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Commonly asked DBMS interview questions

Last Updated : 15 Jun, 2024

1. What are the advantages of DBMS over traditional file-based

systems?

Database management systems were developed to handle the

following difficulties of typical File-processing systems supported by
conventional operating systems.
1. Data redundancy and inconsistency
2. Difficulty in accessing data
3. Data isolation – multiple files and formats
4. Integrity problems
5. Atomicity of updates
6. Concurrent access by multiple users
7. Security problems

2. What are super, primary, candidate, and foreign keys?

A super key is a set of attributes of a relation schema upon which all
attributes of the schema are functionally dependent. No two rows can
have the same value of super key attributes.
A Candidate key is a minimal superkey, i.e., no proper subset of
Candidate key attributes can be a superkey.
A Primary Key is one of the candidate keys. One of the candidate keys is
selected as most important and becomes the primary key. There cannot
be more than one primary key in a table..
A Foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that uniquely
identifies a row of another table.

3. What is the difference between primary key and unique

constraints?
The primary key cannot have NULL value, the unique constraints can
have NULL values. There is only one primary key in a table, but there
can be multiple unique constrains.

4.What is database normalization?

It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their
functional dependencies and primary keys to achieve the following
desirable properties:
1. Minimizing Redundancy
2. Minimizing the Insertion, Deletion, And Update Anomalies Relation
schemas that do not meet the properties are decomposed into smaller
relation schemas that could meet desirable properties.

5. Why is the use of DBMS recommended? Explain by listing some of

its major advantages?

Some of the major advantages of DBMS are as follows:

Controlled Redundancy: DBMS supports a mechanism to control the

redundancy of data inside the database by integrating all the data
into a single database and as data is stored in only one place, the
duplicity of data does not happen.
Data Sharing: Sharing of data among multiple users simultaneously
can also be done in DBMS as the same database will be shared
among all the users and by different application programs.
Backup and Recovery Facility: DBMS minimizes the pain of creating
the backup of data again and again by providing a feature of ‘backup
and recovery’ which automatically creates the data backup and
restores the data whenever required.
Enforcement of Integrity Constraints: Integrity Constraints are very
important to be enforced on the data so that the refined data after
putting some constraints are stored in the database and this is
followed by DBMS.
Independence of Data: It simply means that you can change the
structure of the data without affecting the structure of any of the
application programs.
6. What are the differences between DDL, DML, and DCL in SQL?
Following are some details of three :
DDL stands for Data Definition Language. SQL queries like CREATE,
ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE and RENAME come under this.
DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. SQL queries like SELECT,
INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE come under this.
DCL stands for Data Control Language. SQL queries like GRANT and
REVOKE come under this.

7. What is the difference between having and where clause?

HAVING is used to specify a condition for a group or an aggregate
function used in a select statement. The WHERE clause selects before
grouping. The HAVING clause selects rows after grouping. Unlike the
HAVING clause, the WHERE clause cannot contain aggregate functions.
(See this for examples). See Having vs Where Clause? for more details

8.How to print duplicate rows in a table?

See https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-print-duplicate-rows-in-a-
table/

9. What is Join?
An SQL Join is used to combine data from two or more tables, based on
a common field between them. For example, consider the following two
tables.

Table – Student Table

EnrollNo StudentName Address

1000 geek1 geeksquiz1

1001 geek2 geeksquiz2

1002 geek3 geeksquiz3

Table – StudentCourse Table

 CourseID EnrollNo

1 1000

2 1000

3 1000

1 1002

2 1003

Following is a join query that shows the names of students enrolled in

different courseIDs.

SELECT StudentCourse.CourseID, Student.StudentName

FROM StudentCourse
INNER JOIN Student
ON StudentCourse.EnrollNo = Student.EnrollNo
ORDER BY StudentCourse.CourseID;

The above query would produce the following result.

CourseID StudentName

1 geek1

1 geek3

2 geek1

3 geek1

9. What is Identity?
Identity (or AutoNumber) is a column that automatically generates
numeric values. A start and increment value can be set, but most DBA
leave these at 1. A GUID column also generates numbers; the value of
this cannot be controlled. Identity/GUID columns do not need to be
indexed.

10.What is a view in SQL? How to create a view?

A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
We can create it using create view syntax.

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

11.What are the uses of view?

1. Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table;
consequently, a view can limit the degree of exposure of the underlying
tables to the outer world: a given user may have permission to query
the view, while denied access to the rest of the base table.
2. Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table.
3. Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine
aggregates data (sum, average, etc.) and presents the calculated results
as part of the data.
4. Views can hide the complexity of data.
5. Views take very little space to store; the database contains only the
definition of a view, not a copy of all the data which it presents.
6. Depending on the SQL engine used, views can provide extra security.

12. What is a Trigger?

A Trigger is a code associated with insert, update or delete operations.
The code is executed automatically whenever the associated query is
executed on a table. Triggers can be useful to maintain integrity in the
database.

13. What is a stored procedure?

A stored procedure is like a function that contains a set of operations
compiled together. It contains a set of operations that are commonly
used in an application to do some common database tasks.
14. What is the difference between Trigger and Stored Procedure?
Unlike Stored Procedures, Triggers cannot be called directly. They can
only be associated with queries.

15. What is a transaction? What are ACID properties?

A Database Transaction is a set of database operations that must be
treated as a whole, which means either all operations are executed or
none of them. An example can be a bank transaction from one account
to another account. Either both debit and credit operations must be
executed or none of them. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that database
transactions are processed reliably.

16. What are indexes?

A database index is a data structure that improves the speed of data
retrieval operations on a database table at the cost of additional writes
and the use of more storage space to maintain the extra copy of
data. Data can be stored only in one order on a disk. To support faster
access according to different values, faster search like binary search for
different values is desired, For this purpose, indexes are created on
tables. These indexes need extra space on the disk, but they allow
faster search according to different frequently searched values.

17. What are clustered and non-clustered Indexes?

Clustered indexes are the index according to which data is physically
stored on a disk. Therefore, only one clustered index can be created on a
given database table.
Non-clustered indexes don’t define the physical ordering of data, but
logical ordering. Typically, a tree is created whose leaf point to disk
records. B-Tree or B+ tree are used for this purpose.

18. What is Denormalization?

Denormalization is a database optimization technique in which we add

redundant data to one or more tables.

19. What is CLAUSE in SQL?

A clause in SQL is a part of a query that lets you filter or customize how
you want your data to be queried to you.
20. What is a Live Lock?

Livelock situation can be defined as when two or more processes

continually repeat the same interaction in response to changes in the
other processes without doing any useful work These processes are not
in the waiting state, and they are running concurrently. This is different
from a deadlock because in a deadlock all processes are in the waiting
state.

21. What is QBE?

Query-by-example represents a visual/graphical approach for accessing

information in a database through the use of query templates called
skeleton tables. It is used by entering example values directly into a
query template to represent what is to be achieved. QBE is used by
many database systems for personal computers. QBE is a very powerful
facility that gives the user the capability to access the information a user
wants without the knowledge of any programming language. Queries in
QBE are expressed by skeleton tables. QBE has two distinct features:

QBE has the two-dimensional syntax: Queries look like tables.

22. Why are cursors necessary in embedded SQL?

A cursor is an object used to store the output of a query for row-by-row

processing by the application programs. SQL statements operate on a
set of data and return a set of data. On other hand, host language
programs operate on a row at a time. The cursors are used to navigate
through a set of rows returned by an embedded SQL SELECT
statement. A cursor can be compared to a pointer.

23. What is the purpose of normalization in DBMS?

Database normalization is the process of organizing the attributes of the

database to reduce or eliminate data redundancy (having the same data
but at different places).

Purpose of normalization:

It is used to remove duplicate data and database anomalies from the

relational table.
Normalization helps to reduce redundancy and complexity by examining
new data types used in the table.

It is helpful to divide the large database table into smaller tables and
link them using relationships.

It avoids duplicate data or no repeating groups into a table.

It reduces the chances for anomalies to occur in a database.

24. What is the difference between a database schema and a

database state?

The collection of information stored in a database at a particular

moment in time is called database state while the overall design of the
database is called the database schema.

25. What is the purpose of SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language whose main purpose is to

interact with the relational databases in the form of inserting, deleting
and updating/modifying the data in the database.

26. Explain the concepts of a Primary key and Foreign Key.

Primary Key is used to uniquely identify the records in a database table

while Foreign Key is mainly used to link two or more tables together, as
this is a particular field(s) in one of the database tables which are the
primary key of some other table.

Example: There are 2 tables – Employee and Department. Both have

one common field/column as ‘ID’ where ID is the primary key of
the Employee table while this is the foreign key for
the Department table.

27.What are the main differences between Primary key and Unique
Key?

Given below are few differences:

The main difference between the Primary key and the Unique key is that
the Primary key can never have a null value while the Unique key may
consist of a null value.
In each table, there can be only one primary key while there can be
more than one unique key in a table.

28. What is the concept of sub-query in terms of SQL?

Sub-query is basically the query that is included inside some other

query and can also be called an inner query which is found inside the
outer query.

29. What is the use of the DROP command and what are the
differences between DROP, TRUNCATE and DELETE commands?

DROP command is a DDL command which is used to drop/delete the

existing table, database, index, or view from the database.

The major difference between DROP, TRUNCATE and DELETE

commands are:

DROP and TRUNCATE commands are the DDL commands which are
used to delete tables from the database.

And when we make use of a DROP command, the tables get deleted
permanently all the privileges and indexes that are related to the table
also get deleted. This operation cannot be rolled back and so should be
used only when necessary.

However in case of TRUNCATE, only the data stored in a table is

deleted and the structure of the table is preserved and you can re-insert
data by the use of “INSERT INTO clause”. It can be rolled back until the
commit has been made.

DELETE command, on the other hand, is a DML Command which is used

to delete rows from the table and this can be rolled back, however its
considered slower than truncate. Using the delete command, we can
delete 1 or more specific rows from the table.

30. What is the main difference between UNION and UNION ALL?

UNION and UNION ALL are used to join the data from 2 or more tables
but UNION removes duplicate rows and picks the rows which are
distinct after combining the data from the tables whereas UNION ALL
does not remove the duplicate rows, it just picks all the data from the
tables.
31. What is Correlated Subquery in DBMS?

A Subquery is also known as a nested query i.e. a query written inside

some query. When a Subquery is executed for each of the rows of the
outer query then it is termed as a Correlated Subquery.

An example of Non-Correlated Subquery is:

SELECT * from EMP WHERE ‘RIYA’ IN (SELECT Name from DEPT

WHERE EMP.EMPID=DEPT.EMPID);

Here, the inner query is not executed for each of the rows of the outer
query.

32. Explain Entity, Entity Type, and Entity Set in DBMS?

The entity is an object, place, or thing which has its independent

existence in the real world and about which data can be stored in a
database. For Example, any person, book, etc.

Entity Type is a collection of entities that have the same attributes. For
Example, the STUDENT table contains rows in which each row is an
entity holding the attributes like name, age, and id of the students,
hence STUDENT is an Entity Type that holds the entities having the
same attributes.

Entity Set is a collection of entities of the same type. For Example, A

collection of the employees of a firm.

33. What are the different levels of abstraction in the DBMS?

There are 3 levels of data abstraction in the DBMS.

They include:

Physical Level: This is the lowest level of the data abstraction which
states how the data is stored in the database.

Logical Level: This is the next level of the data abstraction which states
the type of the data and the relationship among the data that is stored
in the database.
View Level: This is the highest level in the data abstraction which
shows/states only a part of the database.

34 . What integrity rules exist in the DBMS?

There are two major integrity rules that exist in the DBMS.

Entity Integrity: This states a very important rule that the value of a
Primary key can never have a NULL value.

Referential Integrity: This rule is related to the Foreign key which

states that either the value of a Foreign key is a NULL value or it should
be the primary key of any other relation.

35. What is E-R model in the DBMS?

E-R model is known as an Entity-Relationship model in the DBMS

which is based on the concept of the Entities and the relationship that
exists among these entities.

36. What is a functional dependency in the DBMS?

This is basically a constraint that is useful in describing the relationship

among the different attributes in a relation.

Example: If there is some relation ‘R1’ which has 2 attributes as Y and Z

then the functional dependency among these 2 attributes can be shown
as Y->Z which states that Z is functionally dependent on Y.

37. What is 1NF in the DBMS?

1NF is known as the First Normal Form.

This is the easiest form of the normalization process which states that
the domain of an attribute should have only atomic values. The
objective of this is to remove the duplicate columns that are present in
the table.

38. What is 2NF in the DBMS?

2NF is the Second Normal Form.

Any table is said to have in the 2NF if it satisfies the following 2

conditions:

A table is in the 1NF.

Each non-prime attribute of a table is said to be functionally dependent
in totality on the primary key.

39. What is 3NF in the DBMS?

3NF is the Third Normal Form.

Any table is said to have in the 3NF if it satisfies the following 2

conditions:

A table is in the 2NF.

Each non-prime attribute of a table is said to be non-transitively

dependent on every key of the table.

40. What is BCNF in the DBMS?

BCNF is the Boyce Codd Normal Form which is stricter than the 3NF.

Any table is said to have in the BCNF if it satisfies the following 2

conditions:

A table is in the 3NF.

For each of the functional dependencies X->Y that exists, X is the super
key of a table.

41. What is a CLAUSE in terms of SQL?

This is used with the SQL queries to fetch specific data as per the
requirements on the basis of the conditions that are put in the SQL. This
is very helpful in picking the selective records from the complete set of
records.

For Example, There is a query that has a WHERE condition or the query
with the HAVING clause.

42.How can you get the alternate records from the table in the SQL?

If you want to fetch the odd numbers then the following query can be
used:

SELECT EmpId from (SELECT rowno,EmpId from Emp)

WHERE mod(rowno,2)=1;
If you want to fetch the even numbers, then the following query can be
used:

SELECT EmpId from (SELECT rowno,EmpId from Emp)

WHERE mod(rowno,2)=0;

43. How is the pattern matching done in the SQL?

Answer: With the help of the LIKE operator, pattern matching is

possible in the SQL.’%’ is used with the LIKE operator when it matches
with the 0 or more characters, and ‘_’ is used to match the one particular
character.

Example:

SELECT * from Emp WHERE name like ‘b%’;

SELECT * from Emp WHERE name like ‘hans_’;

44. What is a join in the SQL?

A Join is one of the SQL statements which is used to join the data or the
rows from 2 or more tables on the basis of a common field/column
among them.

45. What are the different types of joins in SQL?

There are 4 types of SQL Joins:

Inner Join: This type of join is used to fetch the data among the tables
which are common in both tables.

Left Join: This returns all the rows from the table which is on the left
side of the join but only the matching rows from the table which is on
the right side of the join.
Right Join: This returns all the rows from the table which is on the right
side of the join but only the matching rows from the table which is on
the left side of the join.

Full Join: This returns the rows from all the tables on which the join
condition has been put and the rows which do not match hold null
values.

46. Explain the Stored Procedure.

A Stored Procedure is a group of SQL statements in the form of a

function that has some unique name and is stored in relational database
management systems(RDBMS) and can be accessed whenever required.

47. What is RDBMS?

RDBMS is the Relational Database Management System which contains

data in the form of the tables and data is accessed on the basis of the
common fields among the tables.

48. What are the different types of relationships in the DBMS?

A Relationship in DBMS depicts an association between the tables.

Different types of relationships are:

One-to-One: This basically states that there should be a one-to-one

relationship between the tables i.e. there should be one record in both
the tables.

One-to-Many: This states that there can be many relationships for one
i.e. a primary key table hold only one record which can have many, one,
or none records in the related table.

Many-to-Many: This states that both the tables can be related to many
other tables.

49. What do you mean by Entity type extension?

Compilation of similar entity types into one particular type which is

grouped together as an entity set is known as entity type extension.

50. What is conceptual design in dbms?

Conceptual design is the first stage in the database design process. The
goal at this stage is to design a database that is independent of
database software and physical details. The output of this process is a
conceptual data model that describes the main data entities, attributes,
relationships, and constraints of a given problem domain.

51. Differentiate between logical database design and physical

database design. Show how this separation leads
to data independence.

Logical Database
Parameters Physical Database Design
Design

Maps or transforms the

The specifications for the
conceptual schema (or an
stored database in terms of
ER schema) from the
Task physical storage structures,
high-level data model
record placement, and indexes
into a relational database
are designed.
schema.

The mapping can

The following criteria are often
proceed in two stages:
used to guide the choice of
System-independent physical database design
Choice of mapping but options:
criteria data model-
Response Time
dependent
Space Utilization
Tailoring the schemas
Transaction Throughput
to a specific DBMS
 DDL statements in the
language of the chosen
DBMS that specify the
conceptual and external
An initial determination of
level schemas of the
storage structures and the
database system. But if
access paths for the database
the DDL statements
Result files. This corresponds to
include some physical
defining the internal schema in
design parameters, a
terms of Data Storage
complete DDL
Definition Language.
specification must wait
until after the physical
database design phase
is completed.

The database design is divided into several phases. The logical

database design and physical database design are two of them. This
separation is generally based on the concept of the three-level
architecture of DBMS, which provides data independence. Therefore, we
can say that this separation leads to data independence because the
output of the logical database design is the conceptual and external
level schemas of the database system which is independent of the
output of the physical database design that is an internal schema.

52. What are temporary tables? When are they useful?

Temporary tables exist solely for a particular session, or whose data
persists for the duration of the transaction. The temporary tables are
generally used to support specialized rollups or specific application
processing requirements. Unlike a permanent table, space is not
allocated to a temporary table when it is created. Space will be
dynamically allocated for the table as rows are inserted. The CREATE
GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE command is used to create a temporary
table in Oracle.

53. Explain different types of failures that occur in the

Oracle database.
Types of Failures – In the Oracle database following types of failures
can occur:

Statement Failure·
Bad data type
Insufficient space
Insufficient Privileges (e.g., object privileges to a role)
User Process Failure
The user performed an abnormal disconnect
The user’s session was abnormally terminated
The user’s program raised an address exception
User Error
The user drops a table
User damages data by modification
Instance Failure
Media Failure
The user drops a table
User damages data by modification
Alert Logs
Records informational and error messages
All Instance startups and shutdowns are recorded in the log

54. What is the main goal of RAID technology?

RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive (or sometimes

“Independent”)Disks.

RAID is a method of combining several hard disk drives into one logical
unit (two or more disks grouped together to appear as a single device to
the host system). RAID technology was developed to address the fault-
tolerance and performance limitations of conventional disk storage. It
can offer fault tolerance and higher throughput levels than a single hard
drive or group of independent hard drives. While arrays were once
considered complex and relatively specialized storage solutions, today
they are easy to use and essential for a broad spectrum of
client/server applications.

GeeksforGeeks 307

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