UNIT - IV

Basics of Wireless:
Introduction
 Wireless Sensor Networks can be considered as a special case of ad hoc networks
with reduced or no mobility
 WSNs enable reliable monitoring and analysis of unknown and untested
environments
 These networks are "data centric", i.e., unlike traditional ad hoe networks where
data is requested from a specific node, data is requested based on certain attributes
such as, "which area has temperature over 35°C or 95°F**
 A sensor has many functional components as shown in Figure 8.1
 A typical sensor consists of a transducer to sense a given physical quantity, an
embedded processor, small memory and a wireless transceiver to transmit or
receive data and an attached battery
Applications:
 Thousands of sensors over strategic locations are used in a structure such as an
automobile or an airplane, so that conditions can be constantly monitored both from
the inside and the outside and a real-time warning can be issued whenever a major
problem is forthcoming in the monitored entity
 These wired sensors are large (and expensive) to cover as much area is desirable
 Each of these need a continuous power supply and communicates their data to the
end-user using a wired network
 The organization of such a network should be pre-planned to find strategic position
to place these nodes and then should be installed appropriately
 The failure of a single node might bring down the whole network or leave that region
completely un-monitored
 Unattendability and some degree of fault tolerance in these networks are desirable
in those applications where the sensors may be embedded in the structure or places
in an inhospitable terrain and could be inaccessible for any service
 Undoubtedly, wireless sensor networks have been conceived with military
applications in mind, including battlefield surveillance and tracking of enemy
activities
 However, civil applications considerably outnumber the military ones and are
applicable to many practical situations
 Judging by the interest shown by military, academia, and the media, innumerable
applications do exist for sensor networks
 Examples include weather monitoring, security and tactical surveillance, distributed
computing, fault detection and diagnosis in machinery, large bridges and tall
structures, detecting ambient conditions such as temperature, movement, sound,
light, radiation, vibration, smoke, gases, or the presence of certain biological and
chemical objects
 Under the civil category, envisioned applications can be classified into environment
observation and forecast system, habitat monitoring equipment and human health,
large structures and other commercial applications

Habitat Monitoring
 A prototype test bed consisting of iPAQs (i.e., a type of handheld device) has been
built to evaluate the performance of these target classification and localization
methods
 As expected, energy efficiency is one of the design goals at every level: hardware,
local processing (compressing, filtering, etc.: MAC and topology control, data
aggregation, data-centric routing and storage
 Pre-processing is proposed in for habitat monitoring applications, where it is argued
that the tiered network in GDI is solely used for communication
 The proposed 2-tier network architecture consists of micro nodes and macro nodes,
wherein the micro nodes perform local filtering and data to significantly reduce the
amount of data transmitted to macro nodes
Applications The Grand Duck Island Monitoring Network
 Researchers from the University of California at Berkeley (UCB) and Intel Research
Laboratory deployed in August 2002 a mote-based tiered sensor network in Great
Duck Island (GDI), Maine, aimed at monitoring the behaviour of storm petrel
 The overall system architecture is depicted in Figure 8.13
 A total of 32 motes have been placed in the area to be sensed grouped into sensor
patches to transmit sensed data to a gateway which is responsible for forwarding the
information from the sensor patch to a remote base station through a local transit
network
 The base station then provides data logging and replicates the data every 15 minutes
to a database in Berkeley over a satellite link
 Remote users can access the replica database server in Berkeley, while local users
make use of a small PDA-size device to perform local interactions such as adjusting
the sampling rates, power management parameters, etc.

Applications: Remote Ecological Micro-Sensor Network

  PODS is a research project undertaken at the University of Hawaii that has built a
wireless network of environmental sensors to investigate why endangered species of
plants will grow in one area but not in neighbouring areas
 They deployed camouflaged sensor nodes, (called PODS), in the Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park
 The PODS consist of a computer, radio transceiver and environmental sensors,
sometimes including a high resolution digital camera, relaying sensed data via
wireless link back to the Internet
 Bluetooth and 802.11b are chosen as the MAC layer, while data packets are
delivered through the IP
 In PODS, energy efficiency is identified as one of the design goals and an ad hoc
routing protocols called Multi-Path On-demand Routing (MOR) has been developed

Applications: Remote Ecological Micro-Sensor Network

 Weather data are collected every ten minutes and image data are collected once per
hour
 Users employ the Internet to access the data from a server in University of Hawaii at
Manoa
 The placement strategy for the sensor nodes is then investigated
 Topologies of 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional regions such as triangle tile, square
file, hexagon tile, ring, star, and linear are discussed
 The sensor placement strategy evaluation is based on three goals: resilience to single
point of failure, the area of interest has to be covered by at lease one sensor, and
minimum number of nodes
 Finally, it is found that the choice of placement depends on d and r

Environmental Monitoring Application

 Sensors to monitor landfill and the air quality
 Household solid waste and non-hazardous industrial waste such as construction
debris and sewer sludge are being disposed off by using over 6000 landfills in USA
and associated organic components undergo biological and chemical reaction such
as fermentation, biodegradation and oxidation-reduction
 This causes harmful gases like methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfide compounds
and ammonia to be produced and migration of gases in the landfill causes physical
reactions which eventually lead to ozone gases, a primary air pollutant and an
irritant to our respiratory systems
 The current method of monitoring landfill employs periodic drilling of collection well,
collecting gas samples in airtight bags and analyze off-site, making the process very
time consuming

 "The idea is to interface gas sensors with custom-made devices and wireless radio
and transmit sensed data for further analysis
  Deployment of a large number of sensors allows real-time monitoring of gases being
emitted by the waste material or from industrial spills
 "Place a large number of sensors throughout the area of interest and appropriate
type of sensors can be placed according to the type of pollutant anticipated in a
given area
 A large volume of raw data from sensors, can be collected, processed and efficiently
retrieval
 A generic set up of a WSN, has been covered and various associated issues have
been clearly pointed out
 The scheme can be easily used and adopted for other applications as well

Environment Observation and Forecasting System

 The Environment Observation and Forecasting System (EOFS) is a distributed system
that spans large geographic areas and monitors, models and forecasts physical
processes such as environmental pollution, flooding, among others
 Usually, it consists of three components: sensor stations, a distribution network, and
a centralized processing farm
Some of the characteristics of EOFS are:
 Centralized processing: The environment model is computationally ver
 intensive and runs on a central server and process data gathered from the sensor
network
 High data volume: For example, nautical X-band radar can generate megabytes of
data per second
 QoS sensitivity: This defines the utility of the data and there is an engineering trade-
off between OoS and energy constraint
 Extensibility
 Autonomous operation

Drinking Water Quality

 " A sensor based monitoring system with emphasis on placement and utilization of in
situ sensing technologies and doing spatial-temporal data mining for water-quality
monitoring and modeling
 The main objective is to develop data-mining techniques to water-quality databases
and use them for interpreting and using environmental data
 This also helps in controlling addition of chlorine to the treated water before
releasing to the distribution system
 Detailed implementation of a bio-sensor for incoming wastewater treatment has
been discussed
 A pilot-scale and full scale system has also been described

Disaster Relief Management and Soil Moisture Monitoring

  Novel sensor network architecture has been proposed in that could be useful for
major disasters including earthquakes, storms, floods, fires and terrorist attacks
 The SNs are deployed randomly at homes, offices and other places prior to the
disaster and data collecting nodes communicate with database server for a given sub
area which are in-turn linked to a central database for continuous update

Soil Moisture Monitoring

 A soil moisture monitoring scheme using sensors, over a one hectare outdoor area
and various performance parameters measured from an actual system
 A custom made moisture sensor is interfaced with Mica-2 Mote wireless board

Health Care Monitoring

 Tele-monitoring of human physiological data, tracking and monitoring of doctors and
patients inside a hospital, drug administrator in hospitals, ...
 An example: Artificial retina developed within the Smart Sensors and Integrated
Microsystems (SSIM) project
 A retina prosthesis chip consisting of one hundred micro-sensors are built and
implanted within the human eye, allowing patients with no vision or limited vision to
see at an acceptable level
 Wireless communication is required to suit the need for feedback control, image
identification and validation
 The communication pattern is deterministic and periodic like a TDMA scheme

Building, Bridge and Structural Monitoring

 Projects have explored the use of sensors in monitoring the health of buildings,
bridges and highways
 A Bluetooth based scatternet has been proposed to monitor stress, vibration,
temperature, humidity etc. in civil infrastructures
 Simulation results are given to justify effectiveness of their solution by having a set of
rectangular Bluetooth equipped sensor grids to model a portion of bridge span
 Fiber optic based sensors have been proposed for monitoring crack openings in
concrete bridge decks, of strain and corrosion of the reinforcement in concrete
structures
 Corrosion of steel bars is measured by using special super glue and angular strain
sensors

Smart Energy and Home/Office Applications

  Societal-scale sensor networks can greatly improve the efficiency of energy-provision
chain, which consists of three components: the energy-generation, distribution, and
consumption infrastructure
 It has been reported that 1% load reduction due to demand response can lead to a
10% reduction in wholesale prices, while a 5% load response can cut the wholesale
price in half
DARPA Efforts towards Wireless Sensor Networks
 The DARPA has identified networked micro sensors technology as a key
application for the future
 On the battlefield of the future, a networked system of smart, inexpensive and
plentiful micro-sensors, combining multiple sensor types, embedded processors,
positioning ability and wireless communication, will pervade the environment
and provide commanders and soldiers alike with heightened situation awareness

Body Area Network

 Specialized sensors and transducers are being developed to measure human
body characterizing parameters
 There has been increased interest in the biomedical area and numerous
proposals have recently been introduced
 Micro sensor array is used for artificial retina, glucose level monitoring, organ
monitors, cancer detectors and general health monitoring
 A wearable computing network has been suggested to remotely monitor the
progress of a physical therapy done at home and an initial prototype has been
developed using electroluminescent strips indicating the range of human body's
motion
 An indoor/outdoor wearable navigation system has been suggested for blind and
visually impaired people through vocal interfaces about surrounding
environment and changing the mode from indoor to outdoor and vice-versa
using simple vocal command

Conclusions and Future Directions:

 Sensor networks are perhaps one of the fastest growing areas in the broad
wireless ad hoc networking field
 As we could see throughout this chapter, the research in sensor networks is
flourishing at a rapid pace and still there are many challenges to be addressed
such as:
 Energy Conservation - Nodes are battery powered with limited resources while
still having to perform basic functions such as sensing, transmission and routing
 Sensing - Many new sensor transducers are being developed to convert physical
quantity to equivalent electrical signal and many new development is anticipated
  Communication - Sensor networks are very bandwidth-limited and how to
optimize the use of the scarce resources and how can sensor nodes minimize the
amount of communication
 Computation - Here, there are many open issues in what regards signal
processing algorithms and network protocols

LOWER-LAYER:
Introduction

 A typical Sensor Node (SN) of the network contains several transducers to

measure many different physical parameters and any one could be selected
under the program control at a given time
 The sensed values need to be routed by each SN to the BS either directly or via
its CH in a multi-hop fashion due to power limitations
 In a WSN, the overall objective can be defined by the BS and this process is
usually known as injection of the query by the BS
 In real-life, a low-flying airplane, an unmanned aerial or ground vehicle or a
powerful laptop can act as a BS or a sink and usually have adequate source of
power
 This enables the BS to transmit a query message at a very high power level so as
to reach all SNs in a given area simultaneously Such broadcasting is to enable all
 SNs to start working on the request and the query could also include information
about some necessary characteristics of the query
 If the BS has limited power to reach just few close-by SNs, then the query need
to be forwarded/broadcasted to a given area of interest or possibly to the whole
WSN
 The multi-hop routes are to be employed just like the response is forwarded in a
multi-hop fashion
 The use of a particular type of query might depend on the application
requirements
 Sometime, the query may ask for multiple parameters such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc., and may be required to sense and transmit the values
only once, or over a period of time, or use past history to gain statistical
information
 Based on these, the query can be divided into three categories:
- One time queries
- Persistent queries
- Historical queries

Classifications of WSNs
 WNs can be classified on the basis of their mode of operation or functionality,
and the type of target applications
 Accordingly, we classify WNs into three types:
1. Proactive Networks - The nodes in this network periodically switch on their sensors
and transmitters, sense the environment and transmit the data of interest and they
provide a snapshot of the relevant parameters at regular intervals and are well
suited for applications requiring periodic data monitoring
2. Reactive Networks - In this scheme, the nodes react immediately to sudden and
drastic changes in the value of a sensed attribute and as such, these are well suited
for time critical applications
3. Hybrid Networks - This is a combination of both proactive and reactive networks
where sensor nodes not only send data periodically, but also respond to sudden
changes in attribute values

Architecture of Sensor Networks

The typical hardware platform of a wireless sensor node will consist of:
 A simple embedded microcontrollers, such as the Atmel or the Texas
 Instruments MSP 430
 Currently used radio transceivers include the RFM TR1001 or Infineon or
 Chipcon devices
 Typically, ASK or FSK is used, while the Berkeley PicoNodes employ OOK
modulation
 Radio concepts like ultra-wideband are in an advanced stage
  Batteries provide the required energy as an important concern is battery
management and whether and how energy scavenging can be done to recharge
batteries in the field
 The operating system and the run-time environment is a hotly debated issue in
the literature
 On one hand, minimal memory footprint and execution overhead are required
while on the other, flexible means of combining protocol building blocks are
necessary, as meta information has to be used in many places in a protocol stack
 The architecture of sensor networks, specifically wireless sensor networks
(WSNs), is tailored to accommodate the specific needs of applications and the
communication technologies they rely on. This results in significant variations in
both individual sensor node hardware and the overall network structure.

1. Sensor Node Hardware Components:

- Microcontrollers:
- Sensor nodes are built using simple embedded microcontrollers (e.g., Atmel or Texas
Instruments MSP430). These microcontrollers must balance power consumption with
computational power, memory, and sleep modes, which influence energy efficiency and
responsiveness.
- Radio Transceivers:
- Common transceivers include RFM TR1001 and Chipcon devices, which use modulation
techniques like ASK, FSK, or OOK (as in Berkeley PicoNodes). Emerging technologies, such as
ultra-wideband, offer advances in communication efficiency. A potential breakthrough is the
wake-up radio concept, which allows sensor nodes (SNs) to remain in sleep mode and wake
up when a relevant transmission is detected, reducing power consumption.
Energy Supply (Batteries):
- Batteries are the primary power source, but efficient battery management and energy
scavenging (recharging through environmental energy) are critical for long-term operation.
Self-discharge and recharge rates, as well as overall battery life, are key concerns.
- Operating Systems & Run-Time Environments:
- The trade-off between minimal memory and flexibility for protocol integration is central
to the design of operating systems for SNs. Run-time environments that support structures
like blackboards, publish/subscribe, or tuplespaces are suggested as suitable for handling
the multi-protocol, meta-information-heavy requirements of WSNs.

2.Network Architecture:
The architecture of WSNs must ensure both sensing coverage and communication
connectivity, which relies on the density of the sensor deployment.
- Density and Lifetime:
- The network's lifetime can be defined by either the failure of individual sensors or by a
percentage failure rate (e.g., 95% area coverage). Denser sensor deployment provides
redundancy, but increasing density can also lead to higher energy consumption and
transmission delays due to collisions. The optimal sensor density maximizes sensor lifetime
by balancing communication distance and energy consumption.
- Transmission Strategies:
- Energy consumption varies depending on whether data is transmitted directly between
two sensors or via intermediate nodes. Using intermediate sensors can save energy
compared to long-range transmissions (Figure 9.3 illustrates these strategies).
- Energy-Driven Protocols:
- WSN protocols must be energy-efficient, focusing on data aggregation and reducing
unnecessary transmissions. Redundant or correlated sensor readings can be aggregated to
minimize the number of packets sent.
- Addressing and QoS:
- Address-free structures may be essential for scalability and energy efficiency, using
geographic or data-centric addressing systems. QoS, redundancy, and sensor reading
imprecision must be accounted for in the design of the network.
In-Network Processing:
- WSNs often perform in-network processing, such as data aggregation and distributed
signal processing, to reduce the number of transmitted packets. The exact nature of WSN
services is not fully defined, as they do not simply transmit bits like traditional networks.
- Gateway and Integration:
- WSNs must be integrated into larger networks via a gateway to bridge different
communication protocols. Integration into middleware architectures, like CORBA or Web
Services, and services described in WSDL or UDDI present challenges in representing the
unique functionality of WSNs.
- Reconfiguring Tasks:
- It may be necessary to update the tasks or software of sensor nodes over time, requiring
remote reconfiguration capabilities for the WSN.
Physical Layer
The physical layer in the context of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) refers to the hardware
and communication technologies used to transmit data between sensor nodes. However,
limited research has been conducted on developing protocols specifically tailored to the
unique needs of WSNs at the physical layer, particularly in terms of energy efficiency and
handling the overhead related to radio transmission (e.g., retransmissions and
communication costs).
Several points about the physical layer include:
- Energy-Efficient Transmission: A key focus is on how to transmit data with minimal energy
consumption while considering potential retransmissions and overhead. Some energy-
efficient modulation techniques have been explored in previous research (e.g., Schurgers
2001).
- Modulation Techniques for Sensor Nodes: Research such as that by Gao (2001) addresses
the hardware aspects of CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and other modulation issues,
emphasizing how these impact sensor nodes' performance.
- Communication Protocol Design: Shih (2001b) provides discussions on communication
protocol designs that are based on the physical layer, offering insights into how the physical
layer impacts overall network performance.
- Standardization Efforts: Although specific details are not covered, the work being done by
organizations like the IEEE (notably the IEEE 802.15.4 standard) is recognized as relevant.
IEEE 802.15.4 focuses on low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs), which are
critical for many WSN applications due to their low power consumption and cost-effective
communication.

MAC LAYER
The MAC (Medium Access Control) layer plays a vital role in wireless sensor networks
(WSNs), mainly in regulating how sensor nodes share the communication medium
efficiently while minimizing energy consumption. The main focus of MAC layer research for
WSNs is to keep sensor nodes in sleep mode as long as possible to conserve energy, making
it a crucial area of study.
Key concepts of MAC layer include:
Channel Allocation Schemes:
- Static Channel Allocation: Bandwidth is divided among sensor nodes using techniques like
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), CDMA
(Code Division Multiple Access), or SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access). These methods
minimize interference but work best in static, low-node-count environments where nodes
have predictable data loads.
- Dynamic Channel Allocation: This is more suited for environments where the number of
active nodes varies, and data generation is bursty (i.e., sporadic). Contention-based
protocols such as CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) are used here. Although these can
minimize collisions, they may lead to energy wastage and delays due to retransmissions.
Hierarchical Clustering and TDMA:
- In a hierarchical clustering model, TDMA can be used to allocate time slots to each sensor
node within a cluster. Nodes transmit data in their designated slots and can sleep during
other periods to save energy. This is especially beneficial in both proactive networks (where
nodes transmit periodically) and reactive networks (where nodes respond to sudden
events).
CDMA and Intra/Inter-Cluster Collisions:
- CDMA can be used to avoid collisions between clusters. Though more energy is required
per bit transmitted, CDMA allows multiple transmissions using the same frequency, making
it useful for inter-cluster communication.
MAC Design Challenges:
1. Node Failure: When sensor nodes fail, MAC protocols must adapt by forming new routes
and adjusting power levels to maintain network connectivity.
2. Energy Consumption Sources:
- Collisions: Corrupted packets due to collisions lead to retransmissions, consuming more
energy.
- Overhearing: Nodes may waste energy by listening to transmissions not intended for
them.
- Control Packet Overhead: The need for control packets to manage network operations
increases energy usage as the number of nodes rises or nodes fail.
- Idle Listening: Nodes may waste energy waiting to receive data that is never sent.
Energy Conservation Techniques:
- One of the most effective methods for conserving energy in WSNs is periodic sleeping:
nodes turn off their radios and synchronize based on a sleep schedule. This reduces the idle
listening problem, a major energy drain in sensor networks.
Scheduling and Reservation vs. Contention-based MAC:
- Scheduling-based MAC protocols (like TDMA) save more energy compared to contention-
based protocols (like IEEE 802.11). However, TDMA requires careful management of cluster
formation, inter-cluster communication, and dynamic adaptation to changes in the number
of nodes in the network.
In summary, the MAC layer in WSNs faces unique challenges related to energy efficiency,
node failure, and dynamic network environments. Various strategies, including static and
dynamic channel allocation, hierarchical clustering, and scheduled sleeping, are employed
to balance energy conservation with reliable communication.
The Sensor-MAC (S-MAC) protocol:
1. Energy Efficiency in WSNs:
- WSNs are designed for prolonged operation, making energy conservation crucial since
recharging batteries is often impractical.
- Nodes typically spend much of their time in an idle state, consuming similar energy levels
in both idle and receiving modes.
2. Low Duty Cycle Operation:
- Nodes in S-MAC operate on a low duty cycle, alternating between listening and sleeping
to conserve energy.
- By doing this, S-MAC addresses four primary sources of energy consumption: collision,
control overhead, overhearing, and idle listening.
3. Coordinated Sleep Schedules:
- S-MAC nodes communicate and coordinate their sleep schedules to minimize energy
waste.
- Each node broadcasts its schedule to neighbours using SYNC packets, helping to prevent
clock drift and ensuring nodes follow similar wake and sleep patterns.
4. Handling Different Schedules:
- If two neighbouring nodes have different schedules, they can either:
- Listen to both schedules, or
- Transmit data according to both schedules.
- Neighbour discovery is periodically performed to ensure nodes are aware of each other's
presence and schedules.
5. Communication Process:
- During communication, a node first performs carrier sensing during its neighbour's
listening periods.
- If the channel is clear, it sends a Request to Send (RTS) followed by a Clear to Send (CTS)
from the receiver, enabling data transfer during their scheduled times.
- Broadcasts do not use RTS/CTS to avoid potential collisions from multiple responses.
6. Adaptive Listening:
- To reduce latency in multi-hop transmissions, nodes that overhear transmissions can
briefly wake up to receive data, rather than waiting for their next scheduled listen time.
SMACS
 The SMACS is an infrastructure-building protocol that forms a flat topology (as
opposed to a cluster hierarchy) for sensor networks
 SMACS is a distributed protocol which enables a collection of SNs to discover
their neighbours and establish transmission/reception schedules for
communicating with them without the need for any local or global master nodes
 In order to achieve this ease of formation, SMACS combines the neighbour
discovery and channel assignment phases
 SMACS assigns a channel to a link immediately after the link's existence is
discovered
 This way, links begin to form concurrently throughout the network
 By the time all nodes hear all their neighbours, they would have formed a
connected network
 In a connected network, there exists at least one multi-hop path between any
two distinct nodes
 Since only partial information about radio connectivity in the vicinity of a SN is
used to assign time intervals to links, there is a potential for time collisions with
slots assigned to adjacent links whose existence is not known at the time of
channel assignment
 To reduce the likelihood of collisions, each link is required to operate on a
different frequency
 This frequency band is chosen at random from a large pool of possible choices
when the links are formed
 This idea is described in Figure 9.6(a) for the topology of Figure 9.5
 Here, nodes A and D wake up at times Ta and Td
 After they find each other, they agree to transmit and receive during a pair of
fixed time slots
 This transmission/reception pattern is repeated periodically every Tframe
 Nodes B and C, in turn, wake up later at times Tb, and Tc, respectively
 The method by which SNs find each other and the scheme by which time slots
and operating frequencies are determined constitute an important part of
SMACS
 To illustrate this scheme, consider nodes B, C, and D shown in Figure 9.6(b)
 These nodes are engaged in the process of finding neighbours and wake up at
random times
  Upon waking up, each node listens to the channel on a fixed frequency band for
some random time duration
 A node decides to transmit an invitation by the end of this initial listening time if
it has not heard any invitations from other nodes
 This is what happens to node C, which broadcasts an invitation or TYPE1 message
 Nodes B and D hear this TYPE1 message and broadcasts a response, or TYPE2,
message addressed to node C during a random time following reception of
TYPE.1

EAR protocol (Energy and Activity Aware Routing)

It is designed to facilitate communication between mobile and stationary nodes in a wireless
sensor network (WSN), particularly where energy efficiency and bandwidth are concerns.
Here's a breakdown of the key concepts:
1. Introduction of Mobility: EAR accommodates mobile nodes that can move through a
network primarily composed of stationary sensors. This is particularly useful in scenarios
where limited power consumption is crucial.
2. Low-Power Operation: The protocol is designed to minimize energy usage by allowing
mobile nodes to initiate and control connections with stationary nodes. This reduces the
number of messages exchanged, which is important since battery life is a priority for
stationary nodes.
3. Connection Control: Mobile nodes manage when to connect or disconnect from
stationary nodes. They have a registry that tracks nearby stationary nodes, allowing them to
make informed decisions about connections based on proximity and signal quality.
4. Eavesdropping Mechanism: Mobile nodes listen for periodic "Broadcast Invite" messages
sent by stationary nodes. These messages inform them of available connections without
requiring immediate responses, allowing mobile nodes to assess the network environment.
5. Connection Establishment: The EAR protocol involves several key message types:
- Broadcast Invite (BI): Sent by stationary nodes to invite mobile nodes to connect. Mobile
nodes respond by registering the stationary nodes they encounter.
- Mobile Invite (MI): A response from the mobile node to a BI message, indicating its intent
to connect.
- Mobile Response (MR): Sent by the stationary node in reply to the MI, confirming the
connection and assigning communication slots in the TDMA frame.
- Mobile Disconnect (MD): Sent by the mobile node when it wants to terminate a
connection, typically based on the signal quality (SNR).
6. Efficiency and Transparency: The EAR protocol is designed to be transparent to the
existing stationary nodes' protocols, minimizing the need for specialized messages and
ensuring seamless operation within the network.

The Sparse Topology and Energy Management (STEM)

This protocol is designed for sensor networks that spend most of their time in a low-power
monitoring state, only becoming active when specific events occur. Here's a breakdown of
its main concepts:

1. Reactive Monitoring: STEM is particularly suited for applications where the network
primarily senses the environment, such as detecting forest fires. The goal is to keep the
network operational for long periods while using minimal energy during monitoring.
2. Energy-Efficient Operation: During the monitoring state, only the sensors and some pre-
processing circuits of the nodes are active. The main processor and communication radio
remain off to save energy until an event is detected.
3. Event Detection: When a potential event is detected, the node's main processor wakes
up to analyze the data and determine if communication with other nodes is necessary.
However, the radios of neighbouring nodes may remain off if they did not detect the same
event.
4. Beacon Communication: To initiate communication, a node (the initiator) periodically
sends out a beacon signal targeting another node (the target). This beacon alerts the target
node to wake up and establish a communication link.
5. Link Activation: Upon receiving the beacon, the target node responds, and both nodes
keep their radios on. If the data needs to be forwarded, the target becomes the initiator for
the next hop, repeating the process.
6. Separate Frequency Bands: STEM uses different frequency bands for the wakeup
protocol and data transmission to avoid interference. The wakeup messages are sent over
one frequency (the "wakeup plane"), while actual data packets are transmitted over another
frequency (the "data plane").
7. Hardware Support: Some commercially available sensors support this dual-band
operation, allowing for effective implementation of the STEM protocol.
 ROUTING LAYER
This section explores energy-efficient routing techniques developed specifically for WSNs,
focusing on extending network lifetime.
Key concepts of WSN routing include:
Routing Approaches:
1. Multi-Hop Routing: In WSNs, data is usually sent over multiple hops from a source
node to the BS. The BS can be fixed or mobile, serving as a gateway between the
sensor network and external systems, such as the Internet. Multi-hop routing is
energy-efficient, as direct communication with the BS can be energy-intensive for
distant nodes.
2. Energy-Efficient Routing Goals: The primary aim is to minimize energy consumption
and maximize network lifetime. WSN routing protocols use specific strategies,
including data aggregation, clustering, in-network processing, and data-centric
techniques to meet this goal.
Classification of Routing Protocols for WSNs:

Routing protocols in WSNs can be classified based on network structure and protocol
operation.
By Network Structure:
 Flat-based Routing: All nodes have equal roles, and data is typically forwarded based
on query responses. This approach is suitable for small networks.
 Hierarchical-based Routing: Nodes play distinct roles; some nodes (cluster heads)
are designated with additional responsibilities, such as aggregating data and
forwarding it to the BS. This approach conserves energy by reducing redundant data
Transmission and is commonly used in large WSNs.
 Adaptive Routing: Protocols adapt parameters based on current network conditions,
such as energy availability, to maintain efficiency.
By Protocol Operation:
 Multipath-based Routing: Utilizes multiple paths for data transmission to increase
reliability and load balancing.
  Query-based Routing: Nodes send data in response to specific queries, saving
energy by limiting transmissions to relevant data only.
 Negotiation-based Routing: Prevents redundant data transmission through
negotiation among nodes before data forwarding.
 Location-based Routing: Nodes use location information to route data, optimizing
routes and reducing transmission energy costs.

Considerations for WSN Routing:

1. Energy Conservation Priority: Energy efficiency is prioritized over data quality to
prolong network lifespan.
2. Stationary Nodes: Many applications assume nodes are stationary, favouring table-
driven routing protocols over reactive schemes to reduce energy spent on route
discovery.
3. Cooperative Routing: Sensor nodes collaborate by sending data to a cluster head
(CH), which aggregates the data and further processes it, reducing overall route cost
in terms of energy use.
4. Use of Timing and Position Information: Certain protocols leverage time and
position data for efficient routing, adapting routes as network conditions and node
locations change.

Network Structure Based

Flat Routing
In flat routing based protocols, all nodes play the same role.
Directed Diffusion
Directed Diffusion operates through a process involving data aggregation and in-network
processing, which helps reduce redundant transmissions and save energy. Here’s an
overview of the Directed Diffusion process:
1. Interest Propagation: The base station (BS) initiates communication by broadcasting
an "interest" that specifies a task to be fulfilled by the network. This interest diffuses
through the network hop-by-hop, with each node broadcasting it to its neighbours.
2. Gradient Setup: Each node that receives an interest establishes a gradient—a
direction of data flow—towards the node from which it received the interest. This
gradient setup forms paths from multiple data sources to the BS, allowing data to
 flow towards the requesting node. Different gradients may be formed to neighbours
with varying strengths, affecting data flow.
3. Data Transmission and Path Reinforcement: Once data is transmitted, paths are
refined by reinforcing the best paths to ensure efficient routing and prevent further
flooding. The BS may also periodically refresh the interest to maintain data flow, as
the wireless medium can be unreliable.
4. In-network Aggregation: As data flows along these gradients, nodes aggregate
information from various sources, reducing the number of transmissions and
minimizing energy consumption.
5. Event-Specific Propagation: Directed Diffusion is well-suited for ongoing or
persistent queries, where nodes continuously provide data over time, such as
monitoring environmental conditions. However, it may not be efficient for one-time
or historical queries, as setting up gradients for a single-use path can be
unnecessary.
By aggregating data and choosing optimized paths, Directed Diffusion conserves energy,
extends network lifetime, and improves robustness.

Hierarchical Routing is a type of cluster-based routing approach in wireless sensor networks

(WSNs) aimed at improving energy efficiency and scalability. By organizing nodes into
clusters, hierarchical routing protocols achieve a balanced load across the network, where
energy-intensive tasks are primarily handled by selected nodes called Cluster Heads (CHs).

Key Concepts of Hierarchical Routing:

1. Cluster Formation and Role Assignment: Nodes in a WSN are organized into clusters,
with each cluster containing a designated CH. Regular sensor nodes within a cluster perform
sensing and data collection tasks and then relay this data to their CH. The CH, typically a
higher-energy node, is responsible for aggregating data and sending it either to an upper-
level CH or directly to the Base Station (BS).
2. Energy Efficiency: By aggregating data, CHs reduce the number of transmissions and the
energy spent in data transfer. Since data is aggregated at the cluster level before reaching
the BS, this hierarchical approach minimizes communication cost, conserves node energy,
and enhances the network's lifespan.
3. Scalability: Hierarchical routing supports a scalable architecture by limiting
communication within clusters and only forwarding processed data to higher layers. This
structure is especially beneficial in large networks where a direct transmission from each
node to the BS would be inefficient and unsustainable.
Example: Cluster-Based Routing Protocol (CBRP)
The Cluster-Based Routing Protocol (CBRP) is a fundamental protocol proposed by Jiang
(1998) that segments the network into clusters of two-hop-diameter. Each node only
communicates with its CH, which is responsible for further routing data. However, CBRP has
some notable limitations for WSNs:
- High Overhead: CBRP requires frequent "hello" messages to establish and maintain
clusters, which consumes significant network energy and bandwidth.
- Stationary Nodes: In most WSN applications where nodes are stationary, the overhead
created by continuous hello messaging becomes unnecessary and reduces overall efficiency.

Adaptive Routing protocols are designed to dynamically adjust to the available resources
and network environment, aiming to conserve energy and improve communication
efficiency in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). One prominent family of adaptive routing
protocols is the
Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN)
Key Concepts of Adaptive Routing with SPIN
1. Data-Centric Communication: SPIN protocols assign high-level metadata to data
packets, allowing nodes to negotiate the data before transmission. This data-centric
approach prevents the transmission of redundant information since nodes only send
data that their neighbours lack.
2. Energy Adaptation: SPIN adapts to each node’s available resources, ensuring that
low-energy nodes reduce participation when energy is scarce. This energy-
awareness prevents nodes from expending energy on unnecessary transmissions,
prolonging the network’s operational lifespan.
3. Three-Stage Communication: SPIN protocols follow a three-stage communication
process using three types of messages:
 o ADV: Advertises new data.
o REQ: Requests specific data that the node does not possess.
o DATA: Transmits the actual data when requested.
This process continues iteratively until all nodes in the network have the information they
need.
Types of SPIN Protocols
 SPIN-1 and SPIN-2: These are the foundational protocols of the SPIN family. SPIN-1
handles basic data negotiation, while SPIN-2 includes a threshold-based energy
mechanism. When a node's energy level drops below a certain point, it only
participates in data transmission if it can complete the process without falling below
the threshold.
 SPIN-BC (Broadcast Channel): SPIN-BC is optimized for broadcast environments.
Nodes delay their responses with random timers, avoiding redundant requests when
multiple nodes request the same data.
 SPIN-PP (Point-to-Point): For point-to-point communication, SPIN-PP operates with
a three-way handshake similar to SPIN-1 but requires only single-hop neighbour
awareness. This protocol is effective for networks where energy and data reliability
are less of a concern.
 SPIN-EC (Energy-Constrained): This variant uses an energy threshold heuristic.
Nodes participate only if they can complete all stages without reducing energy below
a predefined threshold.
 SPIN-RL (Reliable): In error-prone environments, SPIN-RL adds mechanisms to SPIN-
PP to manage lossy channels. Nodes track received ADV messages and can request
retransmissions for data not received within a time window, ensuring reliable data
transfer.
Advantages of SPIN
 Energy Efficiency: By negotiating metadata before full data transfer, SPIN reduces
unnecessary data exchanges and conserves energy.
 Adaptability: SPIN adjusts to the network’s energy levels and only participates when
feasible, extending node life.
 Reduced Redundancy: By eliminating redundant data transfers and only transmitting
unique data, SPIN conserves bandwidth and energy.
Limitations
SPIN protocols, while energy efficient and suitable for mobile WSNs, are not always ideal for
networks with strict latency requirements or real-time demands. The delay from
negotiation and the overhead from ADV and REQ messaging can be excessive in dense
networks or environments where rapid data dissemination is needed.
Negotiation-Based Routing protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) aim to eliminate
redundant data transmissions by using high-level data descriptors to negotiate and decide
what data should be sent. This approach addresses common issues of traditional flooding,
such as implosion (nodes receiving duplicate data) and data overlap (when nearby nodes
collect similar data). These problems lead to unnecessary energy consumption and
bandwidth use, which is particularly problematic in resource-constrained WSN
environments.

Negotiation-Based Routing

1. High-Level Data Descriptors: Nodes use metadata to describe the data, allowing them to
negotiate on the data's necessity before initiating a full transmission. This negotiation avoids
sending redundant data to neighbouring nodes.
2. Resource-Based Communication Decisions: By evaluating the available resources, nodes
can make adaptive decisions on whether to participate in data transmission, thus conserving
energy.
3. Avoiding Redundant Data: Protocols like SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via
Negotiation) are classic examples of negotiation-based routing. In SPIN, each sensor node
describes its data using metadata and broadcasts this information through ADV
(advertisement) messages. Neighbouring nodes then request data they need, minimizing
duplicate data transmissions.

Advantages
- Energy Efficiency: By preventing redundant transmissions, negotiation-based protocols
conserve energy across the network, especially vital for WSNs.
- Reduced Data Overlap: Nodes avoid receiving unnecessary duplicates of data, which
reduces data processing and storage demands.
Multipath-Based Routing is a routing approach in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) that
maintains multiple paths from a source to a destination, instead of relying on a single path.
This routing method aims to improve network fault tolerance and reliability by providing
alternative paths, especially useful in the event of primary path failure. However,
maintaining these paths incurs extra energy consumption and overhead as they require
periodic messages to keep the alternate paths active.
Key Features of Multipath-Based Routing:
1. Enhanced Fault Tolerance: The likelihood of having an alternative route when the
primary path fails increases with multiple paths, which improves overall network resilience.
2. Node-Disjoint and Overlapping Paths: Paths can be node-disjoint (no shared nodes) or
overlapping. Node-disjoint paths increase reliability but are more resource-intensive, while
overlapping paths reduce resource consumption.
3. Energy-Optimized Path Selection: Paths can be selected based on residual energy to
avoid rapid depletion of energy in any single path, thus extending network lifetime. For
instance, the primary path may be used until its energy drops below that of a backup path.

Approaches and Protocols in Multipath Routing

- Suboptimal Path Selection: Some protocols use suboptimal paths probabilistically based
on energy consumption, enabling more even distribution of network load.
- Reliability via Redundancy: In unreliable environments, certain protocols send duplicate
data over multiple paths to ensure message delivery. This approach balances reliability and
energy consumption by using a redundancy function dependent on the failure probabilities
of the paths.
- Directed Diffusion and Braided Paths: Protocols like Directed Diffusion utilize braided
paths (partially disjoint) close to the primary path to lower the maintenance cost of
multipath routing, allowing energy-efficient recovery from failures.

Applications of Multipath Routing

This approach is ideal for time-critical and high-reliability applications such as:
- Explosion Detection
- Intrusion Detection
- Forest Fire Monitoring

These applications often require service differentiation, where critical queries take the
shortest path, and non-critical, periodic updates are distributed over longer paths. This
differentiation extends network life by reducing battery depletion in specific nodes, as it
spreads out the workload across the network, particularly in mesh or rectangular grid-based
WSNs.

Query-Based Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) enables on-demand data

retrieval by having nodes propagate queries for specific data (sensing tasks) throughout the
network. In this model, a destination node, such as a base station (BS), issues a query to the
network, and nodes that hold relevant data respond by sending matching information back
to the requester. This approach helps in scenarios where continuous monitoring isn’t
necessary, conserving network energy by only activating nodes when a specific data query is
made.
Key Components of Query-Based Routing
1. Query Propagation: The BS or destination node sends a query, often in natural language
or a high-level query language, to all or part of the network. Nodes store these queries and
will respond with relevant data whenever it matches their sensing tasks.
2. Interest Propagation and Gradient Paths: In Directed Diffusion, the sink node initiates
interest messages to SNs, setting up gradients (data pathways) from the source back to the
sink. When a source has data matching the interest, it sends it back along these paths, and
energy is conserved by aggregating data (e.g., suppressing duplicates) along the way.
Rumor Routing
The Rumor Routing Protocol provides an efficient mechanism to handle localized queries.
Here, long-lived "agents" traverse the network, creating paths to events they encounter:
- Event-Based Path Creation: Agents update nodes with paths to events as they move
around. Each agent contains an event table that synchronizes with the nodes it visits,
enabling them to record and recall the paths to various events.
- Agent Optimization: If an agent finds a more efficient route, it updates the routing tables
of nodes it encounters, optimizing future queries.
- Efficient Querying Mechanism: A node queries only if it has learned a path to the target
event. If no route exists, the node broadcasts the query randomly and waits. If the query
fails, it may resort to network flooding to ensure the request reaches the destination.
Applications and Advantages
Query-based routing is highly suitable for event-driven scenarios like battlefield monitoring,
where queries for specific data (e.g., "Are there vehicles in region 1?") need to be answered
without constantly sensing and transmitting data across the network.
Energy efficiency is achieved by:
1. Activating nodes only when relevant queries are issued.
2. Reducing redundant data transmission via data aggregation techniques.
3. Avoiding continuous monitoring and data broadcasting across the entire network.
This method makes query-based routing ideal for applications with intermittent data
requirements, where on-demand information retrieval can save energy and bandwidth
across WSNs.
Location-Based Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) leverages the geographic
positions of sensor nodes (SNs) for addressing and routing, optimizing the network's
efficiency by minimizing data transmission distances and reducing energy consumption.
Nodes can determine their locations via signal strength estimations or GPS receivers,
provided the nodes are GPS-enabled.
Key Components of Location-Based Routing
1. Location Awareness: Nodes use relative positions, calculated through signal strength or
GPS, to identify their locations. Relative positioning between nodes allows for efficient
communication without needing full network knowledge.
2. Energy Conservation through Sleep Scheduling: To maximize energy savings, certain
location-based schemes involve putting nodes into sleep mode when they are inactive,
allowing only essential nodes to remain active to maintain network functionality.
- Localized Sleep Scheduling: In such schemes, the sensor field is divided into small grid
sections or "squares," and only one node per square remains active, while others sleep. This
localized activity management conserves energy while ensuring continuous network
connectivity and data communication capabilities.
Advantages and Applications
- Extended Network Lifetime: By reducing the number of actively transmitting nodes and
minimizing redundant communication, location-based routing maximizes the network’s
energy efficiency.
- Spatial Coverage and Connectivity: Location-based routing schemes are designed to
ensure that active nodes can cover the entire sensing area, maintain network connectivity,
and provide essential routing functions.