Reservoir Engineering

Lecture 1

Dr. Rehab M. El-Maghraby

1. Formation
Natural gas and crude oil, have been generated
from organic debris (decomposed organic matter)
that has been deposited in geologic time and have
been embedded along with inorganic matter at a
considerable depth below the surface of the Earth.

This organic matter is the remains of ancient flora

and fauna that was deposited over the past 550
million years. This organic debris is mixed with
mud, silt, and sand on the sea floor, gradually
becoming buried over time and is sealed off in an
oxygen-free (anaerobic) environment.

Exposure of the organic matter to pressure and an unknown temperature, the organic
matter undergoes a decomposition process in which the products of the process
(hydrocarbon derivatives and non-hydrocarbon derivatives) are formed.
Because natural gas and crude oil are often found
with water in the reservoir, and because they are
less dense than water, the gas and oil would rise
vertically and escape to the atmosphere.
However, if a horizontal barrier is encountered (cap
rock), the migration of the gas and oil ceases and the
gas and oil is confined (referred to as gas-in-place).
Therefore, for gas/oil to accumulate, there are two
effects that are required to be present:
(i) the source rock, which contains the compacted
organic debris from which the natural gas is/ oil produced
(ii) a porous formation which becomes the reservoir in
which the gas/ oil is stored.
Once the gas/oil are formed, its fate depends on two
critical characteristics of the surrounding rock:
(i) Porosity (ii) permeability.
After natural gas and crude oil form (or, the
precursors to natural gas and crude oil form),
they will tend to rise toward the surface through
pore spaces in the rock because of its low
density compared to the surrounding rock.
Thus, at some point during or after the
maturation process, the gas and crude oil
migrated from the source rock either upward or
sideways or in both directions where there is a
decrease in hydrostatic pressure (subject to the
structure of the accompanying and overlying
geological formations) through the underground
sediments through fissures and faults until the
gas/oil enter a geological formation (reservoir) Fig. :Formation of oil and gas accumulations.
that retains or traps the gas through the I: Initial phase of primary and secondary migration.
presence of impermeable basement rock and II: Advanced stage of primary and secondary migration
and formation of accumulation.
cap rock.
Three forces relating to how hydrocarbons move in
porous rocks are a gravity force, a buoyancy force
and a capillary force. In order for hydrocarbons to
migrate, the buoyancy force must overcome gravity
and capillary pressure.
Hydrocarbons will naturally flow through reservoir
rocks until they are stopped by impermeable
structures. Then they begin to accumulate. If there
is no trap, hydrocarbon will reach surface and this is
called “oil seepage.”

The reservoir may be many miles from the source

rock.
What is a Reservoir?
Figure 1.1 is a schematic of an oil field, which also contains gas, contained underneath
impermeable cap rock.

➢ Usually, the oil is several kilometres

below ground,
➢ The depth of the column of oil itself is
often less than 100 m.
➢ The areal extent is generally several
square kilometres.
➢ The total volume of oil-bearing rock is
typically around 109 m3, with a huge
variation.
➢ A typical geothermal gradient is 30oC/km,
giving temperatures of around 100oC for
reservoirs a few kilometers deep.
What is a Reservoir?
Figure 1.1 is a schematic of an oil field, which also contains gas, contained underneath
impermeable cap rock.

Oil and gas accumulations occur in

underground traps formed by structural
and/or stratigraphic features.
The gas and oil are held in the pore
spaces of the rock at high temperatures
and pressures. What does this mean?
 What is a Porous Medium?

Soils, sand, gravel, sedimentary rock and fractured rock

all have some void space — i.e. gaps between the solid,
as shown in Fig. 1.2. These systems are all porous media.
The hydrocarbon accumulations usually occur in the
more porous and permeable portion of beds, which are
mainly sands, sandstones, limestones, and dolomites; in
the intergranular openings; or in pore spaces caused by
joints, fractures, and solution activity.
In order to gas and oil to accumulate, the
reservoir formation must be of a suitable
porosity. Porosity refers to the amount of empty
space contained within the grains of a rock.
Highly porous rocks, such as a sandstone
formation, typically has a porosity on the order
of 5–25% v/v (percent volume of the rock),
which gives the formation a substantial amount
of space for the storage of fluids.

The term “reservoir fluids” includes natural gas,

crude oil, and water.
What is a Porous Medium?

If this space is continuous, it is possible for a fluid that occupies the voids to
flow through the system — the material is said to be permeable.
The term “permeability” is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces in a rock
are interconnected and, therefore amenable to fluid flow.

A highly permeable rock will permit gas and liquids to flow easily through the rock, while
a low-permeability rock will not allow fluids to pass through. This latter property is
characteristic of shale formations and tight formations.
What is a Porous Medium?
Consolidated rock is normally found deep underground where
the individual particles have fused together. Volcanic rock that
does not naturally contain any void space can still be permeable
if it has a continuous pathway of fractures.
In modern petroleum engineering, oil
fields are detected through seismic
imaging, where sound waves are sent
through the rock; the returning waves
detect changes in the acoustic properties
of the rock and can be used to detect
possible traps where hydrocarbons could
accumulate. It is also possible in some
cases to infer directly the likely presence
of hydrocarbons.
Then an exploration well is drilled. You can never be sure that you have an oil field until you have
drilled a well and oil is produced; the seismic image may have been wrongly interpreted, or the
field might contain oil, but the flow rate is so slow as to make production uneconomic.
When the well is drilled, fluid and rock samples can be collected and brought to the
surface for further analysis.
The term “natural gas” includes gases and low-boiling liquids (referred to as gas condensate or condensate).

Natural gas resources, like crude oil resources, are typically divided into two categories:
(i) conventional gas (ii) unconventional gas
The categorization of gaseous fuels is as follows:
Conventional natural gas
Associated gas
Non-associated gas
Gas condensate (including natural gasoline and low-boiling naphtha)

Unconventional gas
Biogas
Coalbed methane
Coal gas
Gas from geopressurized zones
Gas from tight formations (including shale gas) REPORT
Gas hydrates
Conventional gas is typically found in reservoirs with a permeability greater than 1
milliDarcy (>1 mD) and can be extracted by means of traditional recovery methods. In
contrast, unconventional gas is found in reservoirs with relatively low permeability (<1
mD) and hence cannot be extracted by conventional methods

However, some of these resources are trapped in reservoirs with poor-to-low

permeability or low-to-no permeability and porosity and, as a result, it is difficult (if not
impossible) for the gas/oil to flow through the pores and into a production well. To be
able to produce from these difficult reservoirs, specialized techniques and tools are used.
For example, the extraction of gas from
geopressurized zones and from tight formations
(including shale gas) often requires additional
steps to produce the gas. For example, the
recovery of gas/oil from tight (low-to-no
permeability) formations must include a hydraulic
fracturing step in which fractures are created are
created so that the gas/oil will flow to the
production well.
The evolution and the character of a specific reservoir is due to
(i) the age of the reservoir,
(ii) the depositional history of the reservoir,
(iii) the temperature history of the reservoir, which increases with the depth of the reservoir,
(iv) The pressure history, of the reservoir, which also increases with the depth of the reservoir,

This is critical to the properties of the oil and gas in a reservoir. Because of these effects,
the organic debris and any evolved hydrocarbon derivatives underwent millions of years
of natural transformation.

Generally, gas can be in the form of a gas cap on top of the oil zone or the gas can be
dissolved in crude oil. As the depth of the reservoir increases, the amount of gas in the
reservoir increases. Some of the most productive reservoirs occur at depths on the order
of 3,000–3,600 meter in which crude oil coexists with substantial quantities of gas. At
greater depths (e.g., on the order of and in excess of 5,200 meter), many reservoirs
contain almost exclusively natural gas.
What is a Reservoir Fluid?
A reservoir is that portion of the trapped formation that contains oil and/or gas as a single
hydraulically connected system. Often the hydrocarbon reservoir is hydraulically connected to a
volume of water-bearing rock called an aquifer.
➢ Many reservoirs are located in large sedimentary basins and share a common aquifer. When
this occurs, the production of fluid from one reservoir will cause the pressure to decline in
other reservoirs by fluid communication through the aquifer.
➢ Reservoir contain 3 types of fluids: Oil, Gas and Saline Water
What is a Reservoir Fluid?
Hydrocarbon fluids are mixtures of molecules containing carbon and hydrogen. Under initial
reservoir conditions, the hydrocarbon fluids are in either a single-phase or a two-phase state.
A single-phase reservoir fluid may be in a liquid phase (oil) or a gas phase (natural gas). In
either case, when produced to the surface, most hydrocarbon fluids will separate into gas and
liquid phases.
Gas produced at the surface from a fluid that is liquid in the reservoir is called dissolved gas.
Therefore, a volume of reservoir oil will produce both oil and the associated dissolved gas at the
surface, and both dissolved natural gas and crude oil volumes must be estimated.
What is a Reservoir Fluid?

On the other hand, liquid produced at the surface from a fluid that is gas in the reservoir is called
gas condensate because the liquid condenses from the gas phase. In this case, a volume of
reservoir gas will produce both natural gas and condensate at the surface, and both gas and
condensate volumes must be estimated.
What is a Reservoir Fluid?
Where the hydrocarbon accumulation is in a two-phase state, the overlying vapor phase is
called the gas cap and the underlying liquid phase is called the oil zone. There will be four types
of hydrocarbon volumes to be estimated when this occurs:
the free gas or associated gas,
the dissolved gas,
the oil in the oil zone, and
the recoverable natural gas liquid (condensate) from the gas cap.
Although the hydrocarbons in place are
fixed quantities, which are referred to
as the resource, the reserves depend
on the mechanisms by which the
reservoir is produced.
Crude Oil
Crude oil in the reservoir oil may be saturated with gas, the degree of saturation being a
function, among other effects, of reservoir pressure and reservoir temperature.
➢ If the crude oil has dissolved in it all the gas that the crude oil is capable of holding
under the reservoir conditions, the crude oil is referred to as saturated oil – any excess
gas (undissolved gas) is present in the form of a gas cap.
➢ If there is less gas present in the reservoir than the amount that may be dissolved in oil
under conditions of reservoir pressure and temperature, the crude oil is then termed
undersaturated.
Crude Oil
The pressure at which the gas begins to come out of solution is the saturation pressure (more
commonly referred to as the bubble-point pressure).

✓ In the case of saturated oil (at point 2), the

saturation pressure (bubble point pressure)
equals the reservoir pressure and the gas begins
coming out of solution as soon as the reservoir
pressure begins to decrease.

✓ In the case of undersaturated oil (at point 1), the

gas does not start coming out of solution until the
reservoir pressure drops to the level of saturation
pressure (bubble point pressure) .
CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS AND RESERVOIR FLUIDS

Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs. These broad classifications
are further subdivided depending on:

• The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture

• Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
• Pressure and temperature of the surface production

The conditions under which these phases exist are a matter of considerable practical importance. The
experimental or the mathematical determinations of these conditions are conveniently expressed in
different types of diagrams commonly called phase diagrams. One such diagram is called the pressure-
temperature diagram.
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
Figure 1-1 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of a multicomponent system with a
specific overall composition. Although a different hydrocarbon system would have a different phase
diagram, the general configuration is similar.

These multicomponent pressure-temperature diagrams are

essentially used to:
• Classify reservoirs
• Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
• Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid
 Pressure-Temperature Diagram

➢ Bubble-point curve (line AC) It is the line separating

the liquid-phase region from the two-phase region.
➢ Dew-point curve (line BC) It is the line separating
the vapor-phase region from the two-phase region.

➢ Critical point— It is the state of pressure and

temperature at which all intensive properties of
the gas and liquid phases are equal (point C).
At the critical point, the corresponding pressure
and temperature are called the critical pressure
(pc) and critical temperature (Tc) of the mixture.
 Pressure-Temperature Diagram

➢ Phase envelope (two-phase region)—The region

enclosed by the bubble- point curve and the dew-
point curve (line BCA), wherein gas and liquid
coexist in equilibrium, is identified as the phase
envelope of the hydrocarbon system.
➢ Quality lines—The dashed lines within the phase
diagram are called quality lines. They describe the
pressure and temperature conditions for equal
volumes of liquids. Note that the quality lines
converge at the critical point (point C).
Pressure-Temperature Diagram

➢ Cricondentherm (Tct)—It is the maximum

temperature above which liquid cannot be
formed regardless of pressure (point E). The
maximum temperature at which condensation
takes place at dew point curve. The
corresponding pressure is termed the
Cricondentherm pressure pct.

➢ Cricondenbar (pcb)— It is the maximum pressure

above which no gas can be formed regardless of
temperature (point D). The corresponding
temperature is called the Cricondenbar
temperature Tcb.
In general, reservoirs are conveniently classified on the
basis of the location of the point representing the initial
reservoir pressure pi and temperature Ti with respect to
the pressure-temperature diagram of the reservoir fluid.
Accordingly, reservoirs can be classified into basically two
types. These are:
➢ Oil reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature T is less
than the critical temperature Tc of the reservoir fluid,
the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
➢ Gas reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature is greater
than the critical temperature Tc of the hydrocarbon
fluid, the reservoir is considered a gas reservoir.
Oil Reservoirs
Depending upon initial reservoir pressure pi, oil reservoirs
can be subclassified into the following categories:
1. Undersaturated oil reservoir. If the initial reservoir
pressure pi (as represented by point 1), is greater than
the bubble-point pressure pb of the reservoir fluid, the
reservoir is labeled an undersaturated oil reservoir.
2. Saturated oil reservoir. When the initial reservoir
pressure is equal to the bubble-point pressure of the
reservoir fluid, as shown by point 2, the reservoir is
called a saturated oil reservoir.

3. Gas-cap reservoir. If the initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble-point pressure of the
reservoir fluid, as indicated by point 3, the reservoir is termed a gas-cap or two-phase reservoir, in
which the gas or vapor phase is underlain by an oil phase. The appropriate quality line gives the
ratio of the gas-cap volume to reservoir oil volume.
End of Lecture 1