CHAPTER THREE-SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ETHIOPIA MID 19 th C

TO 1941

3.1 Long Distance trade in the 19th Century

---Trade as a human activity, has a long history. It was mainly the outcome of sedentary life, surplus
production and social division of labor. Basically, the exchange of goods involves peoples of either the same
or different regions.

---Based on its geographical coverage, and peoples and regions involved, trade can be divided into local
trade and long distance trade. The former refers to local exchange of goods mainly among peoples of the
same region. This kind of trade was conducted at markets usually held weekly on fixed days. The search for
markets varied from one district to another in order to help people attend different markets. On the other
hand, long distance trade involved different markets, people, regions and variety of trading items and was
mainly conducted by caravan peoples

---There was a revival of long distance trade in the 19 century Ethiopia; this was due to different factors.

1. First the rising power of the ruler of Egypt, Mohammad Ali, in the 1830s resulted in the political
stability of the region. This in turn, contributed to the revival of trade in the Red Sea basin and
Arabia. As the most valuable items of export along the Red Sea could only be found in the Ethiopian
interior, the internal long distance trade of Ethiopia got new stimulus.
2. Secondly, the conquest of the Caucasus by Russia had closed the supply of some goods of high
demand and concubines to the Ottoman Turks. This resulted in an increased demand for Ethiopian
slaves and luxury goods such as civet, gold and ivory.
3. Thirdly, in the 19th century European interest in Ethiopia was revived. This was after about two
centuries of Ethiopia's lack of interest in diplomatic relations with Europe. The coming of Europeans
into Ethiopia, since the first decade of the 19" century, was part of their commercial competition in
the Horn of Africa.
Merchants of the Long Distance Trade
---The long-distance trade of the 19 th century involved different groups of merchants. The two most
dominant merchants were known as the Jabarti and the Afkala.

 The Jabarti were Muslim merchants of northern Ethiopia trading as far as the Red Sea Coast.
 The Afkala were from southwestern Ethiopia. By the middle of the 19 thcentury, the Afkala
dominated the trade of the southwest and surpassed the Jabarti in the region.
 Along the east-west lines of the long- distance trade, Afar and Harari merchants run a brisk trade
between Shoa and the ports of Djibouti and the Gulf of Aden respectively.
 Likewise, Somali and Borana merchants dominated the trade between southern Ethiopia, Kenya and
Somalis
---The long-distance trade of Ethiopia was dominated by Muslim merchants, though one could find some
Christian merchants as well. Two factors seemed to have accounted for Muslim predominance in the trade
of the 19 century. These are:

 First, Ethiopian long- distance external trade was linked mainly with the Muslim Middle
East. This made it easier for Muslim merchants than Christians to deal with their co-
religionists.
 Secondly, trade as an occupation was sought by Muslims since they did not have as much
access to land as the majority of Christians who rather preferred agriculture to trade.

---Caravan merchants usually traveled in-groups, often consisting of up to hundred merchants, for the sake
of safety and security. They had leaders of their own. The title of the leaders of merchants was known as
Negadras (means head of merchants).
---The Negadrases were responsible for

 Mobilizing the group

 Fixing the date of departure
 Choosing camping sites for rest
 Settling disputes among merchants and paying taxes at custom posts were also the responsibilities
of the Negadrases.

---Caravan traders consisted entirely of men. Women did not talk part in long- distance trade as
merchants, but they were involved in local transactions
---Women's role in the long -distance trade was

 Largely helping husbands or parents in packing goods

 Taking care of stores of goods and preparing provisions for merchants.
 Taking over homestead management in the absence of men was also their responsibility.

---Foreign merchants in the Ethiopian long distance trade consisting of

 Greeks, Arabs, Armenians, and Indians dominated the external trade at the ports and in
coastal regions.
 In the northwest, Sudanese merchants known as the Jelaba played a leading role.
 The southern trade of Ethiopia linking the country with Somalia and Kenya was mainly
dominated by a group of merchants known as the Saffare.

Items of Trade

---Long-distance trade was based on exchange of both import and export goods.
  Ethiopian import items of this period include opper, brass, spices, clothes, beads, Silk, Silver,
firearms cartridges etc.
 The major export items of trade in the 19 century were ivory, musk, wax, gold, skins and
hides, incense, coffee, and most of all slaves. These were collected and brought to local
markets by producers or local merchants who had to sell them to caravan traders in person
or through brokers.
Though some of these items of trade were available in different regions, the major areas of supply
were the regions of southwestern Ethiopia

Markets, Trade Routes and Mediums of Exchange

---Markets are very important institutions serving different social, economic and political functions. In the
19h century, Ethiopia, markets usually held weekly, on a fixed day. Different villages and districts
geographically close to each other, held their markets on different days. People visited markets primarily
to buy or sale goods.

 Besides these, however, they went to markets to look for their lost cattle or property, select a
would-be lover, settle disputes, and send or receive messages from tar away relatives. In the
absence of modern media, people also visited markets to follow current affairs and check if there
were new orders and decrees from authorities.

---The major markets or the long distance trade were those located along the major trade routes. The most
prominent markets were:

 Bonga in Kaffa, Himata in Jimma, Sakka in Limu-Enarya, Assendabo in Wollega, Basso in Gojjam,
Darita and Yifag in Begemidir and Adwa in Tigrai. These markets linked the south western regions
with the northern region of Ethiopia.

---The trade routes they used joined in one major trade route that ended at the port of Massawa in the
north.

 Likewise, the market of Mettema, located on the Ethio-Sudanese border,' was northwestern inland
outlet and was linked with the above trunk route at Gondar

---In the 19 century, there was no uniform use of a single medium of exchange in the markets of the 19th
century trade of the Ethiopian region. The tradition of barter was complemented with the use of a
currency or some other medium of exchange. This was practical at least on the ports and principal
markets. One of the widely used medium of exchange in the local markets was a salt-bar known at amole.
The other medium of exchange was a currency called the Maria Theresa. It was a silver coin of Austria,
named after the queen of that country.

Effects of the Long Distance trade

---The long distance trade of the 19th century affected Ethiopian society in major means of economic ties
and different ways.

 It served as interdependence among different peoples and among states in the region.
 Peoples of different environmental zones or different means of livelihood exchanged valuable items
through the agency of caravan traders.
 Peoples of different areas also exchanged views, cultures and technologies through trade.
 Encouraged division of labor and specialization in production among different peoples with different
skills by providing markets for their produce.
 It was a major source of income to rulers in control of resourceful regions and through whose
territories the trade routes passed.
 It also contributed to the political and religious transformation among the Oromo of the Gibe
region.

3.1.2 The Role of Cottage Industry

---The Cottage industry and handicraft technology existed in Ethiopia since time immemorial. The most
common cottage industries were metalworking, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewelry and basket making.

---The general public’s attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging as they were mostly
disdained and marginalized. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and
household furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.
---Among the cottage industries, blacksmiths were responsible for the manufacture of a wide variety
of articles of considerable economic and military importance in many parts of the country. These
included ploughshares and the iron parts of pick-axes, sickles and other agricultural implements, as
well as knives and razors, spearheads, daggers, swords, bullets and spare parts for the rifles.
---Moreover, tent-pegs, hammers, pincers, drills, nails, hatchets, saws and files, steels for striking
fire, pans on which to cook bread, bits and stirrups for horses and mules, chains and rings were also
manufactured by smiths. Any examination of the history of Ethiopian crafts reveals the creative genius
of the Ethiopian people, as well as their importance in the country’s economy and civilization.

3.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 1855-1913

Attempts of Reunification through the use of Force

The Reign of Tewodros II (r.1855-1868)

---The following are the major confrontations of Kassa Hailu with the Zemene Mesafient regional lords
  The battle of Gura Amba in 1852- with Dej.Goshu of Gojjam
 The battle of Gorgora Bichen in 1853 - with Dej. Birra Aligaz
 The battle of Ayshal in 1853-with Ras Ali II (the last king of Yejju dynasty)
 The battle of Deresge in 1855-with Ras Wube of Semien and Tigray (the last regional
lord of Zemene Mesafint).

---In February1855 Kassa became the king of Ethiopia and changed his name to Tewodros II. This was
because of church expectation. Fekre Iyasus a book written during the medieval period. In this book, it
was prophesied that a king by the name Tewodros would come to rule and bring peace to the people
after a period of trouble.

---Reforms of Tewodros II

A. He started the process of building strong centralized state.

B. Tewodros planned to establish a national army that recruited from various parts of the
country. This was to protect his country with foreign enemies and to strengthen his
Empire. The battle of Debark- in this war the ill armed force of Kassa defeated by
Egyptians in 1848
C. Modernization policy-he tried to modernize his country by introducing modern
technological outcomes from the outside world. In order to achieve his goal, Tewodros
started diplomatic relation with European countries especially with Britain and France.
Captain Cameroon- an ambassador of British government in Ethiopia. Tewodros and
Queen Elizabeth exchanged letters through Cameroon.
D. Policy on Church
. He reduced the number of priests and deacons in each church to a maximum of two or
three, respectively.
. He also reduced the size of church land that used to be exempted from tax by taking
church land that he believed was in excess and giving it to tribute paying peasants. It
was to increase state revenue.

Campaign to Wollo and Shoa

--- The first military expedition for political reunification was directed against the region of Wollo. But,
Wollo did not easily submit to the imperial army. The first campaign in Wollo, which was fought even
during fasting and rainy seasons, lasted for six months.

 After the success Wollo campaign Tewodros marched to Shoa. The force of Tewdros defeated
Shoan force led by Negus Haile Melekot in 1865 at the battle of Bereket. This marked the end
of Shoa autonomy. Then Tewdros assigned Meridazmach Haile Michael to govern Shoa.

The fall of Tewodros II

 1. Internal cause-

 Opposition of regional lords

 Opposition of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

---Why regional lords and Orthodox Church opposed the rule of Tewodros II? This was because they
lost their power in the regions as a result of the formation of centralized state by Tewodros II.

---When the conflict between Orthodox Church and Tewodros did reached peak? It was after the
death of Abune Selama during the time of imprisonment by King.

2. External cause

---Conflict with Britain.

---Explain the basic factors that caused war between Britain and Tewodros II? The conflict was
caused after King Tewodros imprisoned European missioneries in Mekdella after Europeans
especially Britain and France refused to send economic and technical assistance for the King.

---After successive attempt to freed European prisoners, British force led by General Robert Napier
conducted military expeditionan against Tewodros II. The force of Tewodros defeated by British
army at the battle of Aroghe in April 1868 marked the end of Tewodros.

---The following were the three regional lords that competed for power after the death of Tewodros
II:

 Kassa Mercha of Tigray

 Wagshum Gogeze Gebrw Medhin of Lasta and
 Minilik of Shoa

The Reign of tekle Giyrgies II (r.1869-1871)

---Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta took power and changed his name to Tekle Giyorgies II. But the
overlord ship of Tekle Giyorgies was not accepted by Kassa Mircha and Minlik.

 The battle of Assam (July 18771)–Kassa Mircha defeated Tekle Giyorgies and this marked the
end of Tekle Giyorgies rule.

The Reign of Yohannis IV (r.1872-1888)

Administration policy
---Yohannis IV followed nearly Federal system in which he share power for regional lords if they
accepted the over lordship of him. Accordingly regional lords used the political title King or Negus
and Yohannis became King of King or Neguse Negest of Ethiopia.

 Example-Adal Tesema (Tekle Haymanot after he baptize) remain the Negus of Gojjam and Kaffa
in Jan. 1881 and Minilik became the Negus of Shoa.

---Leche Agreement of 20 March 1878- it was a treaty between Yohannis IVand Minilik of Shoa. It
was signed after problem started between them because of the subversive colonial strategy of
Italians. Accordingly, Minilik agreed to pay annual tribute, to stop independent relation with
foreigners, to help each other against common enemies and drop the title King of kings and use
only the title King. As a reward, he got the recognition for his authority over Wollo and hereditary
kingship for over Shoa. This treaty ended the independence of Shoa Kingdom.

Religious policy of Yohannis IV

---Yohannis was the most conservative in the issue of religion. He believed religious unity is very
important for political unification.

 The Council of Boroumeda of May 1878-after open discussion between Church, he declared
Orthodox Tewahedo the official state religion and forced all Muslims to embrace Christianity.

Resistance to Egyptian and Mehadist aggression

Egyptian territorial Expansion

---Major causes of Egyptian territorial expansion

 To control the source of Blue Nile

 To control the rich natural resource of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa
 To control trade and trade route of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa

---Egyptians started large scale expansion against Ethiopia since 1870s. First they controlled port
Massawa from Ottoman Turks in 1865 in lease contract. This was a land mark for Egyptians large
scale expansion. In this period Egypt was led by Khedive Ismail (1863-1879) and Ethiopia was under
Yohannis IV.
---The pretext of eradication of slave trade and extension of Western civilization in to Africa
were used by the rulers of Egypt to justify expansionist ambition for European powers.
Khedive Ismail employed foreign mercenaries to achieve his large scale expansion.
.
 The three direction of attack

---A Swiss born mercenary named Warner Munziger was the architect of the direction of attack

A. Through East (through Tajura)-500 Egyptian force led by W. Munzinger came via Tajura. But
Egyptian army, including Munzinger ambushed by Afar warriors.

B. Through North (Via Masawa)-well armed Egyptian force under a Danish Colonel, Arrendrup
moved in the interior of Mereb river in Oct. 1875.

 Yohannis tried to solve the issue diplomatically and wrote letters for France, Germany,
Austria, Britain and Russia. But Europeans did nothing on Egyptian aggression. Then
Yohannis moved to war to protect his country.
 The battle of Gundent of 16November 1875-all Egyptian force (1320 soldiers) including
Arrendup killed.
 The battle of Gura of 7-9 Marc 1786- Egyptians reorganized their force under the
leadership of Mohammed Rattib Pasha and the American General Lorring to revenge
their defeat at Gundent. But again they defeated by Ethiopians.

C. In the Southeast (via Zeila)-Egyptian force led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha came to Harar in
Oct. 1875 and lived there Harar 10 years.

The 1884 Hewett or Adwa Treaty and the Mehadist invasion

---Even if Yohannis was successful in defeating Egyptian force at the battle of Gundent and Gura, it
did not free all Ethiopian territories controlled by Egyptians. For example, Egyptians controlled
lands in the coastal areas of Ethiopia including Port Massawa.

---Yohannis in his part did not want to risk his victory by continuing his attack on Egyptian troops
with an exhausted army. He also wanted to know the reaction of European powers to the crisis.
Thus he preferred postponing further war and pushing his victory to his logical conclusion. Instead
he want again chose to try a peaceful solution.

---In the immediate post war years Egypt behave like a victor and proposed the following
unacceptable terms to Ethiopia

 Reparation payment
 Release of war prisoners
 Cession of Ethiopian lands previously controlled by Egypt

---But starting from the early 1880s Egypt sought a diplomatic alliance with Ethiopia because of

 Egypt fall to British occupation in1882

  Mehadist movement in Sudan

---Failure to stop Mehadist movement by Egypt and its protector British forced Britain to seek
support from Yohannis. Thus in 1884 Britain signed Hewott or Adwa Treaty.

---The following were the main articles of the treaty, if Yohannis freed the encircled Anglo-Egyptian
force from northeastern Sudan

 Britain promised a free transit for Ethiopia through Red Sea

 Restoration of occupied territories to Ethiopia
 Restoration of Port Massawa

----In 1885 the force of Ras Alula defeated the Mehadist force at the battle of Kufit and fulfilled the
demand of Britain government.

---But this caused enmity between Yohannis and Mehadists and started large scale invasion on
Ethiopia in the northern part of Ethiopia. In 1889 Yohannis died at the battle of Mettema when he
fought against Mehadists. This marked the end of Yohannis IV.

The Reign of Minilik II (r.1889-1913)

Territorial expansion of Minilik II towards south, southwest and southeast

---The process of Ethiopian Empire formation started during the reign of Tewodros and finalized by
Minilik II. The intensity and degree of success differs Miniliks expansion from his predecessors.

---Objectives of territorial expansion

 To control the rich natural resource

 To control the lucrative trade route
 To create a buffer zone between Ethiopia and the neighboring colonial powers

---Few areas submitted peacefully and other areas controlled forcefully during the time of expansion.

---Administration and situations in forcefully controlled areas

 Local rulers lost their position and replaced by assigned governors

 Alienation of the local people from their land
 Inequality between the local people and settlers
 Lack of respect for the language, culture, tradition, religion etc.
 Absence of good governance and rule of law
 Economic exploitation

---But in peacefully submitted areas freed from the above measures.

 The Three stages of Territorial expansion

I.First Stage (From 1870s-1889)

---During this stage Minilik was only the Negus of Shoa. The battle of Embaboof 1882- it was a war
between Minilik and Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam. The success of Milnilik created a suitable condition
for his expansion to the western part of Ethiopia.

---Peacefully submitted areas in this stage include-Jimma (the Gibe states), Christian Gurage, Leqa
Neqmte and Leqa Qellem(in Wellega region) etc.

---Forcefully controlled areas include, the Muslim Gurage (Silte) under Hassen Enjamo crushed by
Ras Gobena in 1888. The Arsi Oromo’s defeated at the battle of Azule by Ras Derso in1886. The third
area is Harer. The resistance of Harare peoples under the leadership of Emir Abdulahi defeated by
Ras Mekonnen at the battle of Chelenqo in 1887.

II. The second Stage (From 1889-1896)

---During this stage Minilik was the Emperor of Ethiopia. The Kifu Qen or the Great Famine (1889-
1892) caused a serious problem on the expansion of Minilik. It was caused by cattle epidemic that
entered from Djibouti.

--- Bale and Sidamo submitted peacefully in this stage. Forcefully controlled areas are Welayta and
Keffa. Walayita under Kawo Tona resisted Miniliks force. After a serious confrontation Miniliks force
led by Ras Mickael, Abba Jiffar II, Dej. Balcha and Fitawrari Gebeyehu defeated in 1896.

III. The Third Stage (1896-1900)

---Create a buffer zone between Ethiopia and the neighboring colonial power was the prime
objective

---Peacefully submitted areas include Benishangul, Assosa, Ogaden, Borena, Gambella and
Khomosha. Whereas Kaffa led by Tato Gaki Sherecho subjugated after a bloody confrontation in
1897.

3.3 External Aggression and the Unity of Ethiopian People in Defense of National
Sovereignty, 1871-1896

Italian Aggression and the Battle of Adwa

 ---Italy entered in Ethiopia via two directions

1. Through port Assab- Italian shipping company named Rusbatino bought the port from local
Afars in 1869 AD. Latter the government of Italy controlled the port from the company in 1882.

2. Through port Massawa- Italy controlled port Massawa from the government of British in
1885.

Q. Why the British government transferred port Massawa to Italy by violating the 1885 Hewett
or Adwa treaty? It was to protect the possible expansion of France in Eastrn Africa.

---By taking the above two ports Italian colonial powers began to enter towards the hinterlands of
Ethiopia. They controlled Wia, Aylet, Akale Guzay and other areas of Mereb Melash. After a series of
warning Italians and Ras Alula, the governor of Mereb Melash fought in 1887 at the battle of Dogali.
Italian colonial power face crushed by Alula.

The Relation between Minilik and Italians

---The relation between Minilik and Italians was peaceful during the initial stage. It was because of
Italians subversive colonial strategy.

---Italo-Shoa relation started in 1876. Italian Geographical Society under the leadership of Marquis
Orazio Antonori came to Shoa. On his part Minilik gave them Let Marefia for their geographical study.
---In 1887 Minilik and Italians signed Convention of Neutrality. The prime objective of this treaty was,
Minilik remain neutral on the war between Italy and Yohannis IV. On the other hand Italians agreed to
provide 500 rifles for Minilik. The problem between Minilik and Italy started after the death of
Yohannis IV.

---In 1889 Minilik and Italy signed Wuhale Treaty. Wuchale Treaty was signed on 2 May 1889 between
ltaly and Menelik. The treaty was so named after the place in northern Wollo where it was signed.
Count Pietro Antonelli represented Italy.

----What were the reasons for Emperor Menelik's to seek a treaty with Italy? The Italians had already
occupied a considerable part of the Mereb Mellash region before the signing of Wuchale Treaty. As he had
not yet established a firm imperial power over his empire, Menelik seemed to have found it difficult to
dislodge Italians by force. Secondly, Menelik feared that any disagreement with the Italians would result in
their subversive activity among his rivals for the throne, mainly the Tigrean princes like Ras Mengesha
Yohannis.
---Wuchale treaty includes 20 articles. Article III and XVII are the two articles that caused problem between
Minilik and Italians.

---Articles of “Effective Occupation" in the Treaty of Wuchale. It talks about boundary delimitation between
Ethiopian and Italian occupied of Merb Melash. By this article, the Italians were promised considerable
territories in the region of the Mereb Mellash as far as Asmara. Yet, they were not satisfied with this.
Additional Convention was signed in October 1889 between Italy and Ras Mekonnen who went to Rome to
get the ratification of the Wuchale treaty. The Italians inserted in the convention the clause of "Effective
Occupation". This clause stated that boundary demarcation would depend on the basis of actual
possession. This allowed the Italians to occupy more and advance further south as far as the Mereb River.
By late 1889 they had taken control of all areas north of the Mereb River which they declared to be their
colony of Eritrea on 1 January 1890.

---Article seventeen of the Wuchale Treaty was about the role of Italy in Ethiopian's foreign relations. The
Italians wanted to use this Article as a legal document for their claim of protectorate over Ethiopia. Article
Seventeen of the treaty was written in two contradictory versions. The Amharic version says Ethiopia could
use the services of Italy in her foreign relations with Europe whereas the Italian version bound Menelik to
make all his foreign contact through the agency of Italy. The Italian version of Article Seventeen reduced
Ethiopia to the status of an Italian protectorate.

---In September 1895, Menelik issued a general mobilization order at the command of more than 100,000
soldiers and camp-followers of both sexes, Menelik marched northwards to fight the Italians that had
already controlled Tigrai.

 The peoples of Ethiopia rose against the invaders. Menelik, led a united Ethiopia against the Italians.
Contingents were sent from almost all regions.
 On 7 December 1895, Menelik's advancing troops crushed an Italian army at the Battle of Ambalage in
southern Tigrai. The surviving Italians retreated to the north and joined with an army that was fortified at
Mekele.
 On the bases of empress Taitu's proposal, the Ethiopian army besieged the Italian fortification of Mekele
and closed Italian access to water and provisions for two weeks. Italians suffered a lot from shortage of
 water, and eventually surrendered the fortress to the Ethiopians. They were driven out of Mekele. The
final war was conducted in March 1, 1896 at Adwa.

Results of the battle of Adwa

---The victory of Adwa had far reaching consequences both at domestic and international level.

 The victory guaranteed the political independence of Ethiopia. Major colonial powers,
including Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia.
 European legations were opened in the capital, Addis Ababa. A series of treaties were signed
between Ethiopia and her neighboring colonial powers. These treaties delimited the
country’s boundaries within about a decade following the victory.
 In Italy, the defeat at Adowa aroused internal oppositions against the government of
Francesco Crispi (Italian Prime Minister at the time). These wide spread public oppositions
led to the down fall of Crispi’s government.
 The Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed between Italy and Ethiopia on 26 October, 1896. By
this treaty, Italy recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia and accepted the total
abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty.
 The Adwa victory became a symbol of black dignity and self-rule. It inspired further black
solidarity and nationalism.
 In countries of southern Africa, it sparked the emergence of “religious separatist”
movements known as Ethiopianism. This was a preference for African church Independent
from European missionary churches. The churches formed part of the general anti-colonialist
struggle.
 The echo of Adwa also inspired the early Pan-Africanist movement. Nonetheless, Italians
were not totally driven out of all Ethiopian regions.

3.4 Inception of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906-1935

Tripartite Treaty of 1906

---Tripartite Treaty was signed between British, France and Italy to divide Ethiopia in 1906. Power struggle
in the palace was the issue of succession following the illness of Menelik in 1906 and worse the death of
his successor, Ras Mekonnen same yea are the two main factors that forced the above countries to sign
the treaty.
---In this Treaty, the colonial powers defined their respective interests in Ethiopia. Accordingly, the
signatory powers recognized

 French interests in the Djibouti-Addis Ababa Railway.

 British interest over the Nile Basin,
 Italian plans of constructing a railway that would link her colonies of Eritrea and
Italian Somaliland. The treaty was signed without the knowledge of Ethiopia

---However as this treaty became known Menelik started to take measures that would keep the
sovereignty of the empire. These measures were;

 Establish of the Council of Ministers

 Designated heir (Lij Iyasu) to his throne. A regent (Ras Tesemma Nadew) aiming at a
smooth power transition up to his death.

The challenges of Taytu

---Empress Taytu had no offspring and thus saw future political power for herself and her relatives in the
candidate for the throne. In order to achieve her ambition she took such political steps as;

 Shum Shir (promotion and demotion) in which she dismissed members of the Council of
Ministers to replace them with her relatives
 Established political marriage between Zewditu (Menelik’s daughter) and Ras Gugsa Wolle,
her nephew.

---But the Shoan nobility and Ras Mikael of Wollo were not happy by the decision of the empress. The
opponents of Taytu obtained the blessing of the then Bishop, Abune Mathewos to remove her. In March
1910 Taytu was removed from government affairs, she was restricted to taking care of her dying husband.
Taytu was exiled to the Church of St. Mary at Entoto, where she stayed until her death in 1918.
 The Reign of Lij Iyasu 1913-1916
Reforms and achievements made by Lij Iyasu
 Established a system of auditing government property
 Formed a municipal police nicknamed Terunbule
 He had established separate Department of Education.
 Improved the traditional practice of Leba Shay (method of thief detection)
 Ended the practice of Quranga system in which both the accuser and the accused were chained
together until justice was delivered.
---Factors for the fall of Lij Iyasu
A. Internal factors-are opposition of the Shoan nobility and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church because
of his polygamous outlook and support for Muslims,

B. External factor-opposition of Britain, France and Italy. First Lij Iyasu established close foreign
relation with the Ottoman Turkish Empire and Germany during WWI which was a dangerous move
for Tripartite colonial powers. The second reason was Lij Iyasu provided moral and material support
to Somali nationalist movement led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassen

---The internal and external opponents of Lij Iyasu conspired and overthrew him in a coup on 27
September 1916 while he was in Jijiga. His father Ras Mikael of Wollo tried to reverse the coup but
was defeated at a bloody battle of Segele near Sheno on 27 October 1916
The Diarchy 1917-30

---The fall of Iyasu also marked the restoration of Shoan political supremacy. The coup makers
crowned the daughter of Menelik, Zewditu, as Empress on 1 February 1917. Ras Teferi Mekonnen
was made heir to the throne. However problem started to emerge as the power of Ras Teferi
started to grow progressively at the expense of Zewditu who represented the traditionalist or
conservative group in the Council of Ministers. They dislike modernizing activities. Teferi
represented the interest of a progressive group of the young educated Ethiopians and the more
‘enlightened’ feudalists.
Coronation of Teferi
 ---The chief events in the rise to power of Teferi were the following in chronological order;
 Twelve members of the council of ministers were removed from power accused of
corruption and embezzlement. Only Fitawrari Habte Giorgis, the War minister, remained in
power.
 The capture of Lij Iyasu in 1921 eliminated one rival for the throne.
 Ethiopia became member of the League of Nations under precondition of abolition of the
slave trade and slavery.
 The natural death of Fit. Habte Giorgis and Abune Mathewos in 1926 created a golden
opportunity to weaken the traditional conservative group.
 Dej Balcha Safo, governor of Sidamo and strong opponent surrendered unconditionally and
the prosperous province was given to an ally and then son in law of Ras Teferi, Ras Desta
Damtew.
 In October 1928 Zewditu formally crowned Teferi, Negus. He was made “king of Ethiopia”.
Heir to the throne.
 Another rival Ras Gugsa was defeated at the battle of Anchem in 30 March 1930 and Zewditu
died two days later.
 Teferi was crowned Emperor Haile Sellasie I of Ethiopia on 2 November, 1930

The Emergence of the Autocratic State, 1930-35

---Right after the coronation, Haile Sellassie embarked upon laying the ground for an absolutist state
in Ethiopia. The essence of his absolutism was the formation of a highly centralized unitary state. The
emperor took very significant measures.

---First, in 1931 he laid a legal basis for the absolutist state by issuing the first written Constitution for
Ethiopia. The constitution was claimed to have the objective of bringing political modernity, stopping
the traditional problem of succession and building national integrity.

 The Constitution confirmed the emperor’s divine right to rule as well as the right to issue laws
for his people by his own will.
---Secondly, based on his absolute constitutional right, Haila Selassie completed the process of
building centralized administration. The local autonomy of Gojjam and Jimma came to an end in
1932 and 1933 respectively. Hereditary rulers of these regions, Ras Hailu Haymanot of Gojjam and
Abba Jiffar were removed and the region came under direct control of the center.

---Thirdly, the absolute state worked hard at fiscal centralization, mainly customs administration.
The government thus eliminated the old provincial Kellas and replaced them by a few recognize
and centrally controlled costume posts.

---Finally, the emerging absolutists state gave due attention to the modernization of its army. The
process of administration and political centralization laid the basis for establishment of a modern
national army. The process of modern military training had already begun in 1920, by sending
young educated Ethiopians abroad.

 In 1930 Belgian officers were put in charge of training the Imperial Bodyguard consisting of
three battalions of infantry.
 In 1934, the Ethiopian government opened the first officer training school at Holeta Gennat by
recruiting its teaching staff from Swedish officers.

3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance

Major causes of fascist Italian Invasion

---What were the basic causes for the Italo-Ethiopian war (1934-1936)?

a) Italy wanted to remove the scar (shameful) of battle of Adwa

Italy wanted to rake revenge the defeat of Adwa.
b) To reduce population pressure in the Italian Peninsula. The fascist ruler Benito Mussolini
promised to the people to restore the “glory” of the Roman Empire & to avenge the
defeat of Adwa. Why?
 to win mass support
 To divert its people from internal problem by entering to the war of expansion.

---What were the indications (sign) of revival Italian colonial interest in Ethiopia in the post
Adwa?

---The 1906 Tripartite Treaty that signed between Britain, France and Italy to divide Ethiopia
was the first open danger against the sovereignty of Ethiopia. Accordingly the signatory powers
agreed to divide Ethiopia in the following ways
  Italy plan of building railway connecting her colony of Eritrea & Somalia in the
Tripartite Treaty
 After the end of WWI, Italy demanded to take-over (control) the British
Somaliland & French Somaliland (Djibouti) as well as Bank of Abyssinia & Addis
Ababa-Djibouti railway.
 By the Anglo-Italian agreement of the Italian agreed to give diplomatic support
to British plan building dam on Lake Tana.

---The coming of Fascist Party in to power in 1922 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini
changed the relation between Italy and Ethiopia. Since 1922 Italian Fascist leaders started
secret preparation in order to achieve their expansionist plan against Ethiopia. But they didn’t
reveal its plan until well in to the 1930s. The diplomatic support of Italians for Ethiopians in
these years were among few examples

 Italy gave diplomatic support to Ethiopia’s membership in the League of Nation.

 Italian official gave warm reception when Ras Teferi made tour to Europe in
1924.
 In 1928, Italy signed the Treaty of Peace & Friendship with Ethiopia.

---Behind the cover, however, the Fascists were busy preparing the ground for the invasion of
Ethiopia. The preparation consisted of two main activities.

 Following subversive colonial strategy was the first one. Creating internal division
between regional lords and the king was part of this plan. Corrado Zoli, the Italian
governor of Eritrea bribed and agitated the chiefs of Wollo, Tigray, Begemider and
Gojjam against the Emperor was a good example for this point.
 Large scale military preparation was the second strategy.

---The 1932 Hoare-Laval agreement the signed between Britain, France and Italy provided
encouragement for Fascist invasion against Ethiopia. By this treaty Britain and France agreed
not to oppose Italian invasion. This was done to encourage not allaying with Nazi Germany.

Immediate or Pretext cause

---What was the immediate cause (pretext) for the Italo-Ethiopia war of 1935/36?

 The Walwal Incidence. Walwal is water wells located in Ogaden.

---On 5, Dec 1934, The Italian troops opened fire on the Anglo-Ethiopian Boundary Commission
in Walwal. As a result 30 Italian troops were died & threefold from Ethiopian side. This event is
known as Walwal Incidence.

---What did Ethiopia do after the Walwal Incidence?

 Ethiopia took the matter to the League of Nation

---Why Ethiopia took the conflict of Italo-Ethiopia of 1934 to the League of Nation?
  Ethiopia (H/Selassie) trusted the league of nation could provide fair justices

---What was response of the League of Nation to the Italo-Ethiopia conflict of 1934?

 The League was imposed sanction on both Ethiopia and Italy.

---Why British & France were failed to take fair measure against the Italian aggression on
Ethiopia in 1934?

 Because British and France feared Italy might get to alliance with Gr.

The Italo-Ethiopia war of 1935-36

---The Italian aggression was come from two directions i.e. Eritrea in north Front & Italian
Somaliland in Southern Front.

Northern Front

---Northern Front: - Marshal Emilio De Bono was the Italian troops but later replaced by Pietro
Badoglio. The Ethiopian counter-offensive came very late. Why?

 Ethiopia trusted the Leagued of Nation & international al community provided

fair justice
 Ethiopia wanted to stretch the Italian line of supply by allowing to proceed deep
in to interior

---On the Ethiopia side the northern front has three directions.

i. Eastern Direction: it was led by Ras Mulugeta Yegezu (The Ministry of War). Ras
Mulugeta was died in the war
ii. Central Direction: led by kassa Hailu & Ras Seyoum Mengesha. They were defeated at
the battle of Temben. Kassa Hailu was the overall commander of the Northern Front.
iii. Western Front (Shire front):- It was led by Ras Imru Haile Sillassie.

---On 31 March 1936, the battle of Maichew, The well trained Imperial Bodyguard led by
Emperor Haile Sillassie fought against the Italians. But Ethiopia was defeated in all fronts.

Southern Front

---Southern Front: - General Rudolf Grazziani was the leader of Italian troops in Southern front.
The Ethiopian force was under the command of Dej. Nasibu Zeamanuel, Dej. Desta Damtew
Dje. Balcha Safo and Dej. Mekonnen Endalkachew. On 5 may 1936, Italian army entered Adiss
Ababa. This marked the beginning of Italian occupation on Ethiopia.

---What were the factors for the defeat of Ethiopians in the 1935/36 war by the Italy?

a) Italy’s military superiority.

Italy used 400 air plan i.e.330 in northern front & 100 in southern front.
Italy used poison gas, tanks, latest military technology & highly trained commanders.
 b) The arms embargo on Ethiopia imposed by the European.
c) The process of centralization antagonized some regional lords. And become
collaborated with Italy. These were Ras Hailu of Gojjam, Dej. Ayalew Biru of Semen,
Abba Jiffar of Jimma, Dej. H/Silassie Gugsa of Tigray.

Fascist Rule and patriotic Resistance

Colonial Administration

---Ethiopia was merged (united) with Eritrea & Italian Somaliland. The three countries become
known as Italian East Africa. The first viceroy of Italian East Africa was Petro Badoglio. Until
February 1937 Rodolfo Grazziani took the responsibility. Amadeo Umberto D’aosta was the last
viceroy of Italian East Africa.

----Italian East Africa has 6 administrative divisions

Administrative Regions Capital City

A. Tigray and Eritrea Asmara

B. Harar and Dire Dawa Harar

C. Oromo and Sidama Jimma

D. Shewa Addis Ababa

E. Amhara Gondar

F. Ogaden and Somalia Mogadishu

---Characteristics of fascist rule

 Violence & corrupt

 Highly centralized & inefficient
 Limited to urban centers because of the nationwide opposition of the
patriotic resistance

---Consequence of the Fascist Rule

 The expansion few factories & building

 Road construction. Why? To control its control its colony effectively.
 The young educated Ethiopian were executed (killed)
 The expansion of hotel and prostitution

Patriotic Resistance Movement

---The patriotic resistance has two phases (stages):-

Phase I: - it was the continuation of the major war of the 1936.

 It was led by the upper nobility.

 It was centered in urban areas
 It was based on conventional war (direct war)
 Its objective was to liberate Addis Ababa

---Black Lion Organization-It was led by Ras Imru Haile Selassie. It was established by the Young
educated of Holleta Military Academy. Its objective was to liberate Addis Ababa. It was
established in Gore, Illibabur.

---But the Black Lion Organization was defeated by the Fascist troops near Gojeb River in Kaffa.
Ras Imru was caught & deported to Italy.

---The second attempt to librate Addis Ababa was carried out in summer led by notable
(famous) lords. Some of them were Ras Kassa hailu, Dej. Abera & Asfawosen Kassa, Dej. Balcha
Safo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dej. Fikremariam. But they were easily crushed by the Italians. Why?
This was because of lack of coordination among the leaders.

N.B Abune Petros, unifying figures one of the leaders was caught & executed in Addis Ababa.

Phase II: It was started from Grazziani Massacre to the end of Fascist Rule.

 It was led by the lower nobilities

 It was based on guerrilla warfare (fighting)
 It was centered in rural areas

---On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian namely Moges Asgedom & Abraha Deboch were
made an attempt to assassinate Italian viceroy, Grazziani. Grazziani was wounded and many
other officials were killed.

---What was the response of Fascist troops after the attempt to assassinate the Italian viceroy
Grazziani on 19 February 1937 in Addis Ababa?

 The Fascist troops were carried out whole massacre on the Addis Ababa
residence. Within 3 day more than 30,000 peoples were killed. This event is
known as Grazziani Massacre or February Massacre.

---Who were the major Targets of Grazziani Massacre? The young and educated classes were
the major targets of this tragedy.

---What was the effect of Grazziani Massacre?

 It created nationwide opposition.

 It marked the beginning of second phase of patriotic resistance
 The shift of patriotic resistance from the urban areas to the rural areas.
  It created vacuum (gap) of educated people in Ethiopia in the post (after) liberation.

---What were the factors that helped the patriots to harass (destroy) the Fascist troops?

 The knowledge of terrain of their country

 The ability to disperse & to regroup

---Some of the patriotic leaders in the second phase were Amoraw Wubneh in Gonder, Belay
Zeleke in Gojjam, H/mariam Mammo, Abebe Aregay, Geresu Duki and Bekele Woya in Shewa.
Patriotic resistance was strong in Shewa, Gojjam and Begemidir.

Inner patriots (Yewust Arbegnoch)

---These were patriots who lived & often worked with the Italian in town & passed. They were
used as underground intelligence to the patriots. They provided useful information, food,
firearms and supply to the patriots. Some of them were Shewareged Gedle in Addis Alem,
Kebedech Seyoum of Shewa (granddaughter of Emperor Yohannes IV), Shewynesh Abera of
Lasta, Abebech Cherqos of Gonder, Lekyelesh Beyan in Jirru.

---Problems of the patriots were:

 Lack of food, firearms, medicine

 Lack of coordination among themselves
 There were collaborators with the Italians called Banda
*Banda was provided information about the location & plans of the patriots to the
Italian.

The war Of Liberation and Ethiopian Independence

Why Britain was supported the liberation of Ethiopia from the Fascist rule in 1940?

 To defend its colonies of East Africa

 Italy was declared war over Britain in 1940
 Italy was entered to the WWII on the side of Germany.

---The joint Anglo-Ethiopian force was launched from Eritrea, Sudan and Kenya.

a) General William Platt- From Sudan occupied Eritrea

b) Major General Charles Wingate and Brigadier General Daniel Sanford together with
Emperor Haile Selassie from Sudan. This force is also known as the Gedeon Force.
c) General Sir Allan Cunningham: from British East Africa (Kenya) controlled Addis Ababa
on 6 April 1941.

N.B 5 May 1945 considered as liberation of Ethiopia from the Fascist rule. Why? Because
Emperor Haile Sillassie I was re-entered to Addis Ababa.