Environmental Geology 4th Geo

Lecture 6
Volcanic Activity
Emmanuel Daniel – University of Juba
Volcanic Eruptions
and Hazards
 Introductions
• Over 1,500 active volcanoes on Earth, 400 erupted in
the last century and ᷉ 50 eruptions per year.
• Most activity concentrated along major plate
boundaries .
• Impact risks depend on the types of Volcanoes.
• Over 500 million people living near volcanoes and
over 100,000 lives lost in the last 125years.
• Densely populated countries in the volcanic zones
includes : - Japan , Mexcio, Philipines and Indonesia
 What is a volcano?
• A volcano is a vent or
vent rupture which allows hot lava,
volcanic ash, and gases to
escape from a magma chamber
below the surface.
cone • Magma chamber: The area
beneath a volcano where magma
collects before an eruption.
• Conduit: A passage followed by
magma in a volcano.
conduit • Vent : The opening at the earth's
surface through which volcanic
materials issue forth.
• Cone: A volcanic cone built
entirely of loose fragmented
magma
material (pyroclastics) and (or)
chamber
lava flows erupted from the vent
 Introduction
• Most volcanic activities
are highly related to plate
tectonic movement
• Approximately 2/3rd of
the active volcanoes are
concentrated along
pacific “ Ring of fire”.
• In the US: Alaska ,
Cascades, and Hawaii are
generally experiencing 2-
3 eruptions a year.
 How do volcanoes erupt?
• Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower density than the
surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the crust to erupt on the
surface.
– Same principle as hot air rising, e.g. how a hot air balloon works
• When magma reaches the surface it depends on how easily it flows
(viscosity) and the amount of gas (H2O, CO2, S) it has in it as to
how it erupts.
• Large amounts of gas and a high viscosity (sticky) magma will form
an explosive eruption!

• Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity (runny) magma will
form an effusive eruption
– Where the magma just trickles out of the volcano (lava flow).
 Why Do Volcanic Eruptions Occur?
• High temperature of the Earth’s interior
– Melting of lower crust and mantle = molten rock = magma
– At depths > 20 km the temperature = 800-1,600 degrees Celsius
– The density of the magma is less than the crustal rock, therefore it
rises to the surface

• Source of this heat?

– Residual from the cooling of the Earth (& solar system)
– Radioactive decay
– Convection in the mantle- Brings hot rock up from near the interior
of the Earth and returns cooler material towards the centre of the
Earth for reheating.
 Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?
• Volcanoes erupt when magma rises to the surface . Magma is
formed when the earth mantle melts.
• Melting may happen where tectonic plates are pulling apart or
where one plate is pushed down under another.
• Magma is lighter than rock so rises towards the Earth surface.
As the magma rises, bubbles of gas form inside it.
• Runny magma erupts through openings or vents in the earth
crust before flowing onto its surface as lava.
• When the pressure is too much an explosive eruption can
happen, which can be dangerous and destructive.
• Another way an eruption happens is when water underneath
the surface interacts with hot magma and creates steam, this
can build up enough pressure to cause an explosion.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
 (1) Explosive Eruptions
• Explosive volcanic eruptions can be
catastrophic
• Erupt 10’s-1000’s km3 of magma
• Explosive eruptions are favored by
high gas content & high viscosity
magmas.
• The explosive bursting of bubbles
fragments the magma into clots of
liquid that cool as they fall through
the air
Mt. Redoubt
• Send ash clouds >25 km into the
stratosphere Above: Large eruption column and
• Have severe environmental and ash cloud from an explosive
climatic effects eruption at Mt Redoubt, Alaska
• Hazardous!!!
A truck carrying
volcanologists and a film crew
attempting to out run a
pyroclastic flow in
Indonesia….the pyroclastic
flow was traveling at about
25-30 meters per
second…..they made
it….just!.
Pyroclasts= hot, broken
fragments of solid pieces of
rock that once formed the
volcanic edifice.
 (2) Effusive Eruptions
• A volcanic eruption dominated by the
passive outpouring of lava onto the Earth’s
surface is called an effusive eruption.
• This happens either because there is not
enough gas (volatiles) in the magma to
break it apart upon escaping, or the
magma is too viscous (sticky) to allow the
volatiles to escape quickly.
• Lava flows generated by effusive eruptions
vary in shape, thickness, length, and width
depending on the type of lava erupted,
and duration of eruption.
• not generally as hazardous as explosive
eruptions, but lava flows can burn and
bury buildings.
Volcanic Landforms Types
 (1) Shield Volcanoes
• A Shield volcano is characterized by
gentle upper slope and somewhat
steeper lower slope . Shape like shield.
• The largest volcanoes
• Are composed almost entirely of
relatively thin lava flows built up over
a central vent.
• Most shield volcanoes have a roughly
circular or oval shape in map view.
• Most were formed by low viscosity
basaltic magma that flows easily
down slope away from the summit
vent.
• Common in Hawaii, Iceland, Indian
ocean Island .
 (2)Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes)
• Have steeper slopes than shield volcanoes.
• A stratovolcano is a conical volcano built
up by many layers ( strata) of lava.
• The gentler slopes near the base are due to
accumulations of material eroded from the
volcano .
• They show inter-layering of lava flows and
pyroclastic material, which is why they are
sometimes called composite.
• Due to the higher viscosity of magmas
erupted from these volcanoes; they are
more explosive than shield volcanoes.
• Magma with intermediate composition,
moderate viscosity.
 (3) Cinder Cones
• A cone formed around a volcanic
vent by fragments of lava thrown
out during eruptions.
• Cinder cones are the simplest of the
volcano types usually consist of
basaltic to andesitic material.
• They show an internal layered
structure due to varying intensities of
the explosions that deposit different
size of pyroclastics materials .
• Cinder cones usually occur around
summit vents and flank vents of
stratovolcanoes. And formed by
explosive eruptions
 (4) Craters and Calderas
• Craters are circular depressions,
usually less than 1 km in
diameter, that form as a result
of explosions that emit gases
and ash.
• Calderas form as a result of
collapse of volcanic structure.
The collapse results from
evacuation of the underlying
magma chamber.
• Calderas are formed when an
erupting volcano empties a
shallow-level magma chamber.
 Volcanic Origin and plate Boundary
• Volcanism occurring at mid-oceanic ridges produces
basaltic rock (decompression melting).
• Shield volcanoes are formed above hot spots located
below the lithospheric plates. For example, the Hawaiian
volcanoes .
• Composite volcanoes are associated with andesitic
volcanic rocks and subduction zones.
• Caldera-forming eruptions may be extremely explosive
and violent. These eruptions tend to be associated with
rhyolitic rocks, which are produced when magma moves
upward and mixed with continental crust.
Volcanic Origin and plate Boundary
Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
• Active Volcano - An active volcano to volcanologists is a volcano
that has shown eruptive active within recorded history. Thus an
active volcano need not be in eruption to be considered active.
• Currently there are about 600 volcanoes on Earth considered to be
active volcanoes.
• Each year 50 to 60 of volcanoes actually erupt.
• Extinct Volcano - An extinct volcano is a volcano that has not
shown any historic activity, is usually deeply eroded, and shows
no signs of recent activity. How old must a volcano to be
considered extinct depends to a large degree on past activity.
• Dormant Volcano - A dormant volcano (sleeping volcano) is
somewhere between active and extinct. A dormant volcano is one
that has not shown eruptive activity within recorded history
Long - Term Forecasting and Volcanic Hazards
Studies
• Studies of the geologic history of a volcano are generally
necessary to make an assessment of the types of hazards
posed by the volcano and the frequency at which these types
of hazards have occurred in the past.
• Once this information is available, geologists can then make forecasts
concerning what areas surrounding a volcano would be subject to the
various kinds of activity should they occur in a future eruption .and also
make forecasts about the long-term likelihood or probability of a volcano
eruption in the area.
• During such studies, geologists examine sequences of layered deposits
and lava flows.
• Using radiometric age dating of the deposits the past frequency of
events can be determined
 Short - Term Prediction based on Volcanic
Monitoring
• Earthquakes - As magma moves toward the surface it usually
deforms and fractures rock to generate earthquakes. Thus an
increase in earthquakes activity immediately below the volcano
is usually a sign that eruption will occur.
• Ground Deformation - As magma moves into a volcano, the structure
may inflate. This will cause deformation of the ground which can be
monitored.
• Changes in Heat Flow - Heat is everywhere flowing out of the surface of
the Earth. As magma approaches the surface or as the temperature of
groundwater increases, the amount of surface heat flow will increase
• Changes in Gas Compositions - The composition of gases emitted from
volcanic vents a often changes just prior to an eruption.
Volcano Monitoring
and Hazard
Mitigation
 Volcanic Hazard
• Volcanic hazards include:
1)Primary effects of volcanic activity that are the
direct results of the eruption. Including lava
flows; pyroclastic activity ash fall, ash flows,
lateral blasts; and the release of gases.
2)Secondary effects, which may be caused by
• the primary effects. include debris flows,
mudflows, landslides, or debris avalanches,
floods, and fires.
 Volcanic Hazards
• Lava flow
• Pyroclastic flow
• Lahar ( debris + Mud ) flow
• Poisonous Gas

Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch
 Volcanic Hazard & Impact Risk
• Pyroclastic Flow :
Large amount of rock fragments, volcanic
glass fragments, and volcanic bombs.
Associate with explosive volcanic eruptions
Ash fall, from more vertical ash eruption
More deadly if lateral blast
Hot temperature and fire hazards.
Pyroclastic Flow
• For example,
eruption of
Vesuvius in 79
AD destroyed
the city of
Pompeii
Pompeii (79AD)

On August 24, 79AD Mount Vesuvius literally

blew its top, erupting tonnes of molten ash,
pumice and sulfuric gas miles into the
atmosphere. Pyroclastic flows flowed over the
city of Pompeii and surrounding areas.
 Pompeii (79AD)
Pyroclastic flows of poisonous gas and hot
volcanic debris engulfed the cities of Pompeii,
Herculaneum and Stabiae suffocating the
inhabitants and burying the buildings.
Pompeii (79AD)
The cities remained buried
and undiscovered for almost
1700 years until excavation
began in 1748. These
excavations continue today
and provide insight into life
during the Roman Empire.
How do pyroclastic flows cause
devastation?
Pyroclastic Flow - direct impact

Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch
Pyroclastic Flow - burial
Pyroclastic Flow - burns
 Pyroclastic Flow - lahars
• Hot volcanic activity can melt snow
and ice
• Melt water picks up rock and debris
• Forms fast flowing, high energy
torrents
• Destroys all in its path
• Most serious secondary volcanic
hazard
 Pyroclastic Fall
• Ash load
– Collapses roofs
– Brings down power lines
– Kills plants
– Contaminates water
supplies
– Respiratory hazard for
humans and animals
– Hazardous for air traffic
 Lava Flow
• It is not just explosive volcanic activity that
can be hazardous. Effusive (lava) activity
is also dangerous.
 Lava Flow
• Lava Flow from the vent or crater or along a line
of fissure
• Lava flow are streams of molten rock that pour
from erupting vent.
• Most common and abundant type:
Pahoehoe lava- less viscous, higher temperature,
with a smooth ropy surface teture.
 Aa lava- more viscous and slow moving , lower
temperature
 Poisonous Gases
• Poisonous Gases:
• Volcanic gases -
• Floating in air
• Dissolved in water
• Danger to health , plants, and animals
• Produces smog air and acid rain ( lead contamination from
construction material), and toxic soils.
• Health effects : breathing problems , headaches, sore
throats, watery eyes
Poisonous Gases
Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland
• Iceland, January
23,1973.
• Large fissure
eruption
threatened the
town of
Vestmannaeyjar.
 Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland

• The lava flows caught

the inhabitants by
surprise
• Before the eruption was
over, approximately one-
third of the town of
Vestmannaeyjer had
been destroyed
 Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland
• However, the potential damage was reduced by spraying
seawater onto the advancing lava flows.
• This caused them to slow and/or stop, or diverted them
away from the undamaged part of the town.
 So….
How do we minimize the risk of
active volcanoes?
Volcano Monitoring
Volcano Observatories
are set up on all active
volcanoes that
threaten the human
population. These are
designed to monitor
and potentially to
predict the eruptive
behaviour of the
volcano in question.
Volcano Monitoring
• Seismicity
• Deformation
• Gas Output
– (on volcano and
remote sensing
techniques)

These three
things are the
most important
precursors to an
eruption.
 Seismic Activity
• Earthquake activity commonly precedes an eruption
– Result of magma pushing up towards the surface
– Increase volume of material in the volcano shatters the
rock
– This causes earthquakes
 Seismic Activity
• Earthquake activity is measured by Seismographs
– Seismographs are stationed on the flanks of the
volcano
– These record the frequency, duration and intensity
of the earthquakes and report it back to the volcano
observatory.
 Deformation Monitoring
• “Tiltmeters” are used to measure the deformation
of the volcano
– The tiltmeters measure changes in slope as small as one part per
million. A slope change of one part per million is equivalent to
raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one millimeter!
 Deformation Monitoring
• Tilltmeters can tell you when new material enters the magma chamber.

Note the
B presence of
earthquakes in
relation to the
deformation.
Often it is a
combination of
events that
fore-warns of
an eruption.
 Gas Monitoring
• Commonly gas output from a volcano increases or changes
composition before an eruption.
– As magma rises to the surface it releases (exsolves) much
of its gas content.
– This can be measured
 Gas Monitoring
• Gas samples are collected from fumaroles
and active vents.

• Gas levels may also be monitored by remote

sensing techniques
 Volcanic Monitoring Summary
• The methods of forecasting volcanic eruptions include:
1. Monitoring seismic activity
2. Monitoring thermal, magnetic, and hydrologic
conditions
3. Topographically monitoring tilting or swelling of the
volcano
4. Monitoring volcanic gas emissions
5. Studying the geologic history of a particular volcano or
Volcanic Center
 Public Perception and Adjustment
• Perception of the volcanic hazards :
• People live near volcanoes for variety of reasons includes :
 They are born there
 There no other choices as where to live
 The land is fertile and good for farming
 People are optimistic and accepting risks
• Adjustment
 Public awareness and education
 Improvement in education
 Better scientific info dissemination
 Timely and orderly evacuation
 In Summary..

• Volcanoes are extremely hazardous.

• However, the volcano can be studied,
monitored and understood.
• Each volcano is different, and offers a
unique set of dangers
• Plans may be emplaced to help control
potential damage.
• What should geologists do about
volcanic eruptions in the future?
1. Study volcanoes to find out more about how and why
they erupt
2. Monitor the volcanoes
3. Develop hazard mitigation plans
4. Understand the population around volcanoes, i.e. why
do people choose to live near volcanoes?
5. Education
Thanks for your attention

Any Question Please