EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FOR DIFFERENT QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES

MODULE 4
GROUNDED THEORY: What are the attitudes of elderly people with
Lesson 1: Research Design stroke towards the daily use of assistive devices and technologies?
RESEARCH describes whether your study is qualitative or PHENOMENOLOGY: What role does the therapist’s spirituality play in
DESIGN quantitative the treatment of his or her patients? How do female high school teachers
QUALITATIVE makes use of first person/textual/discursive in who have been physically assaulted by students overcome their fears so
RESEARCH nature they can effectively teach?
QUANTITATIVE makes use of third person ETHNOGRAPHY: How do adolescent Latinas/Latinos conceptualize
RESEARCH past tense/researcher is not the one who classroom participation processes shape active oral participation?
determines the variables, but it is the subject itself NARRATIVE INQUIRY: How does a good everyday life come about when
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH living with chronic rheumatic conditions?
o exploratory research CASE STUDY: What strategies are being used by small businesses that
o used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and have effective and viable workplace wellness programs?
motivations
o provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or TOP 4 METHODS/ TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
hypotheses for potential quantitative research #1 – SURVEY RESEARCH
o also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper an organization conducting survey ask different survey questions from the
into the problem respondents using the various types like online surveys, online polls paper
o Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi- questionnaires, etc and then collect data and analyze collected data in order to
structured techniques produce the numerical results.
o common methods include focus groups (group discussions), #2 – CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
individual interviews, and participation/observations used to draw conclusions with respect to the cause and effect equation between the
o sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill two or more than two variables, where the one variable will be dependent on other
a given quota variables which will be independent.
#3 – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
JOHN CRESWELL OUTLINES 5 METHODS IN QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
done for the purpose of proving or for disproving the statement; generally used in the
& RESEARCH DESIGN field of natural sciences or in the field of social sciences
1) ETHNOGRAPHY
 most familiar and applicable type of qualitative method #4 – CORRELATION RESEARCH
conducted for establishing a relationship between the two closely associated entities
 you immerse yourself in the target participants’ environment
for knowing the impact of one on other and the changes which eventually observed.
to understand the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and For this research minimum, two different groups will be required.
themes that emerge
TYPICAL QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
2) NARRATIVE
 weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one Quantitative research questions are generally used to set the scene for an entire study or industry report.

or two individuals to form a cohesive story THREE COMMON TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
 conduct in-depth interviews, read documents, and look for
1) DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
themes  are designed to uncover a respondent’s response towards a
 interviews are conducted over weeks, months, or even years, particular question or variable
but the final narrative doesn’t need to be in chronological  it’s the easiest way to quantify the particular variable(s) you’re
order rather it can be presented as a story with themes interested in on a large scale
3) PHENOMENOLOGICAL  begin with “How much?”, “How regularly?”, “What
 use a combination of methods, such as conducting interviews, percentage?”, “What time?”, “What is?”
reading documents, watching videos, or visiting places &
2) COMPARATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
events, to understand the meaning participants place on  designed to help you identify clear differences between two
whatever’s being examined or more groups based on one or more variables
 rely on the participants’ own perspectives to provide insight  begin by asking respondents for the “difference between” a
into their motivations particular variable
 often conduct a lot of interviews, usually between 5 and 25
for common themes, to build a sufficient dataset 3) RELATIONSHIP-BASED RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 can be misleading to some
4) GROUNDED THEORY  used more to describe an association or trend between two or
 looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events more variables within one or more demographic groups
 use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a
theory based on the data I. IDENTIFICATION
 sample sizes are often also larger—between 20 to 60—with Qualitative 1. It is a research which is primarily expository.
these studies to better establish a theory Research Design
5) CASE STUDY Quantitative 2. It generates numerical data data that can be
 involves a deep understanding through multiple types of Research Design transformed into usable statistics.
data sources Ethnography 3. Here, the researcher immerse in the target participants’
 can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event environment to understand the goals, cultures,
challenges, motivations, and themes that emerge.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Narrative 4. This approach weaves together a sequence of events,
o also referred to as naturalistic inquiry, is a distinct field of research usually from just one or two individuals to form a
with its own research philosophy, theory and methodology cohesive story.
o the phenomenon is studied in its natural setting and the focus is on Phenomenological 5. This describes an event, activity, or phenomenon.
the participants’ (and also the researcher’s) view of the world
Grounded theory 6. It provides an explanation or theory behind the events.
o generally requires going out, talking to people, observing what they
do, as well as how they perceive and interpret things Case Study 7. It involves a deep understanding through multiple types
of data sources. Case studies can be explanatory,
o The purpose statement can then be used to develop your research
exploratory, or describing an event.
question, which narrows down your purpose statement and makes it
more specific. Purpose 8. It is used to develop your research question, which
Statement purpose is to explore how online tools can help the
dieting
Narrative Inquiry 9. “How does a good everyday life come about when living
with chronic rheumatic conditions?” is what kind of
qualitative research question?
 Grounded Theory 10. “What are the attitudes of elderly people with stroke 5) ELEMENTS
towards the daily use of assistive devices and subjects of the study who are not people.
technologies?” is an example of what qualitative
methodology?
STATISTICS
Survey Research 11. Using this as the method of research, an organization o research in statistics finds applicability in virtually all scientific fields
conducting survey ask different survey questions from and research questions in the various scientific fields motivate the
the respondents using the various types like online development of new statistical methods and theory
surveys, online polls paper questionnaires, etc and then
collect data and analyze collected data in order to
produce the numerical results.
PARAMETER
o constant or variable term in a function that determines the specific
Causal- 12. It is used to draw conclusions with respect to the form of the function but not its general nature
Comparative cause and effect equation between the two or more
research than two variables, where the one variable will be
o a variable entering into the mathematical form of any distribution
dependent on other variables which will be such that the possible values of the variable correspond to different
independent. distributions
Experimental 13. This analysis is done for the purpose of proving or for A statistic and a parameter are very similar. They are both descriptions of groups.
research disproving the statement. It is generally used in the
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A STATISTIC & PARAMETER
field of natural sciences or in the field of social sciences
as in those areas various statements are there which STATISTICS describe a sample PARAMETER describes an entire population
required to be proved as right or wrong.
FACTORS IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
Correlation 14. This is conducted for establishing a relationship
research between the two closely associated entities for 1) HOMOGENEITY OF THE POPULATION
knowing the impact of one on other and the changes The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the
which eventually observed. It is carried for giving value smaller the sample size that can be utilized.
to the naturally occurring relationships. For this
research minimum, two different groups will be 2) DEGREE OF PRECISION DESIRED BY THE RESEARCHER.
required. The larger the sample size, the higher the precision or accuracy of
Descriptive survey 15. These are designed to uncover a respondent’s the results will be.
question response towards a particular question or variable. 3) TYPES OF SAMPLING PROCEDURE.
Comparative 16. These are designed to help you identify clear Probability sampling uses sample sizes that non-probability sampling
research differences between two or more groups based on one
questions or more variables. THEORY OF SAMPLING
Relationship 17. It is a research question that can be misleading to 1) Researchers want to gather information about a whole group of
based some as it doesn’t mean you’ve got to ask respondents people (the population).
about their love life. 2) Researchers can only observe a part of the population (the sample).
II. ENUMERATION 3) The findings from the sample are generalized, or extended, back to
18-19. WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF RESEARCH DESIGNS? the population.
- Qualitative & Quantitative
 The first step in sampling is to identify the unit of analysis.
20-24. WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?  A common error in sampling is that the sample and population are
- Ethnography - Phenomenological - Case Study
not identical.
- Narrative - Grounded Theory
 Another common error is to make the population too broad.
25-28. ENUMERATE THE THE TOP FOUR TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.
- Survey research - Experimental research PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING A SAMPLE
- Causal Comparative research - Correlation research Before selecting a sampling procedure, first consider the following:
 Select the unit of analysis.
Lesson 2: Population and Sampling  Determine how many units need to be sampled.
POPULATION total number of people who serve as subjects or
respondents of the study SAMPLING PROCEDURES
1) SIMPLE
SAMPLING method in identifying part of the respondents of
RANDOM
PROCEDURE the study
SAMPLING
STATISTICS deals with the analysis and interpretation of every individual
numerical data in terms of samples and in the target
populations population has an
PARAMETER measure that restricts how something is done or equal chance of
what can be done being part of the
sample
SAMPLING
o process through which the researcher selects a portion or segment Random means
from the population at the center of the researcher’s study that selection was
o population is a group of persons or objects that possess some made without aim, reason, or patterns.
common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher, &
about which the researcher seeks to learn more 2) STRATIFIED RANDOM
SAMPLING
TWO GROUPS OF POPULATION the researcher first
1) TARGET POPULATION divides the population
composed of the entire group of people or objects to which the into groups based on a
researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study relevant characteristic
and then selects
2) ACCESSIBLE POPULATION participants within
portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable those groups.
access
3) SUBJECTS
individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the study
4) RESPONDENTS
individuals or groups of people who actively serve as sources of
information during data collection
3) PURPOSIVE Lesson 3: Data Collection Procedures
SAMPLING
DATA process of gathering and measuring information on
the researcher
COLLECTION variables of interest, in an established systematic
uses their PROCEDURES fashion
expert
INTERVIEW used to collect data from a small group of subjects on a
judgment to
broad range of topics
select
participants QUESTIONNAIRE/ set of standardized questions, often called items, which
SURVEY follow a fixed scheme in order to collect individual data
that are
representative OBSERVATION qualitative research technique where researchers
of the observe participants' ongoing behavior in a natural
situation
population
COLLECTING DATA
4) MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
 necessary skill for any individual
the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages
 data is used in a variety of situations
HOW TO CHOOSE YOUR SAMPLING STRATEGY TO GUARANTEE COMPUTER AND INTERNET
RELEVANT RESULTS?  can collect a wide range of data in a short period of time
Step one: Define your sample and target population  main weakness when looking for data on the Internet is inaccurate
Step two: Define your sample size information or inappropriate websites for the necessary information
Random sampling means selection of the sample randomly from a SURVEYS
population, without any specific conditions  excellent data collection tool
Systematic sampling is the most commonly used method of random  ask specific questions that are filled out by individuals
sampling, whereby you divide the total population by the sample size and  answers provided in the survey provide data about a variety of
arrive at a figure which becomes the sampling interval for selection. subject
Non-random sampling the sample selection follows a particular set of INTERVIEWS
conditions and is generally used in studies where the sample needs to be  data collection method
collected based on a specific characteristic of the population.  used to gain information about a specific subject
 commonly given to experts in a specific field
Step four: Minimize sampling error
OBSERVATION
I. IDENTIFICATION  first-hand data rather than second-hand data from another source
Sampling 1. It is a process through which the researcher selects a  observation data collection includes specific items that are
portion or segment from the population at the center of measured, seen or that others can reproduce
the researcher’s study.
Population 2. It is a group of persons or objects that possess some BOOKS
common characteristics that are of interest to the  primary tool for data collection
researcher, and about which the researcher seeks to learn  wide range of subjects available in books allows for finding data
more. about any specific subject
Target 3. It is composed of the entire group of people or objects to  main weaknesses with collecting data from a book is locating the
Population which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of necessary data and time constraints
the study.
Accessible 4. It is the portion of the population to which the researcher WHAT ARE QUALITATIVE DATA?
Population has reasonable access. Documents Interviews Focus Groups Observations
Subjects 5. These are individuals or entities which serve as the focus
of the study. 2 TYPES OF GROUP INTERVIEWS
Respondents 6. These are individuals or groups of people who actively 1) Focus Groups
serve as sources of information during data collection. participants are selected by the researcher according to the specific
Elements 7. It refers to subjects of the study who are not people. sampling criteria
Statistics 8. It is the science concerned with developing and studying
methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and
2) Natural groups
presenting empirical data. participants belong to a group that exists independently of the study
Parameter 9. It is a constant or variable in a function that determines
the specific form of the function but not its general 2 KINDS OF OBSERVATION
nature. 1) Observation Checklist
Simple 10. It gives every individual in the target population an equal quantitative in nature, and make use of ratings or numerical rankings
Random chance of being part of the sample.
2) Observation Guide
Sampling
Stratified 11. In this sampling, the researcher first divides the
more qualitative, and allow more general descriptive documents
Sampling population into groups based on a relevant characteristic
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
and then selects participants within those groups.
Purposive 12. In this sampling, the researcher uses their expert
Observation Interview Focus Groups Action Research
Sampling judgment to select participants that are representative of
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS
the population.
Multi-Stage 13. In this sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Online-web Online Forms
Sampling or stages.
Face-to-Face Inline Communities
Systematic 14. It is the most commonly used method of random Phone Web Survey
Sampling sampling, whereby you divide the total population by the FedEx Mail Groups-Triads-Dyads
sample size and arrive at a figure which becomes the Central Location Intercept Depth Interviews [IDIs]
sampling interval for selection.
Non- 15. In this sampling, the sample selection follows a particular DATA COLLECTION
Random set of conditions and is generally used in studies where - process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
Sampling the sample needs to be collected based on a specific interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
characteristic of the population. answer stated research questions
II. ENUMERATION
1-4 WHAT ARE THE SAMPLING PROCEDURES? THE IMPORTANCE OF ENSURING ACCURATE AND APPROPRIATE DATA
COLLECTION: accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the
- Simple random sampling - Purposive sampling
integrity of research
- Stratified sampling - Multi-stage sampling
5-8 WHAT ARE THE SAMPLING STRATEGIES? CONSEQUENCES FROM IMPROPERLY COLLECTED DATA INCLUDE
- Define the sample population - Define sampling technique 1) inability to answer research questions accurately
- Define the sample size - Minimize sampling error 2) inability to repeat and validate the study
3) distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
4) misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of Observation 4. It is a qualitative research technique where researchers
investigation observe participants' ongoing behavior in a natural
5) compromising decisions for public policy situation. Depending on the type of observation research
and the goal of the study, the market researcher will have
6) causing harm to human participants and animal subjects
varying levels of participation in the study.
ISSUES RELATED TO MAINTAINING INTEGRITY OF DATA COLLECTION Collecting Data 5. It is a necessary skill for any individual. Data is used in a
Most, Craddick, Crawford, Redican, Rhodes, Rukenbrod, and Laws (2003) describe ‘quality variety of situations, such as writing up research reports in
assurance’ and ‘quality control’ as two approaches that can preserve data integrity and ensure school, finding a specific item or getting necessary
the scientific validity of study results. Each approach is implemented at different points in the information for a job. Regardless of the reason for the
research timeline (Whitney, Lind, Wahl, 1998): data, there are similar tools used to find information and
QUALITY ASSURANCE collect data
o activities that take place before data collection begins Computer And 6. It can collect a wide range of data in a short period of
o main focus is 'prevention' Internet time. A simple search through a search engine will result
in several websites that are useful for data collection.
THESE FAILURES MAY BE DEMONSTRATED IN A NUMBER OF WAYS:
1) Uncertainty about the timing, methods, and identify of person(s) Surveys 7. These are an excellent data collection tool. These are
useful in businesses, mental health studies, school
responsible for reviewing data projects or any other data collection that requires
2) Partial listing of items to be collected information from a large number of people.
3) Vague description of data collection instruments to be used in lieu of
Interviews 8. These are a data collection method that is used to gain
rigorous step-by-step instructions on administering tests information about a specific subject. Interviews are
4) Failure to identify specific content and strategies for training or commonly given to experts in a specific field, such as
retraining staff members responsible for data collection interviewing a psychologist that specializes in children’s
5) Obscure instructions for using, making adjustments to, and mental health when collecting data about a childhood
calibrating data collection equipment (if appropriate) mental health problem. Interviews are commonly used by
6) No identified mechanism to document changes in procedures that news reporters to gain first-hand information about a
may evolve over the course of the investigation. specific story.
Observation 9. This is first-hand data rather than second-hand data from
QUALITY CONTROL Data Collection another source. This includes specific items that are
o activities that take place during and after data collection measured, seen or that others can reproduce.
o details should be carefully documented in the procedures manual Books 10.These are a primary tool for data collection. While old
EXAMPLES OF DATA COLLECTION PROBLEMS THAT REQUIRE PROMPT ACTION INCLUDE: books might have outdated information, even old books
- errors in individual data items are used for historical studies or data collection. There are
- systematic errors books available about any subject that ranges from
- violation of protocol mythology to history to science and math.
- problems with individual staff or site performance Focus Groups 11.These group’s participants belong to a group that exists
- fraud or scientific misconduct independently of the study.
Observation 12.It is quantitative in nature, and make use of ratings or
Measures of ‘Social Desirability’ might also be used to get a measure of
Checklist numerical rankings.
the honesty of responses.
Observation 13.This is more qualitative, and allow more general
THERE ARE TWO POINTS THAT NEED TO BE RAISED HERE Guide descriptive documents.
1) cross-checks within the data collection process and
Quality 14.It precedes data collection, its main focus is 'prevention'
2) data quality being as much an observation-level issue as it is a Assurance (i.e., forestalling problems with data collection).
complete data set issue Prevention is the most cost-effective activity to ensure the
integrity of data collection. These includes activities that
QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION take place before data collection begins.
Observation Document Interview Probability Sampling Interview Surveys & Questionnaire
Quality Control 15.It occurs during and after data collection, the details
SIX STEPS OR PROCEDURES FOR SUCCESSFUL DATA COLLECTION: should be carefully documented in the procedures
Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data. ... manual. A clearly defined communication structure is a
Step 2: Select issue(s) and/or opportunity(ies) and set goals. ... necessary pre-condition for establishing monitoring
Step 3: Plan an approach and methods. ... systems. These include activities that take place during
Step 4: Collect data. ... and after data collection.
Step 5: Analyze and interpret data. ...
II. ENUMERATION
Step 6: Act on results
16-17. TWO TYPES OF GROUP INTRVIEWS
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS - Focus
In Depth Interviews Online Forums Groups Web Survey Chat - Natural groups
Online Communities
18-19. TWO KINDS OF OBSERVATION
- Observation Checklist. quantitative in nature, and make use of ratings or
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
numerical rankings.
Data Collection Data Reduction Data Display Conclusion Drawing - Observation Guide. more qualitative, and allow more general descriptive
Observation Selection Matrices Give Meanings documents.
Interviews Focusing Graphs Confirming
Document Simplifying Networks Verifying 20-25. SIX STEPS OR PROCEDURES FOR SUCCESSFUL DATA COLLECTION
Recording Abstracting Charts Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data. ...
Transforming Step 2: Select issue(s) and/or opportunity(ies) and set goals. ...
Step 3: Plan an approach and methods. ...
I. IDENTIFICATION Step 4: Collect data. ...
Step 5: Analyze and interpret data. ...
Data Collection 1. It is the process of gathering and measuring information
Step 6: Act on results
Procedures on variables of interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer stated research 26-31. CONSEQUENCES FROM IMPROPERLY COLLECTED DATA
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. - inability to answer research questions accurately
- inability to repeat and validate the study
Interview 2. These are used to collect data from a small group of
- distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
subjects on a broad range of topics. You can use
- misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
structured or unstructured interviews. Structured
- compromising decisions for public policy
interviews are comparable to a questionnaire, with the
- causing harm to human participants and animal subjects
same questions in the same order for each subject and
with multiple choice answers. 32-36. EXAMPLES OF DATA COLLECTION PROBLEMS THAT REQUIRE PROMPT
ACTION
Questionnaire/ 3. It is the main instrument for collecting data in survey
- errors in individual data items
Survey research. Basically, it is a set of standardized questions,
- systematic errors
often called items, which follow a fixed scheme in order to
- violation of protocol
collect individual data about one or more specific topics.
- problems with individual staff or site performance
Sometimes questionnaires are confused with interviews.
- fraud or scientific misconduct