Geophysical Exploration

Geophysics : Geophysics is the branch of Earth sciences that applies principles of

physics to study the Earth and its surrounding environment.

Exploration Geophysics : Exploration geophysics is a branch of geophysics

focused on the investigation and characterization of the Earth's interior for the
purpose of locating and evaluating natural resources.

Key Features:

i. Techniques ( Including seismic methods, magnetic surveys, electromagnetic

methods, gravimetric methods)

ii. Data Acquisition

iii. Data Processing and Interpretetion

iv. Integration with other disciplines.

Geophysical Survey : A geophysical survey is a method used to gather information

about the physical properties of the earth’s subsurface without direct excavation.

Applications of Geophysical Survey:

1. Mineral and hydrocarbon exploration

2. Groundwater studies

3. Environmental investigations

4. Geotechnical Engineering

5. Archaeology
Advantages & Disadvantages of Geophysical Survey:

Advantages :

i. Cost-effective method
ii. Cover wide range of area
iii. Cover information gap
iv. Time-saving method
v. Provide detailed subsurface information

Disadvantages:

i. Complex interpretation
ii. Indirect method
iii. Environmental limitations
iv. Wrong prediction about rock layer due to systematic errors

Geophysical Survey Methods:

 Method Measured Parameter Operative physical Property
Seismic Travel times of Density and elactic moduli,
reflected or refracted which determine the
seismic waves propagation velocity of
seismic waves
Gravity Spatial variations in Density
the strength of the
gravitational field of
the earth
Magnetic Spatial variations in Magnetic susceptibility and
the strength of the remanence
geomagnetic field
Electrical Earth resistance Electrical conductivity
Resistivity
Induced Polarization voltages Electrical capacitance
polarization or frequency
dependent ground
resistance
Self-potential Electrical potentials Electrical conductivity
Electromagnetic Response to Electrical conductivity and
electromagnetic inductance
radiation
Radar Travel times of Dielectric constant
reflected radar pulses

Applications of Geophysical Survey Method:

Application Appropriate Survey Methods

Exploration for fossil fuels S, G, M, EM
( oil, gas, coal )
Exploration for metalliferous M, EM, E, SP, IP, R
mineral deposits
Exploration for bulk mineral S, E, G
deposits ( sand and gravel )
Exploration for underground water E, S, G, Rd
supplies
Engineering or construction sight E, S, Rd, G, M
investigation
Archaeological investigations Rd, E, EM, M, S
 Chapter-3

Stress: Stress is the internal force per unit area that develops within a material in
response to an externally applied force. It quantifies the intensity of the internal
forces and is defined as:
Stress = Force ( F ) / Area ( A )

Classification of stress:

Strain: Strain is the measure of deformation of a material due to stress. It is a

dimensionless quantity defined as the change in length (or dimension) divided by
the original length.
Strain = Change in Length / Original Length
Classification of strain :
Stress-Strain Curve:

Description of Stress-Strain Curve,,,

1. Proportional Limit: In the initial segment of the curve, stress and strain are
directly proportional. This region is governed by Hooke’s Law, where the material
stretches or compresses uniformly with the applied force, maintaining a straight,
linear relationship.
2. Yield Point (Elastic Limit): The yield point is the point on the curve where the
material transitions from elastic to plastic behavior. Beyond this point, even a small
increase in stress causes a larger, non-proportional increase in strain.
3. Plastic Limit: In this nonlinear segment, the material undergoes plastic
deformation—permanent changes in shape. Here, the material no longer returns to
its original form once the stress is removed.
4. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The highest point on the stress-strain curve is
the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), representing the maximum stress the material
can withstand. Beyond this point, the material starts to weaken.
5. Fracture Point (Breaking Point): This is the end of the stress-strain curve,
where the material ultimately fractures or breaks. It represents the material’s
breaking strength and is typically marked by a rapid drop in stress as strain
increases.
Seismology: Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation
of elastic waves through the Earth or other planetary bodies. It involves analyzing
seismic waves generated by natural earthquakes, volcanic activity, and artificial
sources (like explosions) to understand Earth's internal structure, tectonic
movements, and fault dynamics.

Seismic waves: Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s
layers, typically generated by earthquakes, volcanic activity, explosions, or other
sources of sudden energy release. These waves propagate through the Earth in
different ways, helping scientists study the planet’s internal structure and behavior.
There are two main types of seismic waves:
1.Body Waves
2.Surface Waves

Body Waves: These waves travel through the Earth's interior and include:

P-waves (Primary waves): The fastest seismic waves, compressional in nature,

moving particles back and forth in the direction of wave propagation.
S-waves (Secondary waves): Slower than P-waves and shear in nature, moving
particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. S-waves cannot travel
through liquids.
Surface Waves: These waves travel along the Earth's surface and generally cause
the most damage in an earthquake. They include:

Rayleigh waves: Move in a rolling motion, similar to ocean waves, affecting both
vertical and horizontal ground movement.

Love waves: Cause horizontal shearing of the ground, moving particles side-to-
side.

Difference between P-wave & S-Wave:

Aspect P-Waves ( Primary Waves ) S-Waves ( Secondary
Waves )
Wave Type Longitudinal (Compressional) Transverse (Shear)
Motion Particles move parallel to the wave’s Particles move
direction perpendicular to the
wave’s direction
Speed Faster ( arrives first at seismic Slower (arrives after P-
stations ) Waves)
Medium Can travel through solids, liquids and Can only travel through
gases solids
Energy Compresses and expands material Shears or twists material
Transfer
Damage Usually causes less damage More damaging to
Potential buildings due to stronger
side-to-side motion

Reflection and transmission of normally incident seismic rays:

When seismic rays (or waves) strike a boundary between two different geological
layers at a perpendicular angle (normal incidence), they undergo reflection and
transmission.
1. Reflection:
 Some of the seismic energy bounces back into the original medium.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (both are zero
degrees in this case since it’s normal incidence).
2. Transmission:
 Some of the seismic energy passes through the boundary into the next
layer.
 The transmitted wave continues to travel in the same direction but with a
change in velocity based on the properties of the new layer.
The reflection and transmission coefficients, which depend on the acoustic
impedances of the two media, determine the proportion of energy reflected and
transmitted. The acoustic impedance is the product of the density and the velocity of
the seismic wave in the medium.
Mathematically, if Z1 and Z2 are the acoustic impedances of the first and second
layers, respectively, the reflection coefficient (R) and transmission coefficient (T)
can be calculated as:
Z 2−Z 1
R= Z 2+ Z 1 (R for Reflection)
2 Z1
T= Z 2+Z 1 (T for Transmission)

Reflection and refraction of obliquely incident rays:

When seismic rays strike a boundary at an oblique angle, they experience both refle
ction and refraction. Here’s how these phenomena are described, along with the key
equations:
Reflection
Angle of Reflection: The angle at which the wave reflects off the boundary is equal
to the angle of incidence.
θi = θr
Where:
 θi is the angle of incidence.
 θr is the angle of reflection.
Refraction
Snell's Law: Describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of the
waves in the two different media.
sin(θi)
= sinv 2θt
v1

Where:
 θi is the angle of incidence.
 θt is the angle of refraction.
 v1 is the velocity of the wave in the first medium.
 v2 is the velocity of the wave in the second medium.

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients:

These coefficients describe the amount of energy reflected and transmitted at the bo
undary.
Reflection Coefficient:
Z 2−Z 1
R= Z 2+ Z 1

Transmission Coefficient:
2 Z1
T= Z 2+Z 1

Where Z1 and Z2 are the acoustic impedances of the first and second media, respect
ively.
Travel path Geometry of Seismic Waves :

Description :
Seismic Source: The waves originate from a source at the surface.
Geophone/Receiver/Detector : A geophone is a ground-motion sensor used in
seismic surveys to detect and
convert ground vibrations into electrical signals. It measures the velocity of seismic
waves traveling
through the Earth.
Direct Wave: Travels straight from the source to the detectors near the surface,
within the first layer (Z1).
Reflected Wave: Bounces off the boundary between two layers (Z1 and Z2) and
returns to the surface
Refracted Wave: Bends at the boundary due to a change in wave velocity in the
deeper layer (Z2) and
continues traveling before returning to the surface. These waves follow a critical
angle and move along the
boundary.
Head Wave: Travels along the boundary (between Z1 and Z2) after refraction and
emerges back at the surface.
This wave velocity is high.
Intercept time : At X=0 minimum time reflection ray reach to the surface.
Critical Distance (X_CRIT): The distance at which receiver takes first refracted ray.
Crossover Distance (X_CROSS): The distance at which receiver takes both direct
ray and refracted ray.
X=0 receiver does not receive refracted ray. At critical distance receiver receives
direct ray first and then both
reflected and refracted ray same time. After crossover distance receiver receives
refracted ray first then direct
and then reflected ray. As head wave velocity is Z2 velocity so the velocity of
refracted ray joining to the
interface is also high

Travel-Time Curve: