Hooke's Law

In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English

scientist Robert Hooke noticed that many materials exhibited a
similar property when the stress-strain relationship was studied.
There was a linear region where the force required to stretch the
material was proportional to the extension of the material. This is
known as Hooke’s Law. In this article, let us learn about Hooke’s
law in detail.

What is Hooke’s Law?

Stress and strain take different forms in different situations.
Generally, for small deformations, the stress and strain are
proportional to each other, and this is known as Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’ s law states that the strain of the material is
proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit
of that material.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and
molecules deform until stress is applied, and when the stress is
removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is
the constant of proportionality known as the spring constant in
N/m.
Hooke’s Law Experiment
Consider a spring with load application, as shown in the figure.
The figure shows the stable condition of the spring when no load is applied, the
condition of the spring when elongated to an amount x under the load of 1 N, the
condition of the spring elongated to 2x under the influence of load 2 N.

Depending on the material, different springs will have different

spring constants, which can be calculated. The figure shows us
three instances, the stable condition of the spring, the spring
elongated to an amount x under a load of 1 N, and the spring
elongated to 2x under a load of 2 N. If we substitute these values
in the Hooke’s law equation, we get the spring constant for the
material in consideration.

Hooke’s Law Graph

The figure below shows the stress-strain curve.

From the origin till the proportional limit nearing yield strength,
the straight line implies that the material follows Hooke’s law.
Beyond the elastic limit between proportional limit and yield
strength, the material loses its elasticity and exhibits plasticity.
The area under the curve from origin to the proportional limit
falls under the elastic range. The area under the curve from a
proportional limit to the rupture/fracture point falls under the
plastic range.

The material’s ultimate strength is defined based on the

maximum ordinate value given by the stress-strain curve (from
origin to rupture). The value provides the rupture with strength
at a point of rupture.

Hooke’s Law Applications

Following are some of the applications of Hooke’s Law:

It is used as a fundamental principle behind the manometer,

spring scale, and the balance wheel of the clock.

Hooke’s law sets the foundation for seismology, acoustics and

molecular mechanics.

Hooke’s Law Disadvantages

Following are some of the disadvantages of Hooke’s Law:

Hooke’s law ceases to apply past the elastic limit of a material.

Hooke’s law is accurate only for solid bodies if the forces and
deformations are small.
Hooke’s law isn’t a universal principle and only applies to the
materials as long as they aren’t stretched way past their capacity.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1Does Hooke’s Law apply to all materials?

Hooke’s spring law applies to any elastic object of arbitrary

complexity, as long as a single number can express the
deformation and the stress.

Q2 Is Hooke’s Law linear?

Hooke’s Law is linear. Hooke’s law states that the restoring force
is proportional to the displacement.

Q3When does Hooke’s Law fail?

Hooke’s law applies to a perfectly elastic material and does not

apply beyond the elastic limit of any material.

Q4 Why is Hooke’s Law negative?

In Hooke’s law, the negative sign on the spring’s force means that
the force exerted by the spring opposes the spring’s
displacement.
Q5 Why do we need Hooke’s Law?

Hooke’s Law is essential because it helps us understand how a

stretchy object will behave when stretched or compacted.

Q6 Why are the bridges declared unsafe after a long use?

Due to repeated stress and strain, the materials used in the

bridge loses elastic strength and ultimately may collapse. Hence,
bridges are declared unsafe after long use.

Q7 How are we able to break the wire due to repeated bending?

When the substance is subjected to repeated strain, the elastic

properties of the material get greatly impaired. This property is
called elastic fatigue. Thus, we are able to break the wire by
repeated bending.

Q8 What are the various types of strain?

Longitudinal Strain
Volumetric Strain
Shear Strain
Hooke’s Law Example Problem
1. How much force is needed to pull a spring with a spring
constant of 20 N/m a distance of 25 cm?

The k of the spring is 20 N/m.

Δx is 25 cm.
We need this unit to match the unit in the spring constant, so
convert the distance to meters.
Δx = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Plug these values into the Hooke’s Law formula. Since we’re
looking for the force required to pull the spring apart, we don’t
need the minus sign.
F = k·Δx F = 20 N/m ⋅ 0.25 m
F=5N
Answer: A force of 5 Newtons is needed to pull this spring a
distance of 25 cm.
2. A spring is pulled to 10 cm and held in place with a force
of 500 N. What is the spring constant of the spring?
Solution:

The change in position is 10 cm. Since the units on the spring

constant are Newtons per meter, we need to change the distance
to meters.
Δx = 10 cm = 0.10 m
F = k·Δx
Solve this for k by dividing both sides by Δx
F/Δx = k
Since the force is 500 N, we get
500 N / 0.10 m = k
k = 5000 N/m
Answer: The spring constant of this spring is 5000 N/m.

3. A spring is stretched by 10 cm and has a force constant

of 2 cm /dyne. Determine the Force applied.
Solution:
Given parameters are
Force constant k is 2 cm/dyne,
Extension x = 10 cm.
The force applied formula is given by
F=–kx
= – 2 × 10 cm
= – 20 N
4. Determine the force constant if a force of 100 N is
stretching a spring by 0.8 m.
Solution:
Given parameters are
Force F = 100 N,
Extension, x = 0.2 m.
The force constant formula is given by
k=–F/x
= – 100 / 0.8
k = – 125 N/m.

Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the amount of lateral strain caused
due to the longitudinal strain of material. It is an essential
property of a substance and finds application primarily in
engineering and design.
Poisson’s ratio is the ratio between a material’s lateral and
longitudinal strain when it is stretched. The lateral strain is the
relative change in the diameter of a circular wire with respect to
the diameter of the wire. It is given by the expression:

ϵlateral=Δdd
Where, d means the diameter of the wire and Δd
is the change in diameter.

Similarly, the longitudinal strain is given by:

ϵlongitudinal=ΔLL

Where L is the original length of wire and Δd

is the change in length.Since we are dividing the change in
length by the original length, the resulting ratio is dimensionless
and has no unit. Thus, strain is simply a number without a unit.

Poisson’s Effect
It is a common observation when stretching things like a rubber
band. When we stretch the band, it becomes noticeably thinner.
For example, in the image below, the rod of length L is stretched
by ΔL, which causes a decrease in the diameter. If our initial
diameter was d, then the difference between the new diameter
and the old is represented by Δd, which is the change in
diameter.

This effect of the decrease in cross-section when stretched in a

perpendicular direction is called Poisson’s effect. The tendency of
solid objects to increase in the longitudinal direction when
compressed in the lateral direction is the converse of Poisson’s
effect. The idea of Poisson’s ratio holds for both cases.
Poisson’s ratio, denoted by μ, quantifies Poisson’s effect with the
expression:

Poisson’s Ration μ=−ϵlateral/ϵlongitudinal

This is the general Poisson’s ratio formula. The lateral strain will
be negative since it is caused by compression, and the length
decreases laterally. However, the negative sign in front keeps the
Poisson’s ratio positive for those objects in which stretching
longitudinally leads to a decrease in the lateral dimension.
We can get Poisson’s ratio formula for a circular rod by plugging
in the expression for the lateral and longitudinal strain on a rod.
Then we get the following expression.
μ=−ϵlateral/ϵlongitudinal=ΔddL/ΔL
This is Poisson’s ratio formula for a rod of diameter d.
In practice, Poisson’s ratio of commonly used materials ranges
from zero to half.

Relation Between Poisson’s Ratio and Young’s Modulus

The relation between Young’s modulus and Poisson’s Ratio is

given by the following expression.

Young’s Modulus, E=3K(1−2μ)

Two moduli of material are involved in the above expression:
Young’s modulus E and bulk modulus K.

Young’s modulus is the ratio between the stress applied to the

strain. Given by the expression:

Young’s\ Modulus, E=Stress/Strain E=σ/ϵ

The bulk modulus is the ratio between normal stress and

volumetric strain. Given by the expression:

Bulk Modulus, K=pressure/volumetric strain K=pv/Δv

Another relation between Young’s modulus and Poisson’s Ratio

involves the Shear modulus, G. This is:

E=2G(1+2μ)E=2G(1+2μ)

The shear modulus is the ratio between shear stress and shear
strain, given by the expression:

G=Shear stress/ shear strain G=τγ

List Of Poisson’s Ratio Values For Different Materials

Material Poisson’s Ratio
Rubber 0.4999
Indium 0.445
Gold 0.415
Lead 0.435
Copper 0.34
Polystyrene 0.34
Brass 0.34
Ice 0.33
Stainless Steel 0.265
Steel 0.3
Tungsten 0.27
Zinc 0.245
Concrete 0.1 to 0.2
Fused Quartz 0.17
Europium 0.15
Beryllium 0.06
Re-entrant Foam -0.6

Poisson’s Ratio FAQs

What is µ in Poisson's ratio?
The symbol, ′μ′, denotes the Poisson's ratio of the material.
What is Poisson's ratio of concrete?
The Poisson's ratio of concrete ranges from 0.1 to 0.2. The lower
bound of 0.1 is for high-strength concrete, and the higher bound
of 0.2 is for low-strength concrete.
Can Poisson's ratio be negative?
Yes, there are certain materials, called auxetic materials, that
become thicker when stretched. Re-entrant foam is an example of
an auxetic material.
What is the meaning of Poisson's ratio of 0.5?
A Poisson's ratio of 0.5 means that the material is soft and will
easily compress in the lateral direction when stretched or pulled
in the longitudinal direction.
What does Poisson's ratio of 0 mean?
A Poisson's ratio of 0 means that the material’s lateral dimensions
don’t change at all when stretched or compressed in the
longitudinal direction.
Poisson’s Ratio Example Problem
1. A 2 m long wire of 1 mm diameter was measured to be
2.002 m after loading a certain weight. Suppose the
change in diameter is 10−8 m. What is the Poisson’s
ratio for the material?
Solution:
Original Length of the wire, Lo=2m
New length of the wire, Ln=2.002m
Change in length, ΔL=Ln−Lo=2.002−2=0.002m

Original diameter of the wire, d=1mm=0.001m

Change in diameter, Δd=10−8m
Longitudinal Strain, ϵlongitudinal=ΔLLo=0.0022=0.001
Lateral Strain, ϵlateral=Δdd=10−70.001=10−4
Poisson’s Ratio, μ=ϵlateralϵlongitudinal=10−40.001=0.1

The Poisson’s Ratio for the given material is 0.1.

2. When a 10 Kg load is hung on a 5 m wire of a 1.5 mm

radius, we observe an extension in length of 0.5 cm.
Suppose the Poisson’s ratio for the wire is 0.24. Find the
change in diameter of the wire.
Solution.
μ=−ϵlateralϵlongitudinal=ΔddLΔL
Original Length of the wire, L= 5 m
Change in length of wire, ΔL=0.5cm=0.005m
Original diameter of wire, d=1.5×2mm=3mm=0.003m
Change in diameter of wire, Δd=?
Poisson’s ratio for the wire, μ=0.24
On solving the equation mentioned above for Δd\(
, we get,
⟹Δd=0.24×0.003×0.0055

⟹Δd=7.2×10−7m

Thus, the change in diameter of the wire is 7.2×10−7m

Internal Loadings in Structural Members
When designing or analyzing a structural member, it is important
to consider the internal loadings developed within the member.
These internal loadings include normal force, shear force, and
bending moment. Engineers can ensure that the structural
member can support the applied external forces by calculating
these internal loadings.
What is Stress?
When a deforming force is applied to an object, the material
deforms and loses its original shape.
There will be an opposing force generated inside the object in
order to restore its previous shape and size.
The restoring force will have the same magnitude as the
deforming force and would be in the opposite direction.
Stress is the measurement of this restorative force per unit area
of the material.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘σ’.
It is a scalar quantity measured in Pascal or N/m2
Stress Formula
Stress Formula is used to find stress applied on any given body if
force and area on which force is exerted are provided.
Stress is the external restoring force acting on per unit area. We
can calculate the stress on an object using the Stress Formula
if the area and force applied are given.
Stress Formula is given as:

σ=F/A

Where

 σ: Stress
 F: Restoring Force
 A: Area of Cross-Section

Strain
Stress is the force exerted on the unit area of a substance. The
effect of stress on a body is referred to as Strain. Stress causes
deformations in the body to which it is being applied.
A strain is the measure of the degree of deformation.
The strain is given as a fractional change in either the length,
geometry or volume. It is a dimensionless number. The greater
the stress, the greater the strain. The proportionality constant in
this relation is known as the elastic modulus. The relation
between stress and strain is given as follows:
Stress = Elastic Modulus × Strain
The ratio of stress to strain is known as elastic modulus. Elastic
modulus defines the amount of force required per unit
deformation.
Elastic Modulus = Stress /Strain

Types of Stress

Stress is mainly categorized into two types namely Normal Stress

and Tangential or Shearing Stress.

The various types of stress are discussed below in brief.

1. Normal Stress

Stress is referred to as Normal stress when the direction of the

deforming force is perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the
body. The length of the wire or the volume of the body changes
stress will be at the normal.

OR
Normal stress will occur to members that are axially loaded. Axial
force can be tension or compression and applied at the centroid
of cross-section of the member.

σ=P/A

Where

σ - Stress in Pascal -Pa ( N/m2)

P is the applied normal load in Newton (N)

A is the area in mm2.

Normal Stress = Axial Force / Cross-sectional Area

The maximum stress in tension or compression occurs over a

section normal to the load.

Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress.

Members subject to pure tension (or tensile force) is under
tensile stress, while compression members (members subject to
compressive force) are under compressive stress.

Normal stress is further classified into two types:

1. Longitudinal Stress: Longitudinal Stress either stretches the

object or compresses the object along its length.

Consider a cylinder. When two cross-sectional areas of the

cylinder are subjected to equal and opposite forces the stress
experienced by the cylinder is called longitudinal stress.

Longitudinal Stress = Deforming Force / Area of cross-

section
 σ= F/A

As the name suggests, when the body is under longitudinal

stress-The deforming force will be acting along the length of

the body.

Longitudinal stress results in the change in the length of the

body. Hence, thereby it affects slight change in diameter.

The Longitudinal Stress either stretches the object or

compresses the object along its length. Thus, it can be further

Longitudinal stress classified into two types based on

the direction of deforming force-

 Tensile Stress

If the deforming force or applied force results in the increase in

the object’s length then the resulting stress is termed as tensile
stress. For example: When a rod or wire is stretched by pulling it
with equal and opposite forces (outwards) at both ends.

OR

Tensile stress is a quantity associated with stretching or tensile

forces. It is responsible for the elongation of the material along
the axis of the applied load. Tensile stress is defined as:

The magnitude F of the force applied along an elastic rod divided

by the cross-sectional area A of the rod in a direction that is
perpendicular to the applied force.
Ductile materials have the tendency to withstand the load while
Brittle materials fail before reaching the ultimate material
strength.

Tensile Stress Formula

σ=FA

where,

σ is the tensile stress

F is the force acting

A is the cross-sectional area

Tensile Stress Unit

Following is the table explaining the units and dimensional

formula:

Unit N/m2

SI unit Pascal

 Compressive Stress

If the deforming force or applied force results in the decrease in

the object’s length then the resulting stress is termed as
compressive stress. For example: When a rod or wire is
compressed/squeezed by pushing it with equal and opposite
forces (inwards) at both ends.

OR

Compressive stress is the force that is responsible for the

deformation of the material such that the volume of the material
reduces. It is the stress experienced by a material which leads to
a smaller volume. High compressive stress leads to failure of
the material due to tension.
When compressive stress is applied to the brittle materials, these
materials fracture as there is a sudden release of the stored
energy. When the compressive stress is applied to the ductile
materials, they compress, and there is no failure.

Compressive Stress Unit

The S.I. Unit of the compressive stress is Newton per meter

square which is denoted by the symbol (N/m2)and another S.I.
Unit is Pascal which is denoted by the symbol Pa.

Compressive Stress Formula

The compressive stress is represented mathematically by the

formula written below:

σ=F/A

where:

F = compressive force.

A = cross-sectional area of the material.

σ = compressive stress.

2. Bulk Stress or Volumetric Stress: When the volume of the

body changes due to the deforming force, it is termed
Volumetric Stress.
 

2. Shearing Stress

Shearing Stress refers to the force applied tangentially across

the surface area of a plane. The surface is said to be tangent
when the forces operating on the surface are parallel to it and
the stress acting on the surface traces a tangent. Shearing
stress results in a change in the shape of the body.

Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area

OR

Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing

stress. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are
caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

τ=V/Av

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the

centroid of the area Av being sheared.
Bearing Stress

Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate

bodies. It differs from compressive stress, as it is an internal
stress caused by compressive forces.

σb=PbAb

Example Problem:
  Example: Calculate the stress if a force of 40 N is applied on
an object with an area of 4mm2.

Solution:

 Given
 Force (F): 40 N
 Area (A): 4 mm2
 Using the Stress Formula,


 σ=F/A


 σ = 40N / 4mm2
 σ = 10 ×106 N/m2 Pa
 σ = 10 N/mm2 MPa
 Thus, the stress on the surface of the object is 10×106 N/m2.
 10x10 6 Pa

Questions and Answers For Stress

Q1: What is Stress?

Ans: Stress is the measure of restoring force per unit area.

Q2: What is the unit of Stress?

Ans: The unit of stress is Pascal (P) or N/m2.

Q3: What is the effect of deforming force?

Ans: The deforming force can change the shape or volume or size
of the object.

Q4: What is the direction of the deforming force in the case

of shearing stress?

Ans: The deforming force is parallel to the area of cross-section.

Q5: What is the nature of the restoring force?

Ans: The restoring force is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to deforming force or external force.

Q6: Name the types of normal stress.

Ans: Longitudinal stress and bulk or volume stress are two types
of normal stress.

Q7: What is the direction of the deforming force in the case

of longitudinal stress?

Ans: The deforming force is perpendicular to the area of cross-

section.

Q8: Name the types of longitudinal stress.

Ans: Tensile stress and compressive stress are the two types of
longitudinal stress.

Q9: Define longitudinal stress.

Ans: Stress experienced by an object along its length due to the

presence of equal and opposite deforming forces perpendicular to
the area of cross-section is called longitudinal stress.

Q10: What does bulk stress do to an object?

Ans: Bulk stress results in a change in the volume of the object.

Q11:What does shearing or tangential stress do to an

object?

Ans: Tangential stress results in a change in the shape of the

object.

Q12: Define tangential or shear stress.

Ans: When the direction of the deforming force or external force

is parallel to the cross-sectional area, the stress experienced by
the object is called shearing stress or tangential stress.
Q13: Give the expression for stress and explain the terms.

Ans: The expression for stress is given by

σ= F/A Where,F is the restoring force,A is the area of cross-

section , σ is the stress.

Q14:A rod is stretched by pulling at both the ends. Name

the type of stress experienced by the rod.

SYMBOLS AND SI UNITS

Support Reactions:

The general rule is: if the support prevents translation in a given

direction, then a force must be developed on the member in that
direction. Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a couple moment
must be exerted on the member. For example, the roller support
only prevents translation perpendicular or normal to the surface.
Hence, the roller exerts a normal force F on the member at its
point of contact. Since the member can freely rotate about the
roller, a couple moment cannot be developed on the member
Equations of Equilibrium: Equilibrium of a body requires both a
balance of forces, to prevent the body from translating or having
accelerated motion along a straight or curved path, and a balance
of moments, to prevent the body from rotating.

What are the three scalar equations of equilibrium?

The scalar equations of equilibrium state that if the external

forces are expressed in the Cartesian form, then summation of
the components of the forces along the respective directions must
be zero. Similarly, the scalar summation of the components of a
moment in the x, y, and z axes must also be zero.

In order for a system to be in equilibrium, it must satisfy all three

equations of equilibrium,

Sum Fx = 0, Sum Fy = 0 and Sum M = 0.

Stress Concept

Based on the force and moment acting at a specified point O on

the sectioned area of the body, (Fig.a) represents the resultant
effects of the actual distribution of loading acting over the
sectioned area,Fig.b. Considering the sectioned area to be
subdivided into small areas, such as DA (Fig.b). As we reduce DA
to a smaller and smaller size, we must make two assumptions
regarding the properties of the material. We will consider the
material to be continuous, that is, to consist of a continuum or
uniform distribution of matter having no voids. A typical finite yet
very small force DF acting on DA is Show n in Fig. a. This force,
like all the others, will have a unique direction, but for further
discussion we will replace it by its three components, namely,
DFx DFy and DFz . As DA approaches zero, so do DF and its
components; however, the quotient of the force and area will, in
general, approach a finite limit. This quotient is called STRESS,
and as noted, it describes the intensity of the internal force acting
on a specific plane (area) passing through a point (Hibbeler,
2010).

Internal Resultant Loadings and free body diagram

SUMMARY

Normal force, N. This force acts perpendicular to the area. It is

developed whenever the external loads tend to push or pull on the
two segments of the body.
Shear force, V. The shear force lies in the plane of the area and
it is developed when the external loads tend to cause the two
segments of the body to slide over one another.

Torsional moment or torque, T. This effect is developed when

the external loads tend to twist one segment of the body with
respect to the other about an axis perpendicular to the area.

Bending moment, M. The bending moment is caused by the

external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis lying
within the plane of the area.

STRESS, AXIAL LOADS

External Loads: A body is subjected to only two types of external

loads; namely, surface forces or body forces.

Surface Forces: Surface forces are caused by the direct contact

of one body with the surface of another. In all cases these forces
are distributed over the area of contact between the bodies. If
this area is small in comparison with the total surface area of the
body, then the surface force can be idealized as a single
concentrated force,which is applied to a point on the body. If
the surface loading is applied along a narrow strip of area, the
loading can be idealized as a linear distributed load, w(s). Here
the loading is measured as having an intensity of force/length
along the strip and is represented graphically by a series of
arrows along the lines. The resultant force of w(s) is equivalent to
the area under the distributed loading curve,and this resultant
acts through the centroid C or geometric center of this area.

Body Forces: A body force is developed when one body exerts a

force on another body without direct physical contact between
the bodies. Examples include the effects caused by the earth’s
gravitation or its electromagnetic field. In the case of
gravitation,this force is called the weight of the body and acts
through the body’s center of gravity.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS