISA+15°,
MTOW), LR = Landing run (SL, ISA+15°, MLW) 13

13

Number of seats vs. MTOW

Number of Seats in Typical Seating

A350-1000

330
A350-900
B777-200 B777-200IGW A340-500
A330-300 A340-300 B777-200X1
B787-3
280
A350-800 B777-100X1
A340-200
A330-200 B787-9 B777-100X2
B757-300
230 A300-600R
B767-300ER
B787-8
B767-300
A321-200 B757-200 A310-300
180 B767-200 B767-200ER
B737-800
A320-200B737-400 B707-320C
B727-2
130 A319-100 B737-300
B737-2
B737-600
B717-2
80
20 70 120 170 220 270 320 370
MTOW [1000kg] 14

14

7
 9/11/2024

Number of seats vs. MTOW

A350-1000

330
A350-900
B777-200 B777-200IGW
A330-300 A340-300 B777-200X1
B787-3
280
A350-800 B777-100X1
A340-200
Number of Seats in

A330-200 B787-9 B777-100X2

Typical Seating

B757-300
230 A300-600R
B767-300ER
B787-8
B767-300
A321-200 B757-200 A310-300
180
B767-200 B767-200ER
B737-800
A320-200B737-400 B707-320C
B727-2
130 B737-300
A319-100
B737-2
B737-600
B717-2 Boeing Airbus
80
40 90 140 190 240 290 340
Maximum Takeoff Weight (1000kg) 15

15

Weight and Balance handbook, FAA-H8083-1B, 2016

Aircraft weight components https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_
manuals/aviation/media/faa-h-8083-1.pdf

Aircraft weight is composed of

1) Operating Empty Weight 𝑊 : the weight of the vehicle that is ready to fly, but with no fuel and payload
onboard The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft
─ Including without including passengers, baggage, or fuel. Standard
• 𝑊 , aircraft empty weight
empty weight usually includes unusable fuel, full operating
fluids, and full engine oil.
• 𝑊 , trapped fuel weight
the fuel which cannot be pumped out of the tanks
• 𝑊 , crew weight
standard masses, including hand baggage, of 85 kg for flight
crew/technical crew members and 75 kg for cabin crew members.
2) Fuel Weight 𝑊 , which include mission fuel and reserve fuel
3) Payload Weight 𝑊 =𝑘 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 , where 𝑘 = (93 − 98) kg
+ luggage and cargo load
Therefore
𝑊
𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊 +𝑊 +𝑊 +𝑊 , +𝑊 ,
(1)

𝑊 𝑊 16

16

8
 9/11/2024

Crew and payload

Crew, including flight crew, flight attendants and all their luggage
The number of crew members set by airlines and minimum stipulated by
regulators.
Their luggage set by the operator.
The following table gives some reference data.

Example average number of passengers per flight attendant

First Class Mixed Tourist
International Flights 16 21 31
Domestic Flights 20 29 36

17

17

Derivation of weight equations

From Eq. (1)

𝑊 = 1−𝑀 −𝑀 𝑊 −𝑊 (2)
where,
𝑊 𝑊
𝑀 = , 𝑀 =
𝑊 𝑊

The fuel fraction can also be calculated as 𝑊 1−𝑀 −𝑀

−𝑊 𝑊

𝑊 𝑊
=1− = 1−𝑀 18
𝑊 𝑊
18

9
 9/11/2024

Typical domestic mission profile

𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑀 = = =
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 (3)

19

19

A typical fuel fraction table

Stage Description Fuel Fraction* Flight Time(min)
1 Engine start, warm up and taxi out 0.98 7
2 Take off and initial climb to 1500ft 0.995 calculated
3 Climb to cruise altitude 0.98 calculated
4 Cruise calculated calculated
5 Descent 0.99 calculated
6 Approach and landing 0.992 6
7 Taxi in 0.99 7
8 Abort landing and take off 0.98 calculated
9 Climb to diversion cruise altitude 0.98 calculated
10 Economy cruise (200nm) calculated calculated
11 Descent 0.99 calculated
12 Approach and Landing 0.992 6
20
* Roskam, “Rapid Sizing Method for Airplanes,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol.23, No.7, 1986, pp.554-560.

20

10
 9/11/2024

Analysis of level flight condition

In level, steady flight

𝐿
𝑇
𝐿=𝑊
𝑇=𝐷 𝐷
𝐿=𝐶 𝑞𝑆 𝑊

𝐷=𝐶 𝑞𝑆 𝐿: lift
𝐿 𝑊 𝑊: weight
𝑇=𝐷= =
𝐿/𝐷 𝐶 /𝐶 𝑇: thrust
𝐶: lift coefficient
𝐶 : drag coefficient
𝑞: dynamic pressure head, ⁄ 𝜌𝑉
𝑆: reference area
21

21

Forces on aircraft - steady level flight

For steady level flight 𝐿

Lift 𝐿 = Weight 𝑊 𝑇

The lift is fixed by weight of the aircraft,

its fuel and the payload. 𝐷
𝑊
Net Thrust 𝑇 = Drag 𝐷

The drag is a quantity that we wish to minimize, as it 1

must be matched by engines through burning the fuel. 𝐿=𝐶 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
2
↓
The velocity 𝑉 in level flight can be express as a function of wing
loading (Weight/Area 𝑆), lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 and air density ρ 2 𝑊
𝑉=
𝜌𝐶𝐿 𝑆 22

22

11
 9/11/2024

Forces on aircraft – steady climb

Top of climb ≈0.33o
During steady climb at a fixed angle 𝜃 𝐿
𝑇

𝐿 = 𝑊 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 
𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐷
𝑊
So the ability to climb depends on the difference between net thrust and drag

𝑇 1
≅ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑊 𝐿
𝐷
𝐷 𝐿 𝑊 1
= ≅
𝑊 𝐿 𝐿
𝐷 𝐷 23

23

Specific fuel consumption, SFC

SFC (fuel flow rate, 𝑚̇ , divided by thrust, 𝑇), is a key quantity in determining the
“quality” of aircraft,
𝑚̇
SFC = (4)
𝑇

Correct units: [(kg/s)/N] - kilograms of fuel per second-Newton

Normal units: [(kg/s)/kg] - kilograms of fuel per second-kilograms
or
Industry standard: [(lb/hr)/lbf] - pounds of fuel per hour-pound of thrust
or
often quoted unit: [mg/(N·s)] SI unit =101,972 (1/X) [ g/(kN·s) ]

Imperial Unit =3,600 (1/X) [ lb/(lbf·h) ]

24

24

12
 9/11/2024

Typical SFC values

Engine type Scenario (lb/lbf·h) (g/kN·s)

NK-33 rocket engine Vacuum 10.9 308
SSME rocket engine Space shuttle vacuum 7.95 225
Ramjet Mach 1 4.5 130
J-58 turbojet SR-71 at Mach 3.2 (Wet) 1.9 54
Eurojet EJ200 Reheat 1.66–1.73 47–49
Rolls-Royce/Snecm Concorde Mach 2 cruise
1.195 33.8
Olympus 593 turbojet (Dry)
Eurojet EJ200 Dry 0.74–0.81 21–23
CF6-80C2B1F turbofan Boeing 747-400 cruise 0.605 17.1
General Electric CF6
Sea level 0.307 8.7
turbofan
25

25

Typical SFC values

SL Thrust SL SFC Cruise SFC Introduction

GE 90 400 kN 15.4 g/(kN⋅s) 1995
RR Trent 316–406 kN 15.8–16.0 g/(kN⋅s) 1995
PW4000 230–370 kN 9.9–10.2 g/(kN⋅s) 1986-1994
RB211 192–270 kN 15.9–17.2 g/(kN⋅s) 16.1–16.9 g/(kN⋅s) 1984-1989
IAE V2500 98–147 kN 9.6–10.5 g/(kN⋅s) 16.3–16.5 g/(kN⋅s) 1989-1994
CFM56 92–139 kN 9.1–10.2 g/(kN⋅s) 15.4–18.9 g/(kN⋅s) 1986-1997
RR Spey 44–51 kN 16 g/(kN⋅s) 22.7 g/(kN⋅s) 1968-1969

26

26

13
 9/11/2024

Overall efficiency without transmission loss, 𝜂

Now we will define an overall propulsion system efficiency:

propulsive power
Overall efficiency, 𝜂 =
fuel power (5)

For turbo engine powered aircraft

Propuslive power = thrust × flight velocity = 𝑇 × 𝑉 [J/s]

Fuel power = fuel mass flow rate × fuel energy per unit mass =𝑚̇ × 𝐸 ∗ [J/s]

𝑇 𝑉
𝜂 = (6)
𝑚̇ 𝐸 ∗
𝑉
𝜂 𝐸∗ =
𝑆𝐹𝐶
27

27

Typical subsonic cruise, 80% throttle, min SFC

Turbofan Efficiency, 𝜂
GE90 36.1%
PW4000 34.8%
PW2037 35.1% (M.87 40K)
PW2037 33.5% (M.80 35K)
CFM56-2 30.5%
TFE731-2 23.4%

28

28

14
 9/11/2024

Derivation of Breguet range equation for turbo powered aircraft

As fuel is burnt to provide thrust, the aircraft becomes lighter,

hence less lift is required.
Thus less drag is produced so less thrust is needed, leading to
slower burning of fuel.
𝑉

∆𝑠 Over time ∆𝑡
The weight change is: 𝑠

𝑑𝑊 𝐿 𝑔 SFC 𝑊 Louis C Breguet

= −𝑔 𝑚̇ = −𝑔 SFC 𝑇 = −𝑔 SFC × =− (1880 – 1955)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿/𝐷 𝐿/𝐷

⟶ =− 𝑑𝑡 = − ×
/ /
29

29

Breguet range equation (l’équation de Breguet)

The Brequet range equation for conventional, turbo powered aircraft is

structure
1 𝑉 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅= 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑙𝑛 (7)
𝑔 SFC 𝐷 𝑊
where
propulsion aerodynamics
R is the range, in metres.
g is the gravitational constant.
V is the cruise velocity.
L/D is the aircraft’s lift/drag ratio (a measure of its
aerodynamic efficiency).
Wi is the aircraft weight (a measure of the
vehicle size) at the beginning of a flight segment.
Wi+1 is the weight of aircraft at the end of a flight segment. 30

30

15
 9/11/2024

Example on SFC and efficiency, 𝜂

The Airbus A380-800 has the following (published) performance

characteristics:

Max T-O mass = 560 tonnes (→ W0 = 5.49  106 N)

Max fuel capacity = 310 000 litres (→ Wf = 2.37  106 N) @840.0 g/L
Max range = 15200 km (= 1.52 x 107 m)
Cruise Mach number = 0.85 (→ V = 250 m/s)

Assuming the lift/drag ratio in cruise is 16, estimate SFC, and ηo for the R-R
Trent 963 engines (4 off) that power the aircraft.

31

Example solution

Assume cruise segment account for most of the consumption.

W0 = 5.49  106 N
Wf = 2.37  106 N
R = 1.52 x 107 m
V = 250 m/s
𝐿/𝐷 = 16
𝐸∗ = 43.03 x 107 J/kg for Jet-A
≈ 11,950 kWh/kg (as Wh/kg = 3.6 kJ/kg)

32

16
 9/11/2024

Example solution

Hence in eq. (7):

𝑉 1 𝐿 𝑊
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = × × × ln
𝑔 𝑅 𝐷 𝑊 −𝑊
250
250 m/s 1 1 5.49 5.49
=
= × × × 16 × ln × 16 × ln
9.81 1.52 × 10
9.81 m/s 1.52 × 10 m 5.9 − 2.37 5.9 − 2.37
= 1.516 × 10 kg/s/N
= 1.516 × 10 kg/s/N = 15.16 g/ kN s = 15.16 mg/ N s

Reality check: compare with data published in Mattingley Table B3 for

RB211-882 (Trent 800 for B777): units of pound-mass (lbm) and pound-force (lbf)

𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 0.557 lbm/hour/lbf

0.4536
0.4536 11 𝐸∗ 𝜂 = →
=
= 0.557
0.557 ×
× ×
×
3600
3600 4.448
4.448 𝑉 250
= 1.58 × 10 kg/s/N 𝜂 = ∗
=
= 1.58 × 10 kg/s/N 𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝐸 1.516 × 10 × 11.95 × 3600
The value calculated therefore looks reasonable. = 38.3%

33

Derivation of range equation for electric aircraft

As electrically-powered aircrafts use batteries, there is no weight change due

to fuel consumption.

The total energy contained in the battery (in J) is:

𝑇⋅𝑅
𝐸 = 𝐸 : energy, J; 𝐸 ∗ : specific energy, J/kg
𝜂
𝑊
𝐸 ⋅𝜂 𝐸∗ ⋅
𝑔 ⋅𝜂 1 ∗ 𝐿 𝑊
⟶𝑅= = = ⋅𝐸 ⋅𝜂 ⋅ ⋅( )
𝑇 𝐿 𝑔 𝐷 𝑊
𝑊 𝐷

Source: http://web.mit.edu/lochie/www/erange/main.html 34

34

17
 9/11/2024

Range equation for electrically-powered aircraft

Range equation for electrically-powered aircraft is structure

1 ∗ 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅= 𝐸 η (8)
𝑔 𝐷 𝑊
where

R is the range, in metres. propulsion aerodynamics

g is the gravitational constant.

∗
𝐸 is the battery specific energy in J/kg.
𝜂 is the whole-chain propulsion efficiency.
L/D is lift/drag ratio.
Wbatt is the battery weight.
W is the total weight of aircraft (constant).
Source: http://web.mit.edu/lochie/www/erange/main.html
35

35

Cruise segment fuel calculation for turbo powered aircraft

Fuel used for cruise

𝑊 / (9)
=𝑒
𝑊

SFC: engine efficiency [lb/hr/lbf] or [g/kN∙s]

Typical values of SFC, 𝐿/𝐷 for transport aircraft
Typical cruise Mach Number is: 0.76 < 𝑀𝑎 < 0.86
Typical SFC: 0.5 < 𝑆𝐹𝐶 < 0.6 [pounds of fuel per hour per pound of thrust]
Typical 𝐿/𝐷 : 14 < 𝐿/𝐷 < 21 For aircraft with conventional configuration

Commonly used units are:

Range: nautical mile
Speed: nautical mile/hr
SFC: 1/hr
When using International System of Unit, pay special attention to the influence of g 36

36

18
 9/11/2024

Fuel fraction summary

𝑊 𝑊
Takeoff Weight 𝑊 = =
1−𝑀 −𝑀 𝑊 𝑊 (10)
1− −
𝑊 𝑊

Final Weight Fraction 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊

𝑀 = = = (11)
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
∗
𝐸
Fuel Weight 𝑊
Fraction Used 𝑀 , = =1−𝑀 −𝑀 , (12)
𝑊

𝑊 ,
Nominal Landing Weight =𝑀 +𝑀 , (13)
𝑊

𝑊, 𝑊 𝑊
Reserve Fuel Fraction 𝑀 , = = 1− (14)
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
37

37

Example of range estimation: Airbus A320neo

Using SFC,
Typical values of SFC : CFM International LEAP: 15–16 g/kN/s.
Manufacturer data:
 𝑊 = 79 × 10 𝑘𝑔
 𝑊 = 44.3 × 10 𝑘𝑔
 𝑊 = 40.3 − 40.6 × 10 𝑘𝑔
 Fuel capacity = 26,730 𝑙 ≈ 26,730 × 0.84 𝑘𝑔 = 22,453 𝑘𝑔
 Speed = Cruise: 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 0.78 (450 𝑘𝑛; 833 𝑘𝑚/ℎ) 231.4 𝑚/𝑠
 Range = 6500 𝑘𝑚

38

38

19
 9/11/2024

Example of range estimation: Airbus A320neo

w_(i+1)/w_i ln(W_i/W_(i+1)) V L/D V/SFC frac range km
Engine start, warm up and taxi out 0.98 231.4 0
Take off and initial climb to 1500ft 0.995 0.005012542 231.4 19 14.929 145.0832217
Climb to cruise altitude 0.98 0.020202707 231.4 19 14.929 584.7480118
Cruise cal 231.4 19 14.929 ?
Descent 0.99 0.010050336 231.4 19 14.929 290.8973444
Approach and landing 0.992 0.008032172 231.4 19 14.929 232.483516
Taxi in 0.99 0.010050336 231.4 19 14.929
Abort landing and take off 0.98 0.020202707 231.4 19 14.929 584.7480118
Climb to diversion cruise altitude 0.98 0.020202707 231.4 19 14.929 584.7480118
Economy cruise (200nm) 0.985 0.015113638 231.4 19 14.929 370.4
Descent 0.99 0.010050336 231.4 19 14.929 290.8973444
Approach and Landing 0.992 0.008032172 231.4 19 14.929 232.483516

Use the max range based on fuel capacity: 3316.488978

1 231.4 79
𝑅= 19 10 ln = 9.678 × 10 𝑚 = 9678 km
9.8 15.5 79 − 22.453
The estimated range is therefore: 9678 − 3316 = 6362 km, which is closed to 6500 km.

39

39

General

The maximum payload in tons is taken as the difference between the standard passenger OEW
(operating empty weight) and the MZFW (maximum zero fuel weight)
Total fuel consumption for the maximum range-maximum payload point is the difference
between MZFW and MTOW(maximum take-off weight)
Matlab code
→ Inputs:
• Mass properties (payload, empty weight,
fuel weight, battery weight)
• Propulsion parameters (thrust, TSFC,
energy density, efficiency)
• Operating conditions (L/D, speed)
• Mission segment weight ratio
consideration
→ Outputs:
• Propulsive efficiency
• Cruise range and flight time
Typical payload diagram for fuel powered aircraft
• Total mission range and flight time
Source: Aircraft Payload-Range Analysis for Financiers

40

20
 9/11/2024

A typical payload-range diagram.

→ For all aircraft, there is a natural trade-

off between its payload and range
performance. The typical shape of the
curve is such that the aircraft is able
to carry a maximum payload over a
specified range – as illustrated in the
grey area along points “A” to “B”.

→ Longer ranges can be flown if an operator is

willing to reduce its payload in exchange
for fuel – as illustrated in the blue area
along points “B” to “C”.

→ The trade-off continues until point “C”,

which is the maximum operational range
with full fuel tanks. Along points “C”
and “D” fuel is maxed out therefore the
trade-off is one of compromising payload in
order to achieve greater range. 41

41

Payload-range diagrams
At Point A, the aircraft is at maximum
Along with
payload Points no fuelA to B – maximum
on-board. When
Point
payload B represents
range; fuel the maximum
istoadded so
Along
the aircraft Points B
is carrying maximum C – payload
range
that alimited the
certain aircraft can fly with
payload its byrange
capacity canpayload
is limited
MTOW; bebyflown.
its is
MZFW. maximum
Maximum If the payload.
payload
manufacturer is Itcan
is a at
achieved
At Pointtraded C thefor fuel
maximum to attain fuelgreater
volume
Along characteristic
Points C to D feature
– payload of the
aircraft
limited
increase
the
capacity this
expense
range. design
hasThe of
been weight
range
higher and
reached then
the MTOW,and thisby
more the
is
fuel; design
only
payload
decision payload
cantobethat when
can
carried.
operate be an aircraft is
offloaded
Alternatively,
at design to at
make
where morethe fuel
aircraft or
Finally, at Point D the aircraft is payload
is most can be
structurally
thegiven maximum
the lighter,
aircraft
limitations MZFW is payload,
is a fixed
thereby
purely the
value,fuel tanks
improving
a financial its
theoretically carried.
efficient atinthe
termsThe more
of
Operator’s fuel fuel carried,
carriage,
Empty and the
whereas
range are the
not
capability.
one.The OEW
full,
topside varies
which
Generallyof the according
explains
speaking
envelope whywith
it
isin
is
Weight greater
represents
(OEW), and therange
the range.
maximum This
flown attends
ifrange thiswithto full
be
notthe
point
airline’s
fuel
is
orderbyto
commercially
limited the
tanks
considered
operating
region
increase
the
where sound
Maximum
of
the a
items,
theoperate
to
greatest
reasonable
maximum
the
range
Zero airline
in this
Fuel
interestpayload
ferry- in
can lower
region beyond
because the this
OEW thenwe
point the aircraft
need to is
range.Weight
canThis
capable terms
be ofit performance.
(MZFW).
carried.
condition
of carrying
requires
However,
is typically
more
large this
payload.
reductions
The
used can first
be
when
increase fuel at the expense of
in payload
the istodelivered
angled
misleading
aircraft achieve
as theofsmall
part the
reduced
to increases
itsenvelope inat
is(i.e.,
payload
customer
range. payload.
Maximum design takeoff weight (MDTOW)
Is the maximum certificated design weight when the brakes are the thisThe orsecond
limited
point
airline) may
whenby aangled
the
in fact part
Maximum
not
non-criticalbeofeconomical
the
Design
released for takeoff and is the greatest weight for which compliance
envelope is limited
at all.Takeoff
malfunction by
Weight
precludes the aircraft’s
the(MDTOW)
carrying of
with the relevant structural and engineering requirements has been Maximum Fuel Capacity (MFC).
passengers. 42
demonstrated by the manufacturer.

42

21
 9/11/2024

Cessna 172

Operator’s manual Lycoming

O-320 series (2006).

Expected range
M. Chen. Static thrust measurement for propeller-driven light
1290 km aircraft. The 2nd International Conference on Computer
Reserve NOT considered Application and System Modeling (2012).

Propulsive efficiency = 0.2655

Cruise range = 2060 km
Cruise flight time = 9.13 hours
Mission range = 1118 km
Mission flight time = 4.94 hours

43

Boeing 747-400

15370 km
Reserve used
https://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/articles/2010_q3/2/

Propulsive efficiency = 0.3548

Cruise range = 19000 km
Cruise flight time = 20.38 hours
Mission range = 14870 km
Mission flight time = 15.95 hours
Exercise: Increase the payload to maximum allowed payload and observe the effect on the range
(fuel load has to be adjusted to comply with the MTOW)
44

22
 9/11/2024

Airbus A320neo
https://www.noticiaslatamsales.com/noticias/january-2011/a320neo-
leaping-fuel-efficiency/

7500 km

Reserve used

Propulsive efficiency = 0.3456

Cruise range = 9159 km
Cruise flight time = 11.00 hours
Mission range = 5128 km
Mission flight time = 6.15 hours

45

Airbus E-Fan
Electric propulsion considerations: Adapted from: https://www.mpoweruk.com/performance.htm
Battery discharge curves
→ Aircraft mass is constant over time Vfull – A – Vexp = exponential zone
→ Short flights lead to low cruise-to-mission time ratio Vfull
A Vfull – B – Vnom = Nominal zone
Vexp
→ Energy consumption rate is maximum at take-off and climb Vnom
B
→ Battery not 100% charged for durability
→ Battery discharge varies over time, need to be considered

Expected endurance 1 hour

Cruise-ratio for short flight 55%
Propulsive efficiency = 0.84
Cruise range = 310 km
Cruise flight time = 1.95 hours
Mission range = 270 km
Exercise: Increase the battery mass and observe the effect on the range Mission flight time = 1.07 hours
46

23
 9/11/2024

Historical trend Line for WE

What we know: historical data from similar aircraft can be used

What we also know: the new aircraft should be better
Operating Empty Weight [1,000kg]
300
0.079
WOE W  A3XX-100

250  0.82 MTOW 

WMTOW  1000 

200
B747-400
B747-200 A340-600
B747-100 A340-500
B777-300
150
B777-200 B777-200IGW
A340-300
A330-200A340-200
A330-300
WOE
100  0.5 *WMTOW
B767-300ER A300-600R
B767-300
B767-200 B767-200ER
A310-300
WMTOW
B757-300 B707-320C
B757-200
50 B727-200Adv A321-200
A320-200
B737-800 A319-100
B737-700
B737-600
B737-400
B737-300
B717-200
B737-500
B737-200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Maximum Takeoff Weight [1000kg] 47

47

Trapped fuel

Trapped fuel is typically small, as percentage of aircraft take-off weight

And can be estimated using

0.001 < 𝑀 < 0.005

Can also be ignored at this stage

/ /
𝑀 = 0.227 𝑀 𝑊 (15)

48

48

24
 9/11/2024

The first weight estimate

Mission
requirement

Concept Sketch Initial Sizing

Aspect Ratio
Swet/Sref

L/D WFuel/W0
Estimates
Engine
SFC W0 guess
selection

W0
WE/W0 iterate
equation
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 = = (10) Calculated W0 and
1−𝑀 −𝑀 𝑊 𝑊
1− − WFuel
𝑊 𝑊
49

49

Estimation of SFC

SFC: is the fuel mass required to provide specific net thrust for a given period,
[lb/hr/lbf], or [kg/(kN∙h)] , or [g/(KN∙s)]

SFC Energy Density 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

Engine
(mg/Ns) (MJ/kg) 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑖𝑛 :
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
Turbofan
7.5 43
(Takeoff, M0.1) RR Trent: 15.8–16.0 g/(kN⋅s)
Turbofan CFM56: 15.4–18.9 g/(kN⋅s)
15 43
(Cruise, M0.9) RB211: 16.1–16.9 g/(kN⋅s)
Turbofan GE90: 15.4 g/(kN⋅s)
30 43 CFM International LEAP: 15–16 g/(kN⋅s)
(with Afterburning, M1.5)

50

50

25
 9/11/2024

Estimation of 𝐿/𝐷

The overall aerodynamic efficiency.

At subsonic speed, mostly affected
Wingspan
Wetted area
In level flight, 𝐿 = 𝑊, 𝐿/𝐷 depends on 𝐷.
Drag is composed of
Induced drag, caused by the generation of lift.
Zero-lift drag, primarily skin-friction drag and directly related to the
total exposed surface area of the aircraft.
Historical data of similar aircraft are often used.

51

51

Drag

The total drag coefficient of an aircraft can be written as

𝐶 =𝐶 , +𝐶 ,
𝐶 is the total drag coefficient for a given power, speed, and altitude.
𝐶 , zero-lift drag coefficient.
𝐶 , is the lift-induced drag coefficient at the same conditions.

The lift-induced drag coefficient can be written as

𝐶
𝐶 , =
𝜋 𝐴𝑅 𝜀
where AR is the aspect ratio, and ϵ is the aircraft's efficiency factor
(=1 for an elliptic distribution). 52

52

26
 9/11/2024

Weight estimation iteration example

Source: Aircraft deign: a conceptual approach, 4th ed., AIAA, 2006. 53

53

A simplified approach to compute fuel weight

Based on engine SFC

𝑊 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 𝑇 × ∆𝑡 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 𝐷 × ∆𝑡

Equivalent Still Air Range (ESAR)

𝑔
𝑀 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × × ∆𝑡
𝐿/𝐷
𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑅 = 568 + 1063 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑚 (16)

𝑔 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑅
𝑀 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × ×
𝐿/𝐷 𝑉

These values are based on historical data 54

54

27
 9/11/2024

An example of jet transport aircraft

Initial weight estimation of a civil jet aircraft of B737/A320 class

Design requirement
Seat 180
Range 2000

Passenger weight@75kg/p-p 13500

Passenger baggage(@20kg/p-p) 3600
Load 17100
WOEW/WTO 0.51 Based on past data
L/D 19 Good aerodynamics
SFC 0.7 (kg/hr/kg)
ESAR 4989.288 568+1.063*range
Cruise speed 925.9992 500kt, 257.7m/s
MF/MTO 0.198505 SFC/(L/D)*(ESAR/V)
WTO 58663.19 55

55

Refined weight estimation

56

28
 9/11/2024

Weight estimate needs to be refined

The first weight estimate has been made based on mission profile, engine
properties, aerodynamic characters, data from similar aircraft – it is fast, but it is
relatively crude.
The weight estimate needs to be refined
Calculate weight based on component groups
─ Wing, engine, fuselage, control surfaces, tail, systems.
─ Geometry parameters, historical data and empirical interpolations are used.
Weight calculation will be progressively refined, with the availability of CAD
data.

57

57

Detailed mass calculation

Symbol Description
𝑀𝐵 Fuselage including wing attachment

𝑀𝑇 Tail surfaces (tailplane, elevators+Fin+Rudder)

𝑀𝑤 Wing including control surfaces and flaps Notes:

𝑀𝐸𝑁𝐺 Engine + nacelle

𝑀𝑈𝐶 Undercarriage (including nose and main) 1. For fuselage mounted main undercarriage, the
𝑀𝑆𝐶 Surface controls wing mass is reduced by 5%
𝑀𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃 Propulsion system

𝑀𝐹𝐼𝑋 Fixed equipment (electrical and hydraulic) 2. For initial calculations on the flaps, typical values
Operational items (residual value + oils + safety for trailing edge flaps are 20-70% kg/m2, and
𝑀𝑂𝑃
equipment) leading-edge slats are 30 kg/m2
𝑀𝑂𝐸 Operational empty
𝑀𝐶𝑅 Crew
𝑀𝑃𝐿 Payload
𝑀𝐹 Fuel
𝑀𝑇𝑂 Take-off weight
𝑅 Inertia relief
58
Source: Simon, Newman, “Aircraft Design Handbook”, University of Southampton

58

29
 9/11/2024

Fuselage group

Symbol Description
𝑀𝐵 Fuselage mass
𝐿𝐹 Fuselage length
𝐷𝐹 Fuselage diameter
𝑉𝐷 Aircraft max. speed
𝑀 = 0.039 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝐿 ⋅ 𝐷 𝑉 ) .

The fuselage mass needs to be adjusted with configurations

Δ Configuration Type
+8% Pressurized cabin
+4% Fuselage mounted engines
+7% Fuselage mounted undercarriage
+10% Large cargo door
-4% Fuselage free from discontinuity

59

59

Wing Group

The wing mass can be estimated by 𝑅 .

1−
. . . . 𝑀
𝑀 = 0.021265(𝑀 ⋅𝑛 ) ⋅ 𝑆 ⋅ 𝐴𝑅 ⋅ 1 + 𝑇𝑅 ⋅ .
𝑡
Λ
in which, 𝑅 = 𝑀 + 𝑀 + 2 ⋅ 𝑀 ⋅𝐵 2⋅𝑀 ⋅𝐵 𝑐
+
0.4 ⋅ 𝐵 0.4 ⋅ 𝐵
Symbol Description
NULT Ultimate load factor
SREF Gross wing area
Notes :
ARwing Wing aspect ratio
TRwing Wing taper ratio 1. Multiply kFLAP by 1.25 if the flaps are of the
t/cwing
Λwing
Wing average thickness/chord ratio
Quarter chord sweepback angle
extending type.
BIE Distance between inboard engines 2.20% reduction can be used if a composite
BOE
B
Distance between outboard engines
Wingspan
structure is used.
BFLAP Flap span 3.Twin-engine, 33%-38% half span
SFLAP
DFLAND
Flap area
Landing flap deflection (degree)
4.Four-engine, inner engine 30%-37%, outer
Vappr Approach speed engine 55%-67% half span
t/cflap Flap thickness chord ratio
KFLAP Flap complexity factor 60

60

30
 9/11/2024

Wing group – flap mass

The flap mass can be estimated by

.
.
0.0002 ⋅ 𝑉 ⋅ sin( 𝐷 )
𝑀 = 2.706 ⋅ 𝐾 ⋅𝑆 ⋅ 𝐵 ⋅𝑆 ⋅
𝑡/𝑐

𝑲𝑭𝑳𝑨𝑷
1.0 Single slot
1.15 Double slot
1.15 Single slot + Fowler
1.30 Double slot + Fowler

61

61

Tail group

The tail mass can be estimated by

𝑀 =𝑀 +𝑀 =𝑆 ⋅𝑘 +𝑆 ⋅𝑘

Symbol Description
𝑀𝑇 Tail mass
𝑀𝐻 Mass of Tailplane + Elevator
𝑀𝑉 Mass of Fin + Rudder
𝑆𝐻 Area of Tailplane + elevator
𝑆𝑉 Area of Fin + Rudder
𝑘𝐻
Statistical Densities
𝑘𝑉
Notes:
Values for kH and kV ranges from 22-32 kg/m2, typical values are kH=25, kV=28kg/m2.
62

62

31
 9/11/2024

Mass of nacelle, landing gear

Nacelle mass can be estimated by

6.8 ⋅ 𝑇 (𝑇 < 600𝑘𝑁) 𝑀
𝑀 = or = 1.2% 𝑡𝑜 2.2%
2760 + 2.2 ⋅ 𝑇 (𝑇 > 600𝑘𝑁) 𝑀

Symbol Description
𝑀𝑁 Nacelle mass
Landing gear mass
𝑇 Total Static Engine Thrust
𝑀 4.45% (𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠)
=
𝑀 4.35% (𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠 )
Surface controls (movable surfaces on the wing not included in the flaps)
.
𝑀 = 0.4 ⋅ 𝑀

𝑀 can be reduced by 25% for a simple control system without leading edge device.

63

63

Propulsion group

The mass of engine group, including engine, reverse bucket, systems, can be
estimated by
1.43 ⋅ 𝑀 (𝑀 < 10000𝑘𝑔)
𝑀 =
1.16𝑀 + 2700 (𝑀 > 10000𝑘𝑔)
In which
𝑀 Symbol Description
= 8.7 + 1.14 ⋅ 𝐵𝑃𝑅
𝑇 𝑀𝑒 Engine bare mass
𝑇 Engine Static Thrust
BPR Bypass Ratio
Notes:
Multiply by 1.08 if the aircraft has high wings and wing mounted undercarriages

64

64

32
 9/11/2024

Fixed equipment and operational items

Fixed equipment includes flight control systems and furnishings

𝑀 14% 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝐻𝑎𝑢𝑙
= 11% 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 − 𝐻𝑎𝑢𝑙
𝑀 8% 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 − 𝐻𝑎𝑢𝑙
Operational Items include
- Crew provisions including maps and flight manuals – 10kg
- Cabin supplies per passenger, add - Water and toilet provision per passenger
2.27kg for first class passenger
Short – range service 0.68
Commuter Service 0.45 Medium – range service 1.36
Snack – only Service 2.27 Long – Range Service 2.95
Medium – Range Service 6.25
Long – Range Service 8.62
⁄
- Residual oil and fuel 𝑀 = 0.151 ⋅ 𝑉
- Safety equipment per passenger Symbol Description
Short over land 0.68 𝑀𝑅𝑂𝐹 Residual Oil and Fuel Mass
Over-water & extended flights 1.36 𝑉 Fuel capacity (ltr)
65

65

Fuel tank volume

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.33𝐿[𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 0.5(𝑆1 + 𝑆2)]

a1
Base area S1 L

b1 Base area S2

b2
a2

66

66

33
 9/11/2024

Locating the wing group center of gravity (C.G.)

Fuselage
centerline
wing C.G. at 0.7(𝑋𝑟𝑠 − 𝑋 )

𝑋𝑟𝑠: x coordinate of rear spar.

𝑋𝑓𝑠 : x coordinate of front spar.

𝑋𝑟𝑠 − 𝑋
front spar at 0.25c
rear spar at 0.6c

0.35𝑏/2

𝑏/2
67

67

Locating the fuselage group C.G.

0.42-0.45𝐿 0.47𝐿

𝐿
𝐿

Wing-mounted engines Fuselage-mounted engines 68

68

34
 9/11/2024

Tail group C.G. location

Wing-mounted engines

0.42𝑐 0.42c
𝑏 /2

0.38𝑏 /2
0.38 ℎ

Fuselage-mounted engines

0.42𝑐
0.42𝑐

ℎ
0.55 ℎ v
0.38𝑏 /2 69

69

Landing gear weight and C.G. location

Wing-mounted engines

0.17𝐿 Locating the landing gear and using the

0.55𝐿 weight estimates shown permits
determination of the landing gear CG.

Aft-fuselage-mounted engines

0.14𝐿
0.6𝐿 70

70

35
 9/11/2024

Determination of collective C.G

fuselage skin
centerline
main landing gear CG at rear spar and Y=0.22(b/2)
wing group CG at 0.7(𝑋𝑟𝑠 − 𝑋𝑓𝑠 )

fuel tank
front spar at 0.25c

rear spar at 0.55c to 0.6c

0.35b/2

0.45b/2

b/2
∑ 𝑀𝑥 ∑ 𝑀𝑧
𝑥= 𝑧=
∑𝑀 ∑𝑀 71

71

Results: aircraft weight table

Group Weight (kg) Xcg
Wing group
Tail group
Body group
Landing gear group
Surface controls group
Nacelle group
Propulsion group
Airframe services and
equipment
Empty weight (WE)
Operational items
Operational empty weight (WOE)

Payload weight (WPL)

Fuel Weight (WF)
72
Take-off Weight
72

36
 9/11/2024

Locating the Center of Gravity – elevation view

𝑋 𝑀𝐴𝐶
𝑋

𝑀𝐴𝐶: Mean Aerodynamic Chord. 𝑋 : x coordinate of Leading Edge of Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
𝑋 : x coordinate of Fuselage Group. 𝑋 : x coordinate of Wing Group.
73
𝑋 : x coordinate of Operational Empty mass.

73

Locating the Center of Gravity – plan view

𝑀𝐴𝐶

𝑋 𝑋 74

74

37
 9/11/2024

Aircraft balance diagram – (I)

Aircraft weight varies with the load and flight.

Variations of C.G. position affects
Stability
Control
Critical loads on the landing gear and tail surfaces.
C.G. variation will be presented in the balance diagram.

75

75

Aircraft Balance Diagram (II)

A-A’: decided from aircraft operational empty weight

A-B, or A’B’: window seats being taken by passengers

B-C, or B’C’: aisles seats being taken

C-D, or C’D’: remaining seats being taken

E, cargo loaded into front cargo bay

F, rear cargo bay is loaded

G, fuel is added

I,J, cargo loaded for the most rearward C.G. location

76

76

38
 9/11/2024

Aircraft balance diagram (III)

77

77

Aircraft payload-range diagram

Start from Aircraft OEM

Fuel being added until reaching
the volume capacity
Maximum payload maybe set by
either fuselage space or by
structural strength
Fuel reserve
Aircraft is designed to a MTOW
After which, compromise must be
made between payload and range
The diagram is also limited by the
allowable maximum landing mass
(MLM)

78

78

39
 9/11/2024

Summary

Aircraft structural design strongly affected by the load factor.

Aircraft component breakdown and parametric estimation.
C.G. positioning very important for control, stability, payload/range.
Use aircraft payload range diagram to decide how far can an aircraft fly
certain payload.

79

79

40