Open Vocational Education Program

COMPUTER HARDWARE
ASSEMBLY AND MAINTENANCE

JOB ROLE

FIELD TECHNICIAN - (COMPUTING AND PERIPHERALS)

NSQF Compliant Level 4

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

(An Autonomous Institution under MHRD, Govt. of India)
A-24-25, Institutional Area, Sector-62, NOIDA-201309 (U.P.)
Website: www.nios.ac.in, Toll Free No. 18001809393
 ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Prof. C.B. Sharma, Dr. Rajesh Kumar Ms. Anitha Nair,
Chairman, NIOS Director (Academic & Vocational), Deputy Director(VE),
NOIDA NIOS, NOIDA NIOS, NOIDA

CURRICULUM COMMITTEE
Dr. A. Murli Rao, Dr. Sunil Kumar Khatri, Mr. Arun Kumar Dubey,
Joint Director, Director, Amity Institute of Assistant Professor,
IGNOU Information Techonology, Bharati Vidyapeeth College of
New Delhi Amity University, NOIDA Engineering, New Delhi
Mr. Abhishek Datta, Mr. Nishant Jain, Ms. Radhika B,
Manager, G.Network Consultant (e-Governance), Academic Officer (ICT)
Solutions, Gurgaon AICTE, New Delhi NIOS, NOIDA

LESSON WRITERS
Dr. Sunil Kumar Khatri, Dr. Deepti Mehrotra, Mr. Arun Kumar Dubey,
Director, Amity Institute Professor, Amity School of Assistant Professor, Bharati
of Information Technology, Engineering &Technology, Vidyapeeth College of
Amity University, NOIDA NOIDA Engineering, New Delhi
Mr. Raj Kumar Pal, Mr. Yogesh Kumar, Ms. Samiksha Tripathi,
Technology Head, PGT (Computer Science), Innovation Consultant,
Mira Model School, Delhi Public School, Cotiviti India,
New Delhi Kuwait NOIDA

EDITORS
Dr. A. Murli Rao, Dr. Deepti Mehrotra, Mr. Arun Kumar Dubey,
Joint Director, Professor,Amity School of Assistant Professor, Bharati
IGNOU Engineering & Technology, Vidyapeeth College of
New Delhi NOIDA Engineering, New Delhi
Ms. Samiksha Tripathi, Mr. Nishant Jain, Ms. Radhika. B
Innovation Consultant, Consultant (e-Governance), Academic Officer (ICT),
Cotiviti India,NOIDA AICTE,New Delhi NIOS, NOIDA

COURSE COORDINATOR
Ms. Radhika B
Academic Officer (ICT)
NIOS, NOIDA

LASER TYPESETTING
M/s MS Computers
Patparganj, Delhi-110072
A Word With You

Dear Learner,
Congratulations for having chosen this course. This course is National Skill Qualification
Framework (NSQF) compliant level 4 of the Job Role: Field Technician (Computing and
Peripherals).
This course is specially designed keeping in your needs and level in mind. We have ensured that
the course contents are presented in a simple, clear and logical manner. We expect you that
as a Field Technician or Service Technician you would be able to diagnose the problem in
Computer and troubleshoot Computer, attend to customer complaints, install newly purchased
products, and configure peripherals such as printers, scanners and network devices.
We are confident that you will enjoy studying this course through Open and Distance learning
system. I hope you will find this book informative, interesting and useful.
We wish you all the very best for a bright and successful future.

NIOS Course Team

 CONTENTS

Lesson No. Title Page no.

1. Introduction to computers ...............................................................................................1

2. Computer Components ...................................................................................................9

3. Data representation in the Computer .......................................................................... 21

4. Anatomy of a Computer System .................................................................................. 32

5. Tools for Assembling Computer ................................................................................... 54

6. Assembling a Personal Computer ................................................................................ 59

7. Preparing System for Installation ................................................................................. 70

8. Operating System Installation ....................................................................................... 77

9. Network Basics ............................................................................................................ 99

10. Network Configuration ............................................................................................... 117

11. Problem Diagnosis, Troubleshooting and Maintenance .............................................. 135

12. New Trends in Computing .......................................................................................... 153

13. Engage with Customers ............................................................................................. 171

14. Coordinate with Colleagues ........................................................................................ 181

 SYLLABUS

Ø Introduction to Computers Ø Assembling a Personal Computer

l Functions of Computer l Assembling (step- wise procedure)
l Characteristics of a Computer l Dis-assembling (step- wise procedure)
l Computer Generations Ø Preparing System for Installation
l Types of Computers l Basic Input Output System
l Applications of Computers l CMOS memory
l Booting and Types of Booting
Ø Computer Components
l Hard Disk Drive
l Block Diagram of a Computer
l Device drivers
l Input Devices
l Output Devices Ø Operating System Installation
l Windows Operating System
l Computer Memory
l File system
l Computer Software
l Windows 7 Installation (step-wise procedure)
Ø Data representation in the Computer l LINUX Operating System
l Data Representation
l Ubuntu Installation (step-wise procedure)
l Number System
Ø Network Basics
l Character Representation
l Network Terminologies
Ø Anatomy of a Computer System l Classification of network
l Components of Computer System l Transmission of Media
l Memory and Its Types l Network Topologies
l Mother board l Network Models
l Clock Chip and CMOS battery l Network Protocols
l Power Supply – SMPS, POWER connectors
Ø Network Configuration
Ø Tools for Assembling Computer l Configuring Windows System for Net-
l Tools working (Windows 7)

l Precautionary measures l Configuring LINUX System for Networking

 l Configuring A Wireless Network with l Cloud Computing
Windows 7
l Mobile Computing
l Configuring Network Applications
l Grid Computing
l Connecting Smart Devices
l Green Computing
Ø Problem Diagnosis, Troubleshooting and
Ø Engage with Customers
Maintenance
l Interacting with Customers
l System Recovery
l Understanding Customer’s Requirements
l Control Panel
l Suggesting Solutions
l Hardware Troubleshooting
l Achieving Productivity and Quality
l Software Troubleshooting
l Network Troubleshooting Ø Coordinate with Colleagues
l Indications and Remedies of Commonly l Interacting with Superiors
Found Problem
l Coordinating with Colleagues
l System Security
l Organizational Context
Ø New Trends in Computing l Team work and Multitasking
l Virtualization l Decision Making
 Introduction to Computers

Notes

1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Computer has become indispensable in today’s life. It has become difficult to imagine the
world without computer. Everywhere computers are used whether it is office, bank,
school, college, business, hospitals etc. You must have seen Computers at your home,
school or office. Can you guess what type of a device it is?

Computer is an electronic device which accepts input, processes it and produces the
desired results. Computer is a machine which performs mathematical operations and
logical decisions at an extremely fast speed. Computer not only do calculations but also
handles different applications at a time.

In this lesson, you will learn about computers, its parts, and its uses in real life.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
z define Computer.
z describe generations of Computers.
z list types of Computers.
z explain the uses of Computers.

1.1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

You already know computer is an electronic device which accepts input, processes it and
produces the desired results. Computer is divided into two main components Hardware
and Software. Hardware consists of mechnical and electronic device, which you can see
and touch. The four main hardware components of any computer are motherboard,
processor, RAM, Hard drive. Software consists of programs, operating system etc.,
Examples of software: Windows 7, Linux, MS Office, Adobe PageMaker etc. Today's
Computers have at least one CPU (Central Processing Unit) that performs most
calculations and include main memory, control unit, and an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

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 Introduction to Computers

Computer is a general purpose device that is programmed for some task. Do you know
what are the two major characteristics of a Computer? Major charctersistics of a
Notes Computer are (i) it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner;
(ii) it can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (a program).

Fig. 1.1 Desktop Computer

Input → Processing → Output

Fig. 1.2 Basic operation of a Computer System

1.1.1 How does a Computer work?

z It accepts input from various input devices like keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick
and light pen.
z Microprocessor performs arithmetic and logic operation on it and gives result.
z It communicates results through output devices like monitor and printer etc.
z It stores information in hard disk. There are other storage devices such as computer
disk, pendrive, (USB drive) etc.

1.2 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER?

Speed: Computers work at very high speed and are much faster than humans. Do you
know one second is very large time period for a computer? A Computer can perform
millions of calculations in a microsecond.
Storage: Computer can store large amount of data (text, video, picture etc) permanently.
You can use this data at any time.
Accuracy: Accuracy means to provide results without any error. Computers can process
large amount of data and generate error free results. A modern computer processes large
amount of information without any error.
Communication: Today's Computers have capability of communicating with other
Computers. You can connect two or more computers.

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 Introduction to Computers

Automatic: A computer as a machine can not start itself but it can perform some work
without human intervention. For example, you have large amount of data and you want
to perform some calculation on it. For getting the result, you have to run the appropriate Notes
software and all the calculation will be done by Computer.

Diligence: Unlike human being, computer is free from dullness and lack of concentration.
It can work for hours without any error until job is finished.

Versatility: Versatility is a most important characteristic of computer. You may use

computer to prepare salary slip and at the same time you can use the same computer for
paying electricity bill and etc. It means you can perform completely different type of work
on a single computer simultaneously.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

Fill in the blanks:

1. Computer is broadly divided into _________ and _________ categories.

2. Example of system software is _________.

3. Physical components of computer is called _____________.

4. Software consists of ___________, _____________.

1.3 COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The history of computer development is often referred in the different generations of
computer devices. A generation refers to state of improvement in the production process.
Each generation of computer is characterized by major technological development that
fundamentally changes the way computer operates.

z First Generation: The period of first generation was 1946-59. The computers of
first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry
for CPU (Central Processing Unit). In this generation mainly batch processing
operating system were used. Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were
used as input and output devices. Example : ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Computer was the first general purpose electronic digital computer ), EDVAC
(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer - world’s first commercially available computer), IBM-701 and IBM-
650.
z Second Generation: The period of second generation was 1959-65. In this generation
transistors were used. It is cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size,
more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes.
These were also the first computers that stored instruction in their memory. The
computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system. Example:
IBM 1620 , IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108

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 Introduction to Computers

z Third Generation: The period of third generation was 1965-71. The computers of
third generation used Integrated Circuits (IC’s) in place of transistors. A single IC
Notes has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation. Example: IBM-360 series,
Honeywell-6000 series, PDP(Programmed Data Processor), IBM-370/168 and TDC-
316
z Fourth Generation: The period of fourth generation was 1971-80. The computers
of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits
having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits
on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. All
the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
Example: DEC 10, STAR 1000,PDP 11, CRAY-1(Super Computer) and CRAY-X-
MP(Super Computer)
z Fifth Generation: The period of fifth generation is 1980 onwards. In the fifth
generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware
and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software used for Robots designing.

1.4 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF COMPUTERS?

Computer are generally classified by speed, memory size and power consumption, though
there is considerable overlap:
z Microcomputer: It is based on microprocessor chip as CPU. This is smallest category
of Digital Computer. These computers include Personal computer Desktop computers,
Notebook computers, Laptop computers, Tablet computers.
Personal computer - It is a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individaul user.
Desktop computers - A computer that is used for home application and small office
work, is Desktop computer. In this type of computer, monitor is put on the top of
computer and it is broad and low. While in tower computer, CPU cases are tall and
narrow. In our general life we interact with Desktop Computer.

Fig. 1.3 Desktop computer

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 Introduction to Computers

Notebook computers -It is a lightweight computer. A notebook size is also very less
in comparison to Desktop Computer and Tower Computer. The display of notebook
computer is different from Desktop Computer. Notebook computers price is very Notes
high in comparision with Desktop computer. It is easy to move from one place to
another place. Notebook computer power is same as Desktop Computer. It is made
of same configuration like 1 GB RAM, 1 TB HDD, DVD, etc...

Laptop computer -This type computer is little different from Notebook computers.
Its configuration is near about same as Notebook Computer and it can be in the
range of high configuration (4 GB RAM, 1 TB HDD, etc.) to low configuration (500
MB RAM, 500 GB HDD, etc.). Most of the times Laptop Computers are also called
Notebook Computers.

Tablets - are smaller than laptop PCs, very lightweight, and easy to carry. But they
lack the processing power of a laptop as well as a keyboard input. They rely instead
on a stylus and touch screen.
z Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of
users simultaneously. These computers are bigger in size and costlier than
Microcomputers. Minicomputers are used in universities and big organisations.

z Mainframe computer: A mainframe computer is a very large computer capable of

handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. These are used by large
institutions, such as government agencies and large corporations.
z Supercomputers Or High Performance Computer (HPC): A supercomputer is
typically used for scientific and engineering applications that must handle very large
databases. It is an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second. The speed of the supercomputer are measured by FLOPS
(Floating point operations per second).

1.5 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

You may aware that computers are very productive, efficient and can do anything
imaginable. Some of the principle applications of the computer systems are as follows:

Business: Businessmen use computer in the presentation, analysis, calculation and

making charts for their business. They also provide online service to their customers using
e-commerce, m-commerce. You or your family member must have used online shopping
website for purchasing any products. Usage of the computer has reduced the cost of man
power and its delivery in an efficient way.

Buildings: In the construction of building, Architects use computer to virtually visualize

the complete building. It is performed through different multimedia software. Computer
provides accurate structure of buildings with all measurements. It helps in reducing cost
of changes and it provides satisfcation to the customer.
Education: Now-a-days, you can see computer has become an inevitable part in spheres
of life. Students use computer for preparing or completing assignments and submit it

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 Introduction to Computers

through online. There are so many online contents study materials which can be viewed
by using internet.
Notes
Retailing: Most of the retailers product are based on barcode. That’s the reason they need
computers to read barcode and calculate amount on it. This system helps retailers to sum
up so many items within seconds.
Energy: In the energy sectors, companies use computers to calculate items and figure out
the place of natural resources. Computers also help in finding the correct geographical
location of company’s delivery places, vehicles information and communicating with
customers.
Transportation: Companies are using computers in the vehicles to provide more services
to the consumers. Consumers can easily determine the fuel level, AC system, temperature
with the help of this system. Some vehicles do not require driver to reach at destination on
predetermined path in some countries.
Agriculture: Farmers can check the requirements of their crops on computers. They use
it for billing, checking market value of crop, cost of fields and stock value of agricultural
firm. Computers help in prediction of weather conditions and estimation of agricultural
production also.
Weather: High Performance Computers (HPC) are also used for executing the weather
models ( Programs), analyzing weather conditions based on the data collected from
various sources like satellite/ GTS/ Internet data and forecasting weather conditions in
advance (3 days advance, weekly advance and even monthly advance) like (i) Rainfall
prediction, (ii) Temperature prediction, (iii) Wind speed prediction, (iv) Snowfall prediction
etc.
Government: Indian government is implementing E-Governance project in each
department. This project can be implemented using Computer only and all information
will be available online for citizens. Government employee use it for delivering good and
transparent services to citizens. Data entry operations, billing, calculation, presentation
are also performed through computers in organization.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

5. Vacuum tubes were used in _______ generation.

6. The first general purpose computer was _______ .

7. Fifth generation computers use _______.

8. What are the characteristics of a computer?

9. Which computer is a very large computer capable of handling and processing very
large amounts of data quickly?

10. Speed of supercomputer is measured in ______________.

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 Introduction to Computers

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Notes
In this lesson you learnt about functions of computer, generations of computers and types
of computers. You have also learnt about applications of computers.
Some of the keypoints to remember -
z Computer is an electronic device that can store, process and retrieve data.
z It is broadly divided into hardware and software.
z Important characteristics of computer are storage, accuracy, communication,
automatic, diligence, versatility.
z First generation computers used vacuum tubes.
z Second generation of computers used cheaper and more compact transistors.
z Third generation computers used Integrated Circuits (IC’s)
z Fourth generation computers used Very Large Scale Integrated circuits(VLSI).
z Fifth generation computers used Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
z Computers are classified on basis of speed, memory, power consumption as Personal
Computers, Microcomputers, Workstation, Minicomputers, Mainframe,
Supercomputers.
z Computers are widely used in business, education, transportation, weather, government
etc.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is a computer?
2. List down the important functions of a computer.
3. Explain any two characteristics of computer.
3. Explain the generations of computers.
4. How microcomputer is different from minicomputer?
5. What are the types of computers?
5. What are the applications of computer?
6. What is the use of computers in education?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1.1
1. Hardware, software

2. Windows or Linux or DOS

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 Introduction to Computers

3. Hardware

Notes 4. Programs, operating system

1.2
5. First

6. ENIAC

7. Artificial intelligence and expert system computers

8. Speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility

9. Mainframe

10. FLOPS or Floating point operations per second.

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 Computer Components

Notes

2
COMPUTER COMPONENTS

As you have learnt till now that computer is an electronic device that takes input from the
user, does the processing of the data and gives the information. The Computer system
consists of both hardware and software which works in coordination to give us the correct
data. It works on the principle of GIGO, i.e. Garbage in Garbage out. It means give wrong
input to the computer then the output will be not appropriate as it cannot think and act like
human beings. Have you ever seen computer components? Computer has lot of components
inside and each component does a specified job. In this lesson you will learn about
computer components in detail.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
z explain components of computer.
z list input devices of computer.
z list output devices of computer.
z explain about types of memory used in computer.
z describe software.

2.1 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Do you know what is computer hardware and software? Computer hardware is the
collection of physical components of a computer system which includes monitor,
keyboard, hard disc drive (HDD), RAM, motherboard etc. Software is nothing but a set
of instructions (programs) that are stored and run by hardware. Hardware components of
a computer system are electronic and mechanical parts. The term computer hardware
refers to the physical computer components.

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 9

 Computer Components

The major hardware components of a computer system are:

Notes z Processor
z Main memory
z Secondary memory
z Input devices
z Output devices

For desktop computers, the processor, main memory, secondary memory, power supply
and supporting hardware are housed in a metal case. Many of the components are connected
to main circuit board of the computer, called the motherboard. The power supply supplies
power to most of the components. Various input devices and output devices are attached
through connectors at the rear of case. Figure 2.1 depicts some of the hardware components
of a computer.

Fig. 2.1 Hardware Components

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 Computer Components

Motherboard: A motherboard is a square-shaped board that houses all major components

such as the RAM chips, PCI slots, processor, batteries, sound cards, video cards, graphic
cards, USB ports and all other internal circuitry. Motherboards are available in different Notes
hardware configurations and designs.

Cards: These mainly include video cards, sound cards, graphics cards etc. all of which
are installed on the motherboard in their respective slots. These are mainly required for
running multimedia applications involving video, audio and graphical images. LAN
(Local Area Network) cards and network cards are necessary for computer networking,
i.e. connecting your computer to a local network or to the Internet.

Fans: Most computer cabinets make use of at least two fans - a processor fan and a
cabinet fan. Their main purpose is to lower the internal temperature and keep the
processing components as cool as possible.

USB Ports: USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports in simple terms are the ports which you use
for connecting your MP3 players, digital cameras, flash drives, etc. to your computer.
Today, most computers come with a minimum of 4 USB ports although certain high end
machines can have up to 8 or even 10 USB ports.

CD/DVD Drives: If you wish to run any type of CD or DVD on your computer, installing
a CD drive or a DVD drive is a must. There are different types of CD/DVD drives
available, each offering the user a variety of features and options.

Cables: Internal cables which are used to connect the hard drive, CD/DVD drive, etc. are
of two types - a data cable and a power cable. Each one has a different physical structure
and a different function.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

Figure 2.2 depicts block diagram of a computer.

Fig. 2.2 Block Diagram of Computer

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. It can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately.

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 Computer Components

Input Unit
Computers need to receive data and instructions in order to solve any problem. Therefore
Notes
it needs data and instructions. The input unit consists of one or more input devices.
Keyboard is one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly used input
devices are mouse, joystick, light pen etc. You will be learning about input devices in
section 2.3

Storage Unit
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the
input unit. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It also saves the data for later use. The various storage devices of a computer
system are divided into two categories. Can you guess those two categories? Primary
storage and Secondary storage. Primary storage device stores the data temporarily
where as secondary storage device stores the data permanently.

Output Unit
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, monitor or Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used
output devices. Other output devices are plotters, speakers etc.

Central Processing Unit(CPU)

You may heard that CPU is the brain of the Computer. Do you know why? Because you
cannot work on Computer without CPU. CPU process almost all the instuctions (like
performs calculation, fetches instuction from memory, process instuctions) necessary for
your computer to perform.

Control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as Central Processing Unit
(CPU).

CPU performs the following functions:

z It does all the calculations.
z It takes all the decisions.
z It controls all the units of the computer.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also
does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc., and does logic operations viz, >, <, =,
etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage
unit to ALU. Once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage
unit by the control unit and then it is sent to the output unit for displaying results (output).

An additional type of ALU, called Floating Point Unit(FPU) or math co-processor is

frequently used to perform specialized functions such as division and large decimal
number operations. Now-a-days generally the FPU is included as a part of CPU.

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 Computer Components

Control Unit (CU)

It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where
to store the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and Notes
instructions from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU
to the storage unit. The control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of
the computer that controls and synchronizes its working.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1

1. RAM stands for ...................

2. ALU and CU are part of ...................

3. Major hardware components of computer system are ........... , .................

2.3 INPUT DEVICES

Computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with outside world. Input/
Output devices are required for users to communicate with computer. Input devices bring
information into computer. Some common Input devices are:

Keyboard
You must have used computer keyboard. It is one of the commonly used input device. It
is text based input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and other
characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on board.

Fig. 2.3 Keyboard

Mouse
Fig. 2.4. depicts a mouse. Mouse is an electro-mechanical device used to point a
particular place on the screen and select in order to perform one or more actions. It can
be used to select menu commands, start programs etc. It is also called as pointing device.

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 Computer Components

The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used most
frequently.
Notes
Mouse Actions:
z Left Click: Used to select item

z Double Left Click: Used to open a file or start a program

z Right Click: Usually used to display set of commands.

z Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to
another.

Fig. 2.4 Mouse

Joystick
A joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in the direction the stick is
moved. It typically has button on the top that is used to select option pointed by cursor.
Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training simulator
and controlling robots.

Fig. 2.5: Joystick

Some other input devices are:

Scanner: It is used to scan hard copy and sends this as an information to the computer.

Bar Code Reader: Now-a-days you see a bar code on material at every shop which is
read by a bar code reader and appropriate information is sent to computer.

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 Computer Components

Touch Screen: It allows user to make selection by simply touching the screen.

Light Pen : Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light sensitive detector to select
Notes
objects on a display screen. Light pen is similar to a mouse except that with a light pen you
can move the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the
objects with pen.

2.4 OUTPUT DEVICES

Monitor is one of the most popular output device. It is also called as Visual Display Unit.
The monitor looks like a television screen, except instead of watching television programs
on it, the monitor allows for running of computer programs. It is connected to the main
computer box.
There are two kinds of monitors:
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. Flat Panel Display Monitor or LCD
Now-a-days CRT monitors are not commonly used. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
monitors are mostly in use.

Printer
Printers are used to produce paper output (hardcopy). Based on technology used, it can
be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact Printers use the typewriting printing mechanism where hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under
this category.
Non-Impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. It uses chemical, heat or
electric signals to print the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet , Laser printers falls under
this category.

Fig. 2.6 Laser Printer

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 Computer Components

Plotters : Plotter is a special kind of output device that is like a printer, produce images
on paper, but does so in a different way. Plotters are designed to produce large drawings
Notes or images, such as construction plans for buildings.

Audio Output: Sound Cards and speaker :

The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two components are
needed:

(i) Sound Card-plays content of digitized recordings.

(ii) Speaker, which is attached to sound card.

2.5 WHAT IS COMPUTER MEMORY?

Computer memory is the part of computer that serves as a repository of information that
must be managed and maintained well. It is also known as computer storage.
Computer stores its information in three levels:
z Physical register in the CPU, located at the top level. The information in the registers
can be accessed in one CPU clock cycle.
z Primary Memory (executable memory), located at the middle level. For example
RAM.
z Secondary Memory, located at a lower level. For example disk and tape.

2.5.1 Primary Memory

It is temporary memory that is used at the time of execution of program. Random Access
Memory (RAM) is most common type of memory in computers.

RAM

Figure 2.7 depicts Random Access Memory. It is volatile memory. In this memory,
information is stored till the power supply is given. Data in a computer's primary storage
is stored for vey fast retrieval. It is called Random Access Memory because any data in
RAM can be accessed just as fast as any other data.

Fig. 2.7 Random Access Memory

16 Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance

 Computer Components

2.5.2 Secondary Memory

USB Drives Notes

A USB flash drive, usually portable and rewritable, is a type of flash memory storage
device that plugs into a computer's USB port. Flash drives are more expensive than hard
drives with the same storage capacity. Fig. 2.8 depicts a USB drive.

Fig. 2.8 USB Drive

Internal Hard Disk Drive

The internal hard disk drive is the main secondary storage device that stores all of your
data magnetically, including operating system files and folders, documents, music and
video. You can think of the hard disk drive as a stack of disks mounted on top of the one
another and placed in a sturdy case. These are spinning at high speeds to provide easy and
fast access to stored data anywhere on a disk.

External Hard Disk Drive

External hard disk drives are used when the internal drive does not have any free space and
you need to store more data. In addition, it is recommended that you always back up all
of your data. An external hard drive can be very useful, as it can safely store large amounts
of information. It can be connected by either USB or Firewire connection to a computer
and can also be connected with each other in case you need several additional hard drives
at the same time.

CD-R
A CD-R, a type of recordable CD, is an optical secondary storage device. It is also known
as a WORM -- write once read many -- medium.

DVD(Digital Versatile Disc) - It is an optical disc technology with a minimum of 4.7GB

storage capacity on a single side.

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 17

 Computer Components

2.6 WHAT IS COMPUTER SOFTWARE?

Notes Computer Software is a set of programs used to do differnet tasks. It is classified mainly
into;

(i) System Software and

(ii) Application Software.

System software is collection of programs that controls overall operation of a computer

system. It can be further divided into Operating System and Utilities.

Software

System Software Application Software

Operating Utilities General Specific

System purpose purpose

Fig. 2.9 Software classification

Operating System: Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer
hardware as well as software resources and provides common services for computer
programs. The operating system is a component of the system software in a
computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function.

Examples - Disk Operating System(DOS), Windows, UNIX, LINUX etc.

Utilities - Utilities are small programs designed for the smooth functioning of the
computer systems eg. disk cleanup, disk defragmenter, file searching etc.

Application Software: Application software is a program or group of programs designed

for end users to do a specific task.

It can be further divided into -

General Purpose Application software - These softwares are used in schools and at
home for general uses like typing a letter, making a small project or presentation eg. - word
processor, spreadsheets, databases, desktop publishing packages, graphics packages etc.

Specific Purpose Application software - These softwares are designed to do a specific

kind of a task eg. - Railway Reservation system, Payroll Management, Inventory Control
System , Library Management System.

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 Computer Components

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2 Notes

Fill in the blanks:
4. Keyboard and mouse are ...................
5. Drag and drop action can be performed through ...................
6. Printer is an ................... device and scanner is an ................... device.
7. Sofware can be classified as ................., ............
8. MS Word is an example of .......................... purpose application software.
9. Disk cleanup is an example of ................... software.
10. ...................... sofware is necessary for the computer.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson, you have learnt hardware components of Computer like hard drive,
motherboard, RAM, CPU etc. You have also learnt about input devices, output devices,
memory, primary memoy, secondary memory and its uses in our life.
Some of the keypoints to remember
z Computer software is a set of instructions stored and run by hardware.
z Computer hardware is a collection of physical components of a Computer system.
z Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory.
z Control unit and ALU of the comptuer are together known as CPU.
z Keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner are the examples of input devices.
z Monitor is also called as VDU (Visual Display Unit).
z Monitor, printer, plotter, sound card and speaker are examples of output devices.
z Computer software mainly classified into System Software and Application software.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Explain any four input devices.

2. List any two output devices.

3. What is the difference between primary and secondary memory?

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 19

 Computer Components

4. Depict the block diagram of a Computer.

Notes 5. Explain in short the different types of System software and Application software.

6. Explain in short the different components of CPU.

7. Differentiate between

(a) Internal and External hard drive

(b) Primary memory and Secondary memory.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

2.1
1. Random Access Memory
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
3. Processor, Memory, Input or Output devices

2.2
4. Input Devices
5. Mouse
6. Output, Input
7. System, Application
8. General
9. Utility
10. Operating system

20 Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance

 Data Representation in the Computer

Notes

3
DATA REPRESENTATION IN THE
COMPUTER

Computer is not a human being. But how does it understand your instuctions? Did you
think about it any time? Computer understands only 1’s and 0’s. Whatever instruction or
input you are giving to computer it converts each instuction / input as 1’s and 0’s. With
the help of these two digits computer can represent video, picture and numbers also.

In this lesson, you will learn methods of data representation in a computer. You will also
learn different types of number systems in data representation.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:

z explain about data representation.

z list the types of number system used in computer.

z convert from one number system to other.

3.1 DATA REPRESENTATION

Data representation refers to the method used to represent information stored in a computer.
Computer stores different types of information like number, text, graphics, video, sound,
charts, images etc.

All types of information stored in a computer are stored internally in the form of 0’s and
1’s. It is very interesting that only with 1 and 0 everything is represented. Computers use
numeric codes to represent all the information.

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 Data Representation in the Computer

Memory Structure in Computer:

z Memory consists of bits (0 or 1). A single bit can represent two pieces of information
Notes
(either 0 or 1).

z 1 Nibble is equivalent to 4 bits.

z 1 Byte is eqivalent to 8 bits, a single byte can represent 256 = 2*2*2*2*2*2*2*2 =

28 different things.

z Each byte has its own address.

Binary Numbers
Do you know the origin of the word “Bi”? It is a latin word. Do you know the meaning
of the latin word “Bi”? Bi means two. Binary numbers are 0’s and 1’s. Any positive
integer (whole number) can be easily represented by a sequence of 0's and 1's. Numbers
in this form are said to be in base 2 and these are called binary numbers.

Text
Text can be represented easily by assigning a unique numeric value for each symbol used
in the text. For example, the widely used American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII explained in section 3.3) defines 128 different symbols (all the
characters found on a standard keyboard, plus a few extra), and assigns each symbol to
a unique numeric code between 0 and 127. In ASCII, “A” is 65, “B” is 66, “a” is 97, “b”
is 98, and so forth. When you save a file as “plain text”, it is stored using ASCII. ASCII
format uses 1 byte per character. 1 byte gives only 256 (128 standard and 128 non-
standard) possible characters The code value for any character can be converted to base
2. Any written message made up of ASCII characters can be converted to a string of 0’s
and 1’s.

Graphics
Graphics that are displayed on a computer screen consist of pixels: the tiny “dots” of color
that collectively “paint” a graphic image on a computer screen. The pixels are organized
into many rows on the screen. In one common configuration, each row is 640 pixels long,
and there are 480 such rows. Another configuration is 800 pixels per row with 600 rows,
which is referred to as a “resolution of 800×600”. Each pixel has two properties: its
location on the screen and its colour.

A graphic image can be represented by a list of pixels. Imagine all the rows of pixels on
the screen laid out end to end in one long row. This gives the pixel list, and a pixel's
location in the list corresponds to its position on the screen. A pixel's color is represented
by a binary code, and consists of certain number of bits. In a monochrome (black and
white) image, only 1 bit is needed per pixel: 0 for black, 1 for white, for example. A 16
color image requires 4 bits per pixel. Modern display hardware allows for 24 bits per
pixel, which provides an array of 16.7 million possible colors for each pixel.

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 Data Representation in the Computer

Notes

Fig. 3.1: Pixels in Different Display Devices

3.2 NUMBER SYSTEM

Computer stores and processes two basic types of data viz., character and number. The
character type data includes alphabets and some special symbols. For example, student
name in class,roll number, etc.

Digital computers internally use binary (base 2) number system to represent data and
perform arithmetic calculations. The binary number system is very efficient for computers,
but not for humans. Representing even relatively small numbers with binary system
requires working with long strings of ones and zeroes.

3.2.1 Decimal and Binary Numbers

Have you heard about decimal numbers? In the decimal number system, there are ten
possible values that can appear in each digit position, and so there are ten numerals
required to represent the quantity in each digit position.

The decimal numerals are from zero to nine (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).

When you write decimal (base 10) numbers, you use a positional notation system. Each
digit is multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 depending on its position in the number:

For example:

843 = 800 + 40 + 3 = 8 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 3 × 1

= 8 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 3 × 100

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 Data Representation in the Computer

For whole numbers, the rightmost digit position is the one’s position (100 = 1). The
numeral in that position indicates how many ones are present in the number. The next
Notes position to the left is ten’s, then hundred's, thousand’s, and so on.

Table 3.1 shows decimals and their 4 bit binary equivalents.

Table 3.1: decimal and their 4 bit binary equivalents.

Decimal Pattern Binary Pattern( in 4 bit)

0 0000

1 0001

2 0010

3 0011

4 0100

5 0101

6 0110

7 0111

8 1000

9 1001

10 1010

In a positional notation system, the number base is called the radix. Thus, the base ten
system that you normally use has a base of 10. When writing numbers in a base other than
ten, or where the base is not clear from the context, it is normal to specify the base using
a subscript. Thus, in a case where the base is not understood, decimal numbers would be
written like this:

12710 1110 567310

In binary, counting follows similar procedure, except that only two symbols 0 and 1 are
used. Thus, after a digit reaches 1 in binary, an increment resets it to 0 but also causes an
increment of the next digit to the left (i.e., 10).

Since binary is a base-2 system, each digit represents an increasing power of 2, with the
rightmost digit representing 20, the next representing 21, then 22, and so on. To determine
the decimal representation of a binary number simply take the sum of products of binary
digits and the powers of 2 which they represent. For example, the binary 100101 is
converted to decimal form as follows:

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 Data Representation in the Computer

1001012 = [ ( 1 ) × 25 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 24 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 23 ] + [ ( 1 )

× 2 2 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 21 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 2 0 ] Notes
1001012 = [ 1 × 32 ] + [ 0 × 16 ] + [ 0 × 8 ] + [ 1 × 4 ] + [ 0 × 2 ] + [ 1 × 1 ]

1001012 = 3710

3.2.2 Octal Number System

Octal (this word is derived from Latin word Octo meaning 8) or oct is the base 8 number
system uses digits (0-7), i.e. : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

To determine the decimal representation of a octal number simply take the sum of
products of octal digits and the powers of 8 which they represent.

Example : Octal Number - 125708 converted to decimal equivalent as follows;

125708 = [(1 × 84) + (2 × 83) + (5 × 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 × 80)10]

= 4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0

= 549610

3.2.3 HexaDecimal Number System

Hexadecimal or hex is base 16 number system. It uses 16 distinct symbols

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

The alphabets (A to F) represents the values ten to fifteen.

for example - Hexadecimal Number 19FDE converted to decimal equivalent as follows;

19FDE = (1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) +(D x 161) + (E x 160)

= 65536 + 36864 +3840 + 208 +14

= 10646210

All four number systems are equally capable of representing any number.

3.2.4 Conversion from one Number System to Another

Decimal to Binary Conversion

You can use, successive division method for decimal to binary conversion. Successive
division requires dividing continuously by the base till the quotient equals to 0.

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 25

 Data Representation in the Computer

Steps for conversion from Decimal to Binary

1. Divide the decimal number by 2.
Notes
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided .
4. With the bits, record them from bottom to top so that the number will be the
number in base 2.

For example conversion of 9 into binary is as follows:

9/2 = 4 and remainder = 1 (first remainder is called LSB) (least Top

significant bit)

4/2 = 2 and remainder = 0

2/2 = 1 and remainder = 0

1/2 = 0 and remainder = 1 (last remainder is called MSB) (Most Bottom

significant bit)

Now, decimal 9 is equivalent to 1001 in binary number system.

Decimal to Octal Conversion

You can convert decimal to octal. Conversion requires dividing continuously by the base
you are converting (in this case it is 8) to until the quotient equals 0.

Steps for conversion from Decimal to octal

1. Divide the decimal number by 8.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided.
4. With the bits, record them from bottom to top so that will be the number in base 8.

For example, conversion of 19 into Octal as follows: Top

19/8 = 2 and remainder = 3 (first remainder is called LSB)
(least significant bit)

2/8 = 0 and remainder = 2 (last remainder is called MSB)

(Most significant bit) Bottom

26 Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance

 Data Representation in the Computer

Now decimal 19 is equivalent to 23 octal number

(19)10 = (23)8
Notes
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Division method can be used for conversion from decimal to hexadecimal.

Steps for conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal

1. Divide the decimal number by 16.

2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.

3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided.

4. With the bits, record them in order from bottom to top as that will be the number in
base 16.

5. In hexadecimal, 10,11,12,13,14,15 are equivalent to A, B, C, D, E, F respectively.

For example, conversion of 229 decimal into hexadecimal

229/16 = 14 and remainder = 5
14/16 = 0 and remainder = 14 (i.e., F= 14)
So, (229)10 = (E5)16

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

Fill in the blanks

1. Computer understands .......................... number.

2. Binary number system has base of ..........................

3. Octal has range from 0 to ..........................

4. Decimal has base of ..........................

5. In hexadecimal, remainder 10 is equivalent to ..........................

3.3 CHARACTER REPRESENTATION: ASCII, EBCDIC

Even though many people used to think of computers as "number crunchers", people
figured out long ago that it is important to handle character data. Character data is not
just alphabetic characters, but also numeric characters, punctuation, spaces, etc. Most
keys on the central part of the keyboard (except shift, caps lock) are characters.

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 27

 Data Representation in the Computer

3.3.1 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Computer can
Notes
only understand numbers. ASCII code is the numerical representation of a character such
as 'a' or @ or an action of some sort. ASCII was developed long time ago and now the non
printing characters are rarely used for their original purpose. Below is the ASCII
character table and this includes description of first 32 non printing characters. Table 3.2
shows ASCII table.

Table 3.2:ACII Table

ASCII Hex Symbol ASCII Hex Symbol

0 0 NUL 25 19 EM
1 1 SOH 26 1A SUB
2 2 STX 27 1B ESC
3 3 ETX 28 1C FS
4 4 EOT 29 1D GS
5 5 ENQ 30 1E RS
6 6 ACK 31 1F US
7 7 BEL 32 20 (space)
8 8 BS 33 21 !
9 9 TAB 34 22 ''
10 A LF 35 23 #
11 B VT
36 24 $
12 C FF
37 25 %
13 D CR
38 26 &
14 E SO
39 27 '
15 F SI
40 28 (
16 10 DLE
41 29 )
17 11 DC1
42 2A *
18 12 DC2
43 2B +
19 13 DC3
20 14 DC4 44 2C ,

21 15 NAK 45 2D -

22 16 SYN 46 2E .
23 17 ETB 47 2F /
24 18 CAN 48 30 0

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 Data Representation in the Computer

ASCII Hex Symbol ASCII Hex Symbol

49 31 1 79 4F O Notes

50 32 2 80 50 P
51 33 3 81 51 Q
52 34 4 82 52 R
53 35 5 83 53 S
54 36 6
84 54 T
55 37 7
85 55 U
56 38 8
86 56 V
57 39 9
87 57 W
58 3A :
88 58 X
59 3B ;
89 59 Y
60 3C <
61 3D = 90 5A Z

62 3E > 91 5B [

63 3F ? 92 5C \
64 40 @ 93 5D ]
65 41 A 94 5E ^
66 42 B 95 5F _
67 43 C 96 60 `
68 44 D
97 61 a
69 45 E
98 62 b
70 46 F
99 63 c
71 47 G
100 64 d
72 48 H
101 65 e
73 49 I
102 66 f
74 4A J
103 67 g
75 4B K
76 4C L 104 68 h

77 4D M 105 69 i
78 4E N 106 6A j

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 29

 Data Representation in the Computer

ASCII Hex Symbol ASCII Hex Symbol

Notes 107 6B k 118 76 u

108 6C l 119 77 v

109 6D m 120 78 w

110 6E n 121 79 x

111 6F o 122 7A y

112 70 123 7B z

113 71 p 124 7C {

114 72 q 125 7D |

115 73 r 126 7E {

116 74 s 127 7F ~

117 75 t

3.3.2 EBCDIC
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is a character encoding
set used by IBM mainframes. EBCDIC uses the full 8 bits available to it. So, parity
checking cannot be used on an 8 bit system. Also, EBCDIC has a wider range of control
characters than ASCII.
The character encoding is based on Binary Coded Decimal (BCD). The contiguous
characters in the alphanumeric range are formed up in blocks of up to 10, from 0000
binary to 1001 binary. Non alphanumeric characters are almost all outside the BCD
range. There are four main blocks in the EBCDIC code page: 0000 0000 to 0011 1111
is reserved for control characters; 0100 0000 to 0111 1111 are for punctuation; 1000
0000 to 1011 1111 for lowercase characters and 1100 0000 to 1111 1111 for uppercase
characters and numbers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

Fill in the blanks:

6. Nibble = ................. bits.

7. Octal numbers uses digits from ................. to .................
8. Character representation in computer is done by using ................. code.
9. ASCII stands for .................
10. EBCDIC stands for .........................

30 Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance

 Data Representation in the Computer

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Notes
In this lesson, you have learnt that computer understands only binary value, 0 or 1. You
can convert decimal number into binary number using division method. You can also
convert decimal numer into octal or hexa decimal number and vice versa. You have also
learnt that character and number represention in computer.

Some of the keypoints to remember

z Data representation refers to the method used to represent information stored in a
computer.
z Decimal number system uses digits 0 to 9
z Binary number system uses digits 0 and 1
z Octal number system uses digits 0 to 7
z Hexa decimal number system uses digits 0 to 9 and A to F.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Convert the following decimal number into binary number.
a) 333 b) 24 c) 643
2. Convert the following decimal number into octal number.
a) 422 b) 78 c) 36
3. Convert the following decimal number into hexadecimal number.
a) 92 b) 54 c) 39

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. Binary ( 0 or 1) 2. Two 3. 7

4. 10 5. A

3.2
6. 4 7. 0 to 7
8. ASCII
9. American Standard Code for Information Interchange
10. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

Computer Hardware Assembly and Maintenance 31

 Anatomy of a Computer System

Notes

4
ANATOMY OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Structure, parts and connectivity among various internal parts of a computer system, will
be discussed in this lesson. As the input, output and storage devices have already been
discussed in the previous lessons, the main focus in this lesson will be on the working and
functioning of the internal components, modules and sub-assemblies of the system box.
The system box has a number of components
inside it like CPU, motherboard, RAM,
expansion cards etc. All these components,
along with the external devices, perform a
task together.

Have you ever looked inside a system box

before, or seen pictures of the internal
components? This lesson will make you
aware of some of the basic terminologies
and major components and will help you in
Fig. 4.1 Computer System
understanding in brief, about what goes-on
inside the computer system box while a task gets performed. If you are familiar with the
parts of the computer, you will definitely be comfortable in assembling a system
according to the requirement.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
z identify the components in the system unit, CPU and motherboard.
z distinguish among the data bus, address bus and the control bus.
z operate the commonly used various plug and play devices.

z locate the slots for various external cards.

z identify various peripheral devices connected internally and externally.

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 Anatomy of a Computer System

4.1 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system comprises of a number of components. In this section, you will learn Notes
about the components that are responsible for working of the computer system.

4.1.1 Central Processing Unit

Every PC has a Central Processing Unit (CPU). You already know that CPU is the brain
of the computer system. Every computer will have a specific type of processor, such as
a Pentium chip or an AMD chip. Now let us understand how CPU works. It connects to
the motherboard and works alongside the other components, processing many instructions
at the same time among the different hardware and memory systems. The processor, as
shown in Fig. 4.2, is an electronic device, about one inch square, covered with plastic.
Inside this square, there are even smaller squares of silicon, containing millions of tiny
electronic parts. A processor may contain 100 million transistors. The chip is usually
about the size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is
covered by the heat sink, an object that absorbs heat generated in the CPU and dissipates
it into the atmosphere. The CPU does the
fundamental computing within the system, and
directly or indirectly controls all the other
components. The speed of the processor is given by
its clock speed. A processor's speed is measured in
megahertz (MHz), or millions of instructions per
second, and gigahertz (GHz), or billions of
instructions per second. A faster processor can
execute instructions more quickly. However, the
actual speed of the computer depends on the speed
of many different components.
There are many processor manufacturers for
personal computers, but the most well-known ones Fig. 4.2 Processor
are Intel and AMD. Advancements in CPU
technology have led to systems typically with Dual Core, Triple core or Quad Core
processors (on one single chip) instead of the traditional one core per chip. Now all the
cores can fit into a single socket as before and a single heat sink and fan can keep
everything at the right temperature. CPUs come in different types and speeds. The
different versions released by Intel are: 4004, which is a 4-bit processor. 8085, which is
a 8-bit processor. 286, a 16-bit processor. 386, 486, 586, 686, K5, K6, K6 MMX,
Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Pentium III and Pentium IV, which are
32-bit processors. Itanium, Pentium D, Celeron, Core Duo, Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad, I3,
I5 and I7 have 64-bit processor.

A 64-bit processor generally has data and addressing registers that are 64 bits wide that
allows storing 264 different values. Hence, a processor with 64-bit memory addresses can
directly access 264 bytes of byte addressable memory. However, a CPU might have

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 Anatomy of a Computer System

external data buses or address buses with different sizes from the registers, even larger
(the 32-bit Pentium had a 64-bit data bus, for instance).
Notes
A generalization would be to suggest that 64-bit architecture would double the amount of
data a CPU can process per clock cycle, compared to 32 bit. Users would note a
performance increase because a 64-bit CPU can handle more memory and larger files.
One of the most attractive features of 64-bit processors is that it can address up to 1
Terabyte (1024GB) of memory.

The processor of the computer system is comprised of Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) and
Control Unit (CU). The processor is responsible for synchronization of instructions and
logical and arithmetic operations on the data. In a microcomputer, both ALU and CU are
integrated on a single microprocessor chip. The sytem unit also includes circuit boards,
memory chips, ports and other components. A microcomputer’s system cabinet may also
house disk drives, hard disks, etc., but these are not considered to be part of the CPU.

Functions of Control Unit

Now we will execute some instructions and understand the functions of Control Unit.

Suppose the program or software needs to execute following instructions:

(1) Declare X, Y, Z • Control bus is used to carry signals that decides what
work has to be done like reading, storing, calculation,
(2) Read X and Y camparison etc.
(3) Z=X+Y • Data bus is used to carry data
(4) Display Z • Address bus is used to carry memory address of the
data is carried by the data bus

Interpretation & Execution of a program by the CU using System Bus.

1. The control unit recognizes that the program has been loaded into the primary
memory and it begins to execute the first line in the program. This is accomplished
with the help of control signals initiated by the control unit via the control bus.

The control unit reads line (1) and directs the primary memory using the control
bus to assign memory addresses to variables X, Y and Z (which is communicated
via address bus). In simple words, X, Y and Z are three memory variables that
are created in RAM for storage purpose.
2. The control unit reads the line (2) and directs the input device, using the control
bus, to enter data for X and Y. It also sends the memory addresses of X and Y via
the address bus. The values entered travel via the data bus to the control unit. And
then again using all the three busses the data gets stored in their respective
corresponding addresses in the primary memory.

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 Anatomy of a Computer System

3. The control unit reads the line (3) using Databus, Control bus, and Address bus
and retrieves the values of variable X and Y from primary memory and sends to
the ALU for the addition of X and Y. The sum is again moved with the help of bus Notes
to primary memory and gets stored in Z variable.

4. The control unit reads the line (4). Data bus Control bus and Address bus retrieves
the value of Z variable from primary memory and send it to the output unit to
display the sum.

Following are some of the additional components that support the working of the CPU:

Bus
Bus is a transmission path in which signals/data travers within a Computer i.e.,address,
data,and control bus together constitute the System Bus. In the previous section, you have
learnt about the usage of address bus, data bus and control bus. The CPU performs
primarily the following four operations:

z Memory Read: Reads data or instruction(s) from memory.

z Memory Write: Writes data or instruction(s) into the memory
z I/O read: Accepts data from input device
z I/O write: Sends data to output device
All these operations are performed using a communication process that involve 3 steps:
Step 1: Identify the peripheral or the memory location. It uses the address bus.
Step 2: Transfer data. It uses the data bus.
Step 3: Provide timing or synchronization signal. It uses the control bus.

Address bus: The address bus is a group of wires or lines which is generally identified as
A0, A1, A2, and so on. It is unidirectional. Bits flow in only one direction, from the CPU
to the peripheral devices. In a computer system, each peripheral or memory location is
identified by a binary number, called an address, and the address bus carries an address
of a memory location or a peripheral device. The size of the address bus determines the
maximum RAM capacity which the processor can address.

Data bus: The data bus is a group of wires used for data flow. These lines are bidirectional
i.e., data flow in both directions between CPU and the peripheral devices.

Suppose CPU has 32-bit data bus which implies that it can manipulate 32 bit data. And
sometimes we may call it a 32-bit processor. That means 232 different characters can be
represented. The data bus influences the microprocessor architecture considerably. It
determines the word length and register size of a processor.

Control Bus: The control bus is comprised of various signal lines that carry synchronization
signals. These are not group of lines like address or a data bus, but individual lines that
provide a pulse to indicate an operation in the CPU. The signals are device specific and
are used to activate that device for the specific operation.

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4.1.2 Registers

Notes The ALU and Control Unit (CU)communicate with each other and perform operations in
memory locations using a register. Registers are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer
data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. Do you know the
types of Registers?

Types of Registers
1. Memory Address Register (MAR): This register holds the memory addresses of data
and instructions. It is used to access data and instructions from memory during the
execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory
or to read the data from the memory. It places the address of the required memory location
in the MAR.

2. Program Counter: The program counter (PC) is a processor register. It is a 16 bit

special function register in the 8085 microprocessor. It keeps track of the next memory
address of the instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current
instruction is completed. In other words, it holds the address of the memory location of the
next instruction when the current instruction is executed by the microprocessor.

3. Accumulator Register: This Register is used for storing the results that are produced
by ALU.

4. Memory Data Register(MDR): It is the register of a computer's control unit that

contains the data to be stored in the RAM. It is the data that gets stored after being fetched
from the computer storage. It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the
memory ready for the processor to use it. MDR holds the information before it goes to the
decoder.

The MDR is a two-way register. When data is fetched from memory and placed into the
MDR, it is written to in one direction. When there is a write instruction, the data to be
written is placed into the MDR from another CPU register, which then puts the data into
memory.

5. Index Register: A register which holds a number that can be added to (or, in some
cases, subtracted from) the address portion of a computer instruction to form an effective
address. Also known as a base register used for modifying operand addresses during the
run of a program.

6. Memory Buffer Register(MBR) : This register holds the contents of data or

instruction, read from, or written in memory. It means that this register is used to store
data/instruction coming from the memory or going to the memory.

Cache Memory
The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory.
Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To
minimise the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU

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and main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is
called Cache memory. Cache memories are accessed much faster than conventional
RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data Notes
frequently used by the CPU. It is also very expensive to have larger size of cache memory.

Main memory access by the CPU may take as long as 180 ns. However, it may take 45
ns to access external cache memory or, even less for internal (Level 1) or on-board (Level
2) cache. While the CPU is processing information retrieved from cache, the cache
controller is refreshing cache with data and instructions from main memory or a storage
device. Fig. 4.3 depicts cache memory chips.

Fig. 4.3 Cache memory chips

There are two categories of cache memory: Internal and External.

In older CPUs, and even in some current CPUs, internal cache memory is located in the
CPU, and external is located on the motherboard between the RAM and the CPU. It is
often called 'cache RAM'. Internal Cache memory is often called "level 1" or L1 cache.
External cache is often called "level 2" or L2 cache. L2 Cache may be on-board (in the
CPU chip) or in Static RAM (SRAM) chips on the motherboard. External cache acts as
a quick access buffer between the RAM and L1 cache in the CPU.
L2 Cache RAM is a small block of high-speed memory, usually SRAM (Static RAM),
located between the CPU and main memory. It is used to store data or instructions that
are used often. There are several types of SRAM having a speed of 4-8 ns.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1

1. The task of performing arithmetic and logical operations is performed by ______.
(i) ALU (ii) Editor
(iii) storage (iv) output device
2. The ALU and CU are jointly known as ____________.
(i) RAM (ii) ROM
(iii) CPU (iv) None of the above
3. Data, control and addess bus together constitute ____________ bus.

(i) System (ii) CPU

(iii) memory (iv) speed

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4. Which register is used for storing the results that are produced by ALU?

Notes (i) Program Counter (ii) Memory

(iii) Accumulated Register (iv) Memory Data register

4.1.3 Memory
Memory is a storage area in Computer which holds data and instructions. The measuring
unit of memory is byte where
1 Byte = 8 bits
1024 Byte = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)
1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte (TB) and so on.
Have you heard the types of memory? There are two types of computer memories:
Primary and Secondary. Primary memory is accessible directly by the processor. ROM
and RAM are the parts of a primary memory. ROM stores some basic programs, pre-
programmed by the manufacturer, while RAM is the area where data gets stored
temporarily.

The storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store
hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process. Therefore, additional
memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory
or secondary storage or secondary memory. In this type of memory the cost per bit of
storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower than that of the primary memory.
Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary
storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic
tapes, magnetic disks, flash drives, CD-ROM etc.,

ROM
The ROM is Read Only Memory that can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be
changed or modified as the name suggests. The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is
stored in the ROM that checks and initializes various peripherals attached to the PC when
the switch is turned ON. "BIOS" is a pre-programmed
software that controls the computer's start up processes
and other basic components such as keyboard, monitor/
display, disk drives, etc. The programs that are
preloaded in the ROM are also known as firmware. A
conventional ROM looks like as shown in Fig. 4.4.
The memories, which do not lose their content on
failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile
memories. ROM is a non-volatile memory. This area
is only readable by the user and cannot be used for
storing data. Fig . 4.4 ROM

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ROM can be categorized into two types:

1. The permanent type - includes Masked ROM and PROM
2. Semi-permanent includes EPROM and EEPROM. Notes

1. PERMANENT ROM
a) Masked ROM: In this ROM, a bit pattern is permanently recorded by the masking
and metallization process. It is an expensive and specialized process.

b) PROM: It is Programmable Read Only Memory. This memory has ni-chrome

or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix. These wires can be functionally viewed
as diodes or fuses. This memory can be programmed by the user with special
software that selectively burns the fuses according to the bit pattern to be stored.
You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but
it is possible for you to store your program once in PROM chip. Once the programs
are written, these cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched
off. Therefore, programs or instructions written in PROM cannot be erased or
changed.

2. SEMI PERMANENT ROM

a) EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
overcomes the problem of PROM and Masked ROM. EPROM chip can be
programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. It uses
the technology of charging gates, using high voltage. Information stored in EPROM
can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.

b) EEPROM: This stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory. This concept is same as that of EPROM. The only difference is that the
memory can be altered using electrical signals. The whole of the memory need not
be erased.

RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It randomly selects and uses any location of
the memory directly to store and retrieve data. It takes same time to retrieve any address
of the memory as it takes for the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The
storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary, i.e. data or
instruction stored in RAM disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer
is switched off. So now we can say that RAM is a volatile memory. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory.
Secondary memory such as floppy disk, magnetic disk, etc., are external and located
outside the motherboard whereas RAM is located on the motherboard.

RAM is also referred to as Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM). It consists of

chips of memory, either in short chips (Dual In-line Pin (DIP) chips) or in memory
modules. Memory modules are either "Single Inline Memory Modules" SIMMs or "Dual
In-Line Memory Modules" DIMMs. A single 30-pin SIMM can hold up to 4MB and a 72-
pin SIMM can hold up to 32 MB of memory. Nowadays, DRAM comes in either DDR,
DDR2 or DDR3 form.

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The term "DDR" stands for Double Data Rate. DDRSDRAM was capable of two data
transfers per clock cycle, giving it twice the theoretical peak bandwidth of previous
Notes SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory or Synchronous DRAM is a
type of memory that synchronizes itself with the computer’s system clock). DDR2 RAM
provides 4 data transfers per cycle, while DDR3 increases the number to 8. Assuming a
base clock speed of 100Mhz, DDR RAM will provide 1600 MB/s of Bandwidth, DDR2
provides 3200 MB/s, and DDR3 provides 6400 MB/s. Examples of DDR2 and DDR3
RAM are shown below in the Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 DDR2 RAM and DDR3 RAM

These are also known as Magnetic Disk. It is an external storage unit that is located inside
the system box. It looks like as given in Fig. 4.6. You might have seen the gramophone
record, which is circular like a disk. Magnetic disks
used in computer are made on the same principle. It
rotates with very high speed inside the disk drive.
Data are stored on both the surface of the disk. Each
disk consists of a number of invisible concentric
circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks
of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots.
The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit (1)
and its absence represents zero bit (0). The information
stored in a disk can be read many times without Fig. 4.6 Hard disk
affecting the stored data.

4.1.4 Motherboard
Motherboard also known as main board, it provides the connectivity and holds the various
internal components in the system box. Computer major components that work to process
data, are located on the motherboard as shown in fig. 4.7.

It is made up of fibreglass, typically brown or green in colour, with a meshwork of copper

lines. Power, data, and control signals, also called traces, travel to all components through
these electronic circuits. A group of these wires assigned to a set of functions is called a
bus. The components of a motherboard are: Chipset, Microprocessor or CPU, Clock,
chip, Memory, Bus, ports etc.

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Notes

Fig. 4.7 Computer’s major components located on the motherboard

Form Factors
In order to bring about uniformity in the design of motherboard so that further designing
and assembly of a computer system may be eased, designs of motherboards of computer
systems have been standardized. These standardizations are called Form Factor. A
motherboard form factor defines the type and location of components, the power supply
capacity and the processor type, that will fit onto the motherboard. There are several
motherboard form factors, each with different layouts, components, and specifications.
Any specific motherboard will be suitable only for certain processors and types of
memories, based on type of processor and memory sockets installed on the motherboard.

The form factor is also a deciding factor for the use of video, sound cards, hard drive
controllers (PATA and SATA) and support for various port types (parallel, serial, USB,
etc). Therefore, if you want to assemble a computer, it must be ensured that the
motherboard, the power supply, processor, memory and the box are compatible with each
other. Form factors like ATX and BTX are commonly used in the motherboard industries.

z ATX: It is a short form of Advanced Technologies Extended form factor. With the
need for a more integrated form factor which defined standard locations for the
keyboard, mouse, I/O, and video connectors, in the mid 1990's, the ATX form factor
was introduced. The ATX form factor brought about specific changes to the
motherboard, along with the case and power supply. Some of the design specification
improvements of the ATX form factor included a single 20-pin connector for the
power supply, a power supply to blow air into the case instead of out for better air
flow, less overlap between the motherboard and drive bays, and integrated I/O Port
connectors soldered directly onto the motherboard. The ATX form factor was overall
a better design for upgrading a system.

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z BTX: Balanced Technology Extended form factor, unlike its predecessors is not
an evolution of a previous form factor but a total break away from the popular and
Notes dominating ATX form factor. BTX was developed to take advantage of technologies
such as Serial ATA, USB 2.0, and PCI Express. Changes to the layout with the BTX
form factor include better component placement for back panel I/O controllers and it
is smaller than micro ATX systems. The BTX form factor enables the industry to
develop smaller size systems with an increased number of system slots. Today the
industry accepts the ATX form factor as the standard.

Memory Slots
The motherboard has slots or sockets for system memory as shown in fig 4.8. Depending
on the motherboard form factor, special sockets accept the memory card. These memory
cards come in various types of DRAM or SDRAM
memory sticks, also called modules. These sticks are
Single Inline Memory Module (SIMM), Dual Inline
Memory Module and RAMBUS Inline Memory
Module (RIMM). SIMM is the oldest technology,
while DIMM and RIMM are the current standards.
Both of these physical memory slot types move data 64
bits or 128 bits at a time. For example, a motherboard
having 6 memory slots, 4 DIMM slots for DDR2 and Fig. 4.8 Memory Slot
2 DIMM slots for DDR3. The slots look similar, but DIMM for DDR2 have 184 pins
while DIMM for DDR3 have 240 pins.

Processor Slots
Every motherboard contains at least one CPU socket, and
its location depends on the form factor. A common CPU
socket type is a zero insertion force (ZIF) socket, which is
square in shape, has a placement lever that holds the CPU
securely when closed, and makes it easy to put CPU in the
socket when open. Various types of CPU sockets like PGA
(Pin Grid Array), SPGA (Staggered Pin Grid Array) and
LGA (Land Grid Array) are used on the motherboard for
the CPU placement. These socket types uses different
technologies for connection between the processor and the Fig. 4.9 Processor Slot
motherboard. Fig. 4.9 shows a typical slot for a processor.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2

5. 1024 KB = 1 _____________.
(i) MB (ii) GB
(iii) TB (iv) ZB

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6. ROM is ________________ .
(i) Volatile memory (ii) Non-volatile memory
Notes
(iii) Secondary memory (iv) Temporary memory
7. The hard disk is a part of motherboard.
(i) True (ii) False
(iii) cannot say
8. ZIF is ______________________ .
(i) Zero Insertion Point (ii) Zero Insertion Force
(iii) Zero Insertion Fact (iv) None of these

4.1.5 Clock Chip and CMOS battery

The components in a computer are designed to operate in perfect synchronization with
one another. This requires a time keeper. The clock chip provides the timing signals in the
form of electronic pulses that are used by the internal components to set up a working
pace. The chip generates a regular beat like the ticking of a clock and the operations are
timed to this beat. The faster the beats, higher is the speed of the processor. The speed of
a clock is measured in terms of frequency of pulses generated. Its unit is MHz (Mega
Hertz). For example, a PC of third generation has a clock speed of 2.4 GHz. It is one
way of measuring speed of a computer.

CMOS is an acronym for Complementary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor and is shown in fig. 4.10. It is the term
usually used to describe the small amount of memory on
a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS settings.
The CMOS is usually powered by a CR2032 cell battery.
Most CMOS batteries will last the lifetime of a
motherboard (up to 10 years in most cases) but will
sometimes need to be replaced. Incorrect or slow system
date and time and loss of BIOS settings are major signs
Fig. 4.10 CMOS Battery
of a dead or dying CMOS battery.

The function of the CMOS battery is to maintain important information for the BIOS to
begin the start-up sequence in computers. Remember, BIOS is pre-programmed software
loaded in ROM. It stores the date and time and the system configuration details.

4.1.6 Drives
There are different types of drives:-
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Have you seen Hard Disk Drive? A hard disk drive usually
looks like a small size book but actually is a much heavier device as shown in Fig. 4.11.

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The hard disk drive is the main, and usually

largest, data storage device in a computer. Can
Notes you guess what are the files stored in HDD?
The operating system, software files and most
other files are stored in the hard disk drive.

The hard drive is sometimes referred to as the

"C drive" due to the fact that Microsoft
Windows designates the "C" drive letter to the
primary partition on the primary hard drive in
a computer by default. The sides of the hard
drive have pre drilled, threaded holes for easy Fig. 4.11 Hard Disk Drive
mounting in the system box. The hard drive is
mounted so that the end with the connections faces inwards of the computer.

The rear end of the hard drive contains a port for a cable that connects it to the
motherboard. It also has a connection for power supply.

CD/DVD Drive: This is also known as optical

drive. Optical drives retrieve and/or store data
on optical discs like CDs, DVDs, and BDs (Blu-
ray discs) which hold much more information
than any portable media like a floppy disk. Most
optical drives can play and/or record onto a large
number of different disc formats. An example of Fig. 4.12 CD/DVD Drive
this drive is given in Fig 4.12.

Popular optical drive formats include CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, DVD-RAM,
DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-R DL, DVD+R DL, BD-R, and BD-
RE. The front of the optical drive has a small open/close button that ejects and retracts
the drive bay door.

The sides of the optical drive have pre-drilled, threaded holes for easy mounting in the
5.25 inch drive bay in the system box. The optical drive is mounted so that the end with
the connections faces inwards of the computer and the end with the drive bay faces
outwards. The rear end of the optical drive contains a port for a cable that connects it to
the motherboard. It also has a connection for power
supply.

Tape Drive: A tape drive is a data storage device that

reads and writes data onto a magnetic tape. Magnetic
tape data storage is typically used for offline, archival
data storage. It looks like fig. 4.13. Tape media generally
is much cheaper and is of long archival stability. A Fig. 4.13 Tape Drive

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tape drive provides sequential access storage, unlike a disk drive, which provides random
access storage. A disk drive can move to any position on the disk in a few milliseconds,
but a tape drive must physically wind tape between reels to read any one particular piece Notes
of data. As a result, tape drives have very slow average seek times.

4.1.7 Chipset
The chipset is made up of one or more electronic components that connect(s) and
control(s) the motherboard components, such as processor, expansion bus, and internal
memory. All components communicate with the processor through the chipset, which is
also called the hub of data transfer. Chipsets are a series of chips soldered onto the
motherboard and are not upgradable without a replacement. Every processor has different
chipset. The speed of the motherboard is determined by the speed of the chipset.

4.1.8 Ports
All the input and output devices like keyboard, printer and the mouse are connected to the
system through ports. These ports are the interfaces for external devices on the motherboard.
The CPU communicates with the outside devices, using these ports. Different ports of a
computer are shown in fig. 4.14. Modern computers don't require many of these ports
these days as most external connections go through the generic USB ports. However,
some of these ports may be found to be existing on the motherboard. Usage and
functioning of each of these ports are explained below:

Fig. 4.14 Different Ports of a Computer

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(a) USB port: Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a popular port for high speed wired
communication between electronic systems peripherals and devices with or without
Notes a computer. It eliminates the mix of different ports for different devices like printers,
keyboards, mouse, and other peripherals. That means USB-bus allows many
peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket. USB also
allows hot swapping means that the devices can be plugged and unplugged without
rebooting the computer or turning off the device. That means, when plugged in,
everything configures automatically.

(b) PS/2 Port: ATX boards have 2 PS/2 ports, one for the mouse and the other for the
keyboard. These are of same size and shape but with a different colour. This is
because the mouse and keyboard connectors are not interchangeable. Plugging the
keyboard in to the mouse connector and vice versa will make both of them useless.
The usual way for these to be plugged in is to plug the mouse into the green port
and the keyboard into the purple port.

(c) Serial Port: The serial port is a type of connection that is used for peripherals
such as mouse, gaming controllers, modems, and older printers. It is sometimes
called a COM port or an RS-232 port which is its technical name. There are two
types of serial ports -- DB9 and DB25. DB9 is a 9-pin connection, and DB25 is a
25-pin connection. A serial port can only transmit one bit of data at a time, whereas
a parallel port can transmit many bits at once. The serial port is typically the
slowest port you will find on a PC. Today's computers have replaced serial ports
with much faster and more compatible USB ports.

(d) Parallel Port: The parallel port is mainly used for scanners and printers, and is
associated with LPT1. It uses a 25-pin connector (DB-25) and is rather large
compared to most new interfaces. Parallel ports send data in parallel i.e. more than
one bit at a time. If the channel is 8 bits wide then a parallel port would send 8 bits
at a time. These ports are much faster than serial ports. Parallel ports also are fast
becoming extinct as the USB ports are taking over their place.

(e) Audio Port: The Sound card that is built into the expansion board has three
connectors. These are Speaker out, Line in and Mic in.

(i) Speaker out is used for the connection of external speakers.

(ii) Line in is for external sources of audio that you want to hear through your
computer.

(iii) Mic in port which is used for the Microphone.

(f) VGA Port: It has the accommodation for the pins that are available with the
monitor cable. If you have a VGA graphics card then this port will be on the back
of your graphics card.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.3 Notes

9. CMOS is a type of small ___________.
(i) clock (ii) memory
(iii) processor (iv) socket
10. HDD stands for __________.
(i) Hard disk data (ii) Hard disk doctor
(iii) Hard disk drive (iv) None of these

4.1.9 Cables
You must have seen various cables are used for connecting components in the system box.
Each cable has specific configuration and interfaces. Major cables used in the system box,
are as follows:

Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA) cables: Termed as PATA is an

interface for connecting storage devices like hard drives and optical drives to the
motherboard. Fig. 4.15 & 4.16 will help you to understand the PATA cables connectivity
in the system box. These are long and flat cables with 40-pin connectors or 80-pin
connectors on either side. One end plugs into a port on the motherboard, usually labelled
IDE, and the other into the back of a storage device like a hard drive.

Fig. 4.15 PATA Cables Fig. 4.16 PATA Cables

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment cables: Termed as SATA is an interface used

to connect hard drives and optical drives to a computer's motherboard. Fig. 4.17 and 4.18
shows the appearance and use of SATA cable. SATA transfer rates start at 150Mbps,
which is significantly faster than even the fastest PATA drives. Do you know besides faster
transfer rates, the SATA interfaces have several other advantages over the PATA

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interface? For instance, SATA drives have their own independent bus, so there is no
competition for bandwidth as there is with PATA drives. It also uses smaller, thinner
Notes cables, which allows for better airflow inside the computer. SATA cables can be as long
as one meter, while PATA cables have a maximum length of 40cm. This gives manufacturers
more liberty when designing the internal layout of their computers. Serial ATA uses only
7 conductors, while Parallel ATA uses 40. This means there is less likelihood of
electromagnetic interference with SATA devices.

Fig. 4.17 SATA Cables Fig. 4. 18 SATA Cables

4.1.10 SMPS
SMPS stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. SMPS is one of the most important
components in the system box. As every electronic component is driven by power, SMPS
device receives the main power supply and then converts it into the required voltages that
the system requires. Successful operation of such device depends on the functioning of the
power supply.

It is a device that takes input from the normal power supply of 240V AC current and
converts into 5 V DC and 12 V DC current or as required by the computer. In simple words
it steps down the voltage as a computer requires a lesser voltage power. It is also known
as a power supply unit (PSU) located inside the system box. It supplies power to the
motherboard and also to the other installed devices.

4.1.11 CPU Fan

Fig. 4.19 shows the connector and the motherboard
header for the fan assembly. A computer fan is any
fan inside, or attached to, a system box used for
active cooling of the internal components by drawing
cool air into the case from the outside. It expels
warm air from inside, or moves air across a heat
sink to cool a particular component. The fan moves
the heat away from the heat sink.

The heat sink/fan assembly usually has a 3-pin

Fig. 4.19 CPU Fan
power connector.

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4.1.12 Heat Sink

Fig. 4.20 shows the heat sink. It is a two-part cooling device.
The heat sink draws heat away from the CPU. It is designed Notes
in a special way to lower the temperature of an electronic
device by dissipating heat into the surrounding air. All
modern CPUs require a heat sink. Some also require a fan.
A heat sink without a fan is called a passive heat sink; a heat
sink with a fan is called an active heat sink. Heat sinks are
generally made of aluminium alloy and often have fins to
enhance their surface area. Fig. 4.20 Heat Sink

4.1.13 Connectors
Motherboard Power Connectors: Just like other components, motherboard requires
power to operate. The ATX main power connector will have 20 or 24 pins. The power
supply may also have a 4-pin or 6-pin ATX power connector that connects to the
motherboard. A 20-pin connector will work in a motherboard with a 24-pin socket.
SATA Power Connectors: SATA power connectors use a 15-pin connector. Serial
advanced technology attachment (SATA) power connectors are used to connect to hard
disk drives, optical drives, or any devices that have a SATA power socket.
Molex Power Connectors: Hard disk drives and optical drives that do not have SATA
power sockets use a Molex power connector.
Berg Power Connectors: The 4-pin Berg power connector supplies power to a floppy
drive Cards.

4.1.14 Cards
Display Adaptor Card: Images that are formed on the monitor use a technology that is
provided by a display adaptor card. The key elements of a display adaptor card are the
video controller and the memory. The memory is used to store the information of the image
before it gets displayed on the screen. The controller does the change that takes place on
the image before it gets displayed on the screen.
Two types of display adaptors are available in the market. One type is for display in text
mode and the other is for graphics mode. In text mode, individual characters get printed
on the screen while in graphics mode the images get formed using dots called pixels.
Resolution indicates the number of pixels on the screen. It is an important element that
differentiates among various display adaptor cards. Higher the resolution (more the
number of pixels), better the quality of pictures displayed on the screen. The different
types of display adaptor cards are:
z EGA: Enhanced Graphics Adapter, is a card that supports 16 colours at a time. It
provides a resolution of either 640 x 200 pixels or 640 x 350 pixels.
z VGA: Video Graphics Array system provides resolution of 720 x 400 pixels. In text
mode and graphics mode, the resolution is either 640 x 480 with 16 colours or 320 x
200 with 256 colours.

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z SVGA: Super Video Graphics Array, is a higher version of VGA. It provides resolution
of:
Notes
(a) 640 x 480 pixels with 256 to 65536 colours
(b) 1024 x 768 pixels with 256 colours
(c) 800 x 600 pixels with 256 to 65536 colours
(d) 1280 x 1024 pixels with 16 colours

Video Card/Graphics Card: The video card handles video and graphics that are
displayed on the monitor. Users who plan to watch DVD's, or edit home videos or play
games need a graphics card. Sometimes the graphic processors are built into the
motherboard.

A video adapter card, is the interface between a computer and a display monitor. Video
adapter cards use Peripheral Component
Interconnect(PCI), Advance Graphics Port (AGP), and
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express(PCIe)
expansion slots on the motherboard for connectivity

Network Interface Card (NIC): A Network Interface

Card (NIC) enables a computer to connect to a network.
As shown in fig. 4.21, it uses Peripheral Component
Interface (PCI) and PCIe expansion slots on the
motherboard for connection. NIC allows computers to
Fig. 4.21 NIC
communicate over a computer network by using cables or
wirelessly.

4.2 MORE ON FLASH MEMORIES

Flash memory is an electronic storage medium that can be erased and reprogrammed
electrically. Flash memory is a non-volatile storage medium. You may have learnt about
non-volatile memory which retains data even after its power supply being switched off.
For example, when a Flash storage device is removed from a digital camera, all data (and
pictures) which was stored or saved will remain on the Flash storage device.

The ability to retain data is key to flash memory applications such as digital films for
digital cameras, mobile phones, tablets and other transportable devices. Flash memory
technology is a mix of EPROM and EEPROM technologies. The term "FLASH" was
chosen because a large chunk of memory could be erased at one time. The name, therefore,
distinguishes flash devices from EEPROMs, where each byte is erased individually.
NOR and NAND are the two forms of flash memory.
NOR Flash memory: The world's leading manufacturers of flash devices (Intel, AMD)
use NOR cell configurations. NOR is mostly found in cellular phones (to store the phone's

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operating system) and Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs). It is also used in computers to
store the BIOS program.
Notes
NAND Flash memory: To reduce cell area, the NAND configuration was developed.
NAND Flash memory reads and writes in high-speed, sequential mode, handling data in
small, block sizes ("pages"). NAND Flash can retrieve or write data as single pages, but
cannot retrieve individual bytes like NOR Flash. NAND Flash memory is commonly
found in solid-state hard drives, audio and video Flash media devices, television set-top
boxes, digital cameras, cell phones (for data storage) and other devices where data is
generally written or read sequentially. For example, most digital cameras use NAND-
Flash based digital film, as pictures are usually taken and stored sequentially. NAND
Flash memory is less expensive than NOR Flash memory.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.4

Choose the correct answer:
11. SATA is a type of ____________ .
(i) memory (ii) cable
(iii) form factor (iv) processor
12. NIC stands for ____________ .
(i) National Institute Card (ii) National Interface Card
(iii) New Interface Card (iv) New Imaginary Card
13. Flash memory is a ______________________ storage medium.
(i) non-volatile (ii) volatile

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson, you have learnt about the internal components of a computer, their functions
and their use in data processing. Some key points to remember are summarized below:
z The CPU is the processor that includes ALU and CU.
z The system bus includes data, address and the control bus.
z Address bus is unidirectional while data and control bus are bidirectional.
z Data bus carries data and instructions, address bus carries memory addresses while
control bus carries the control signals.
z Register is a small unit of temporary memory located inside the CPU.
z Cache memory is a small memory chip that lies between the RAM and the CPU. It is
used to accelerate data transfer between them.

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z ROM is a non volatile memory where the BIOS programs are pre loaded by the
manufacturer and are used in booting of the system.
Notes
z Motherboard is a printed circuit board that provides connectivity and slots for various
internal and external components directly or indirectly.

z USB ports are interfaces of connection for external devices. These ports allow any
device to be connected without any driver to be installed separately. These implements
plug and play technology.

z Connectors are electronic devices that connect a cable to a peripheral.

z Network Interface Card also known as NIC is used to connect a computer to a

network

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the major components of a computer system?

2. Name any 6 internal components of a system box.

3. What is a CPU? How does it work?

4. Describe the various types of cables used inside the system box.

5. Differentiate between the following:

(a) RAM and ROM

(b) DDR2 RAM and DDR3 RAM.

6. What is SMPS?

7. State the function of a network card.

8. What is flash memory? Differentiate between NOR and NAND flash memories.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

4.1
1. (i) ALU
2. (iii) CPU
3. (i) System
4. (iii) Accumulated register

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4.2
5 (i) MB
Notes
6. (ii) Non-volatile memory
7. (ii) False
8. (ii) Zero Insertion Force

4.3
9. (ii) Memory
10. (iii) Hard Disk Drive

4.4
11. (ii) Cable
12. (ii) Network Interface Card
13. (i) non-volatile

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Notes

5
TOOLS FOR ASSEMBLING COMPUTER

A computer system contains many different components. When you assemble a computer,
you have to fit / connect these components with each other. For this job, you need to use
a number of tools. Therefore it is necessary for you to be familiar with these tools to use
them appropriately.

In the previous lesson, you have learnt about anatomy of a Computer System and various
components of a Computer System. You also learnt about their function in a Computer
System. In this lesson, you will learn about the tools needed to assemble a computer using
these components.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
z identify various tools used in assembling a computer.
z enlist the uses of each tool.

5.1 TOOLS
From practical point of view, you will not need many tools to assemble a computer. In fact,
these days a PC can be assembled using only one screwdriver. But
the things are easier if you have some additional tools also. Having these tools will make
the job fun and will save you a lot of time. Fig. 5.1 shows some of the tools.

Screwdriver set Needle-nose pliers

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Notes

Wire Cutter Anti-static Wrist Strap

Cleaning brush Torch (preferably LED

and Handsfree)

Couplers

Fig. 5.1 Tools

5.1.1 Screwdriver Set

For small tasks related to computer system hardware, only one screwdriver is sufficient.
But if you are serious about hardware assembly, you should have a set of screwdrivers.
Screwdriver sets are easily available in the market. Most of the screws used in computers
are number two, a few are little bit smaller. Also some screws are hard to reach. Therefore
you need screwdrivers with long shafts. Usually screwdriver sets provide you one shaft
and multiple changeable bits of different sizes. You must procure such a screwdriver set.
The bits are usually magnetic. Magnetic bits help you to pick screws from the locations
of hard reach. These also help you to fix the screws with ease.

5.1.2 Needle-nose Pliers

Nose pliers are useful when you have to pick and hold some cables. Sometimes screws
reach such locations from where it is difficult to pick them by hand. In such situations nose
pliers are helpful.

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5.1.3 Wire Cutter

Notes Now-a-days, all the components and cables are available in such a form that there is no
need to cut any cables. However, there may be some situations where you will have to cut
some cables, there you will require a wire cutter.

5.1.4 Couplers
If you need to make a cable joint inside a Computer in some situation, do it using couplers.
This ensures safety from short circuits.

5.1.5 Anti-static Wrist Strap

Static electricity is the biggest danger to the expensive parts you are about to assemble.
Even a tiny shock, very small for you to feel, can be harmful to some computer parts. To
save the components from static electricity, it is important to use your anti-static wrist
strap. After you have the power supply installed (NOT switched on) in the case, clip the
end of the wrist strap to the outside of the power supply. This will ensure that there is no
inequality of charge that will allow a spark to jump from you to the case.

5.1.6 Cleaning Brush

Sometimes you may need to remove dust from the computer parts. A small painting brush
can be used to do that job. You can keep a convenient painting brush with you and use it
when required.

5.1.7 Torch (Preferably LED and Handsfree)

It is always preferred to work at a place where there is sufficient light. But in real life
situations, you may sometimes have to work at dimly lit areas. In such cases a torch will
prove to be very helpful. The torch should be hands free with some hook or stand so that
you can easily place it at any convenient location. You cannot work properly if you have
to hold the torch with your hands or chin or neck. It is preferred to use an LED torch as
it has much longer life than the conventional torch and consumes far less energy.

5.2 PRECAUTIONS
A computer runs on electricity and expensive electronic components are used in it.
Therefore, it is very important to be careful and take precautions while assembling (or
disassembling) a computer. Here, we enlist a few such precautions:

1. Switch off and unplug the computer before starting any work on it.

2. Keep the screwdriver handle clean. A greasy handle could cause an injury or damage
from unexpected slippage.

3. Always use screwdrivers that have insulated handles designed for electrical work.

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4. Prepare a place to keep any screws that you may remove. A container or piece of
paper with labels for each part (casing, motherboard, CD drive, etc) is ideal to
avoid confusion between the similar-looking screws. Notes
5. If a component does not come out easily, do not forcefully remove it. Instead,
check that you are removing it correctly and that no wires or other parts are in the
way.

6. Always use suitable screwdriver to suit the screw.

7. Do not apply any extra force to fit any screw. If a screw is not fitting with normal
turn of the screwdriver, it means the screw is either misfit for that place or it has
not been properly positioned.

8. Do not use pliers on the handle of a screwdriver for extra turning power.

9. Do not use defective screwdrivers (i.e., ones with rounded or damaged edges or
tips; split or broken handle; or bent shaft).

10. Do not hold the screws or any such item in one hand while using the screwdriver
with the other. If the screwdriver slips out of the slot, it may injure your hand.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.1

1. Cleaning Brush is required to:
(A) Paint the outer box (B) Spread lubricant
(C) Not required at all (D) Clean the dust
2. Couplers are used for:
(A) Joining cables (B) Cutting wires
(C) Picking screws (D) Removing Dust
3. Precautions that need to be taken while assembling a computer include:
(A) Not to apply an extra force (B) Clean handling
(C) Insulated screwdrivers (D) All of the above.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson, you have learnt about:
z Different tools are used for assembling a computer.

z Screwdriver set which is the most important tool in the toolkit used for computer
assembly.

z Precautions that must be taken while assembling or disassembling a computer.

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Notes TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Why should you have screwdriver set and not just a single screwdriver for
assembling a computer?

2. What is the importance of anti-static wrist strap?

3. Mohit is learning computer system assembly. He does not have any pliers in his
toolkit. What kind of difficulties may he have to face during practicals?

4. List any four precautionary measures to be taken while working with screwdrivers.

5. Why should you not apply extra force to fit the screws?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

5.1
1. D

2. A

3. D

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Notes

6
ASSEMBLING A PERSONAL
COMPUTER

In the previous lesson, you have learnt various tools used in computer assembly and
precautions to be taken while assembling and dis-assembling a computer. Now you are
ready for assembling a computer. Assembling and dis-assembling a computer are not
very difficult jobs. With some practice and careful handling of devices and knowledge in
computer hardware components one can easily do this.
In this lesson you will learn step-by-step procedure for assembling a personal computer
and dis-assembling a personal computer.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
z open the case.
z install and uninstall power supply.
z attach the required components to the motherboard.
z install and uninstall internal drives.
z attach internal cables.

6.1 ASSEMBLING PROCEDURE

Step 1: Procure the Parts

For assembling, personal computer following parts are required:

1. Motherboard

2. Computer Case (body) and Power Supply (Switched Mode Power Supply)

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3. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Notes 4. RAM (Check the latest model in the market)

5. Processor Fan

6. SATA Cables / ID

7. CPU / Processor

8. Power Cables

9. Case Fan

10. Optical-Drive (DVD / CD-RW Drive)

2
1

5, 6

9 7
3 10 8

Fig. 6.1 Parts for assembling a computer

In the lesson 4, you have learnt about the components of computer system in detail. Those
components are depticted in Fig 6.1.

1. Cabinet (with SMPS): Cabinet is also called as system box or system unit. It is a
rectangular box which contains most of the components of a computer system.
Now-a-days cabinet has built-in SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply). SMPS takes
the 240V AC (Alternating Current) input and supplies the required voltages to the
components of computer system.
2. Processor: A processor is the brain of a computer. The speed of a computer depends
mainly on the processor speed. The processor speed is measured in megahertz
(mHz) or gigahertz (gHz).

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3. Heat sinks and Cooling fans: When a computer starts, lot of heat is generated. To
reduce the heat inside the computer, heat sinks are mounted on the processors.
Notes
4. Motherboard: As you know already that motherboard is the main circuit board in
which all the components (like CPU, memory, mass storage interfaces, connectors
for input and output devices etc.,) of a computer system are attached. The
specifications of a motherboard depends on many factors like the chipset it has,
maximum RAM it can support, bus speed, processor to be used etc.

5. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is also referred as main memory or primary
memory. RAM is used to store the data temporarily when the computer is on.

6. Hard Disk Drive (HDD): HDD is a data storage device. HDD stores all the software
and data which we want to use in the computer. Hard disks capacities varying from
a few GB to a few TB. This is also called secondary memory.

7. SATA Cables: Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) or Serial ATA

cables that connects HDD and optical drive to the motherboard.

These are the components to be fixed inside the system box. Other than above some
external devices like keyboard, mouse and monitor are also required.

Step 2: Collecting / organising the Tools and Accessories

Get the tools as specified in lesson 5

i. Screwdriver set

ii. Needle-nose Pliers

iii. Wire cutter

iv. Couplers

v. Anti-static wrist strap

vi. Cleaning brush

vii. Torch (preferably LED and Hands free)

Step 3: Open the Case

To open the computer-system case, first remove the screws on the side panel. Then slide
the side panel carefully to remove it.

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Notes

Fig. 6.2 Open the case

Warning: Open the case carefully, it might have sharp edges.

Step 4: Prepare the Case for Assembly

Before assembly, two things have to be performed:

z Remove any kind of packaging materials that could possibly have been delivered
inside the case.
z Remove the cover on the suitable drive bay in the front of panel to mount our DVD
drive.

Step 5: Ground Yourself

Fig. 6.3 Protecting hardware from static charge

Place the ground level strap on your wrist and attach the other end to the computer
system case.

Caution:

If you don't wear ground level strap, static electrical energy could damage computer
system parts.

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Step 6: HDD Installation

Notes

Fig. 6.4 HDD installation

Put the HDD in one of the suitable case / slot/ bay (refer fig 6.4) available and tighten the
screws.

Step 7: Optical Drive Installation

Fig. 6.5 Optical drive installation

Place the optical disk drive in the suitable bay (refer fig 6.5) and tighten the screw.

Step 8: Central Processing Unit (CPU) Installation

There is a clip on one side of the processor socket on the motherboard. Open that clip and
the corresponding flap.

Fig. 6.6 Processor installation on motherboard

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Mount the processor on the processor socket as shown below. By observation you will
find some cut on one side of the processor socket and a corresponding cut on the processor.
Notes Processor can be mounted on the matching sides only. Mount the processor and push a
little.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.7 (a-b) Placing the processor

After placing it correctly, push the clip down (as shown in figure 6.7 (b) so that the
processor gets placed properly.

Step 9: RAM Installation

Fig. 6.8 RAM installation

Put RAM sticks in the memory slots on the mother board. Before this you may have to
open the side locks of the memory slots if they are not already open. One stick can be
placed in one memory slot. Here you will find corresponding cuts on the memory stick and
the memory slot so that memory sticks can be inserted only in the correct manner. Then
close the side locks.

Step 10: CPU Fan Installation and Motherboard Installation

Place the fan with heat sink just above the processor and tighten the screws. Ensure that
it is placed correctly; otherwise the processor may get damaged.

Now you can place the motherboard in the cabinet and tighten the screws.

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Notes

Fig. 6.9 CPU fan installation

Step 11: Case Fan Installition:

Fig. 6.10 Case fan installation

It is very simple to do. Just put it after all the components have been placed but before
connecting cables and tight the screws.

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Step 12: Install Power supply

Notes

Fig. 6.11 Install power supply

Step 13: Connect the cables

Fig. 6.12 Connect cables

If all the components are set to their place, then connect the power cables and data cables
suitably. The details of cables may vary from motherboard to motherboard. Therefore,
you have to refer to the documentation (which you must have received with the
motherboard) to find the correct connections.

Now your hardware is assembled. You should once again ensure that all the screws are
tightly fixed and cables are properly connected. Now connect the keyboard, mouse and
monitor to your computer case and connect one end of the power cord to the computer and
other end of cord with s pin plug to the power supply socket.

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Similarly give power supply to the monitor. After that switch on the computer and use the
bootable CD / DVD or pendrive to install the operating system and configure your
computer for use. Notes

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1

1. RAM is used to store the information ______________ in the Computer.

2. SATA stands for _______________.

6.2 DIS-ASSEMBLING (STEP-WISE PROCEDURE)

This section explains a step-wise procedure of how to dismantle a desktop computer.

Step 1: Unplug the following

z USB
z Power cables
z Keyboard
z Mouse
z Network cable
z Monitor
z Printer
z Any other connected device

Step 2: Cooling fans

Remove the case fan first and then the processor fan. (The Cabinet has two fans Fan1 for
processor & Fan 2 for Case.)

Fig. 6.13 Cooling fans

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Step 3: Power supply

System supplies the power to the slots like portable drive, internal drive and CD/DVD
Notes
drive[s]. Now, you remove the power supply from these slots.

Step 4: Processor

To remove the processor, open the clip and the flap (recall how did you install the processor)
and carefully pull the processor out of its slot in the motherboard.

Step 5: Optical Drive

Unscrew the optical drive and pull it out from the front side of the cabinet.

Step 6: Hard disk drive (HDD)

Disconnect the hard disk drive from the mother board by pulling out the SATA / ID cable
from the HDD. Unscrew the drive and remove it from the cabinet.

Step 7: Random Access Memory (RAM)

To remove the RAM chip, push down the tabs which are holding the chip in memory
slots. If this process is done successfully, the chip will automatically come out from the
memory slot.

Step 8: Motherboard

Before removing the motherboard, make sure that all the power cables have been detached
from it and no external device is connected to it. Then you can unscrew the motherboard
and carefully remove it from the cabinet.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about installing hard disk drive, optical drive, mother board,
Central Processing Unit and RAM. Also you have learnt about installing case fan, system
fan and connecting cables for assembling your computer. In this lesson you have also
learnt about how to dis-assemble your computer.

Some of the keypoints to remember

z Motherboard is the main circuit board in which all components like CPU, memory
input and output devices etc., of a computer system are attached.

z Hard Disk Drive stores all the software and data which we want to use in computer.

z Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) cable connects HDD and opical
drive to the motherboard.

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TERMINAL EXERCISE
Notes
1. Write short note on assembling a Computer?

2. What are the components or parts you have to unplug before dis-assembling your
Computer?

3. What are parts you required for assembling a Computer?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

6.1
1. Temporarily

2. Serial ATA or Serial Advanced Technology Attachment cable.

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Notes

7
PREPARING SYSTEM FOR
INSTALLATION

In the previous lesson, you have learnt about how to assemble a Computer System. Once
we have assembled, the computer has to be made ready for use by installing various
softwares. But one must be aware of the hardware and software requirements before
preparing for installation. When you first startup your computer, setup the Basic Input/
Output System (BIOS). Whenever you build the system or make any changes in its
components, you need to run the BIOS setup. It additionally manages flow of information
between the computer’s software package and its connected peripheral devices.

Once the system is switched on, a set of operations is performed, which is known as
booting. After booting you will proceed in the identification of Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
and the device driver. In this lesson you will learn in detail about various aspects of
installation in a computer system.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
z list the functions of BIOS.
z explain the types of booting.
z differentiate different types of Hard Disk Drives (HDD).
z list out the purposes of device drivers.

7.1 BIOS (BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEM)

BIOS is a type of firmware. When BIOS boots up (starts up) it loads the operating system
from hard disk or diskette drive into computer system’s Random Access Memory. With
BIOS, your computer system understands exact details about the attached input and
output devices. Any modification in a computer requires changes in BIOS program.

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7.1.1 The BIOS Program

Manufactures of processors and BIOS programs always follow a defined regulation.
Notes
BIOS program will be allocated a fixed place in memory where the processor can look for.
This place contains the initial code of BIOS program which starts executing and then
begin. The boot sequence that will call different programs and load operating system in
memory. The BIOS instructions are usually placed in a special pre allocated memory
space.

7.1.2 Flash BIOS

The BIOS program in your system is programmed into a Read Only Memory (ROM).
ROM which unlike RAM is not re-writeable, that is why they are referred to as "read-
only". This creates an issue if you want to go for any changes in the BIOS. In the earlier
days any changes required in the BIOS lead to a brand new BIOS chip which could only
be provided by the manufacturrers. With advancements in technology BIOS has started
coming as a flash drive, which is easy to upgrade.

Systems having flash BIOS facility use a special variety of BIOS memory referred to as
associate EEPROM, which means "Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory”. It can be easily deleted and changed employing a special program. This
method is named as flashing the BIOS, which provides easy access at reduced cost.

Motherboards are now-a-days available to provide some “safety feature” to stop

accidental (or malicious) changes (refer BIOS attack) to the flash BIOS. It is a jumper that
has to be modified before acting as a flash BIOS upgrade. This additional security feature
provides the facility feature of not to open the case, (which may be described in the manual
provided along with motherboard).

The biggest disadvantage of upgrading BIOS with flash process is that BIOS is more
exposed and sometimes if power supply interrupts then it may lead to corrupted BIOS
chip. System can be corrupted if you boot with the incorrect flash BIOS chip consisting
of wrong data/instructions.

7.1.3 BIOS Attack

An unauthorised alteration of the BIOS in a PC, is called as BIOS attack i.e. BIOS attack
infects the BIOS with malicious code. BIOS routines are run when the computer is
booted. BIOS with malicious code, while booting takes complete control of the computer.

7.1.4 Boot Block

The system can go to unbootable state if the flash process is not finished properly. This
is because it may corrupt the BIOS code. Boot block helps to overcome from a state where
the BIOS code is wrong or corrupted. Hence when next time the boot block loads up, it
runs the correct code.

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7.2 BIOS CMOS MEMORY

Notes The BIOS settings must be saved in non-volatile memory so that it is accessible later when
the system is reopened. A special variety of memory is employed to store this data,
referred to as CMOS memory. It has small battery which is used to trickle a little charge
to ensure that there is no loss of information.

CMOS is expanded as "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor", a technology

that helps to create semiconductors like processors, chipset chips, DRAM, etc. CMOS
has the benefit of requiring less power as compared to any another technology. This is the
reason why it is selected, so that the quantity of power needed from the battery would be
negligible.

CMOS checksum is used as an error-detecting code. CMOS checksum error shows that
boot up settings which were set earlier have been changed. On every occasion the system
is booted, the system recalculates and compares it to the stored result. If they are totally
different, then the system is aware that the CMOS has been corrupted warns you with a
some message, like “CMOS confirmation Error”.

As technology has evolved, various alternative kinds of batteries are used to supply power
to the CMOS. BIOS setup is stored in CMOS in-built memory. Plug and Play BIOS carry
a non-volatile memory to carry extended system configuration information which holds
the resource configurations of system devices once
Plug and Play is employed. CR2032 lithium coin
cells are used to supply power to memory and real-
time clock.

The durability of these cells varies from 2 to 10

years, determined by the motherboard type, time
during which machine is switched off and the
surrounding temperature. BIOS settings will be
reset as default, if the cell is replaced, but if cell is
replaced when power supply is on, changes in Fig. 7.1: CMOS battery
settings will not happen.

7.2.1 CMOS Memory Block

A battery provides backup so that the settings do not seem to be lost once the machine is
switched off or unplugged. But sometimes certain things cause the CMOS memory to be
erased or loose its settings. This might happen if the battery fails owing to some type of
malfunction, or simply as a result of some motherboard error.

It is therefore advisable to keep a copy of the CMOS memory data. In normal conditions
the battery can last for a long period of time keeping their BIOS setting intact. Backup is
required only if there is any modification.

CMOS backup is not same as the regular backup. Alternative ways that are used for
CMOS backup are:

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z Manual Backup: It is done manually, by recording all current settings of the BIOS.
Though it is a lengthy process but it is reliable.
Notes
z CMOS Backup Utilities: In this the various utilities automatically take the backup
of the data at regular interval of time, which can be further stored to a storage device.
If something happens accidentally, some of these utilities restore the complete CMOS
settings.

7.3 BOOTING
When a computer is switched on, a set of instructions (operations) are performed by a
computer. This complete process is known as booting. This process is repeated every time
a machine is switched on after being turned off. This power-on self testing takes few
seconds to complete. This process involves initializing peripheral devices and loading the
operating system.
System starts with a little set of instructions in ROM and then subsequently the operating
system is loaded on to the RAM. As the system is switched off, software as well as data
are stored on nonvolatile storage devices.
Many systems use computer networks for booting. In this case, operating system is kept
on the server, and a portion of it is shifted to the user’s system with the help of Trivial File
Transfer Protocol. After the transfer, the operating system takes over the control of the
booting process of the user’s machine.

Types of Booting
1. Warm Booting: A warm booting is started from the operating system. To perform
warm boot in Windows operating system, you have to select, restart from the Start
menu. In warm booting, there is no need of pressing a button on the computer
itself.
2. Cold Booting: To perform a cold booting or hard booting you have to start up the
computer which is turned off. A cold booting is done by pressing the power button
to switch on the system.
In both types of booting the system clears the RAM and starts the boot sequence
from scratch. Warm booting might not clear all caches, which stores temporary
informations. If you are troubleshooting your computer, you have to perform cold
booting.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1

1. BIOS is:
A. Application Software
B. Hardware
C. Firmware

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2. BIOS Program is located at

Notes A. Special reserved memory area

B. User memory area

C. No restriction

State True or False (T/F)

3. A warm booting is done by pressing the power button of your computer.

4. The boot operation starts by running an initial set of instructions.

5. Operating system is in the Random Access Memory when system is turned on.

7.4 HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

7.4.1 Determining the Speed or RPM of a Hard Drive

To confirm the speed or Revolutions Per Minute (RPM) of a Hard drive you need to first
determine the manufacturer and model of the drive. Once you have confirmed this, you
will search for the drive on the manufacturer’s web content to see the revolutions per
minute of the drive. You may also look the sticker on the HDD to examine its revolutions
per minute.

Disk Utilities
Many disk utilities that are designed to setup the hard drive can find and setup a hard
drive; For instance, the fdisk utility will show extra data regarding the scale of the disk
drive and and also partition of data.

You can have the list of all precise data concerning your Hard Disk, like specifying the
manufacturer, model, type, and size of the drive.

7.4.2 Jumpers
Jumpers allow the system to close or open an electrical
circuit. It is made of small pins set that can be covered
by jumper block. A Jumper is also known as
appropriately sized conductive sleeve.

A jumper is called closed jumper when it is covering at

least two pins and an open jumper when it is covering
only one pin or no pin.
Fig. 7.2: Jumper
7.4.3 Cable Select
Another method of setting up the hard disk is Cable Select system. As obvious, which
connector on the cable is connected to a device; decides whether it is designated as master
or slave. Master/slave is a model of communication where one device has one-way control

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over one or more devices. The advantage of this system is that when hard disk is changed
from slave to master or vice versa, settings need not to be changed.
Notes
With the design of this new system, connecting hard drives becomes easier as master/slave
jumper settings are not required to be configured again and again. Cable Select also
known as CS, is completely different from traditional IDE cables.

With the advancement in the technology, enhancement in the concept of CS has also
happened. You are able to set each drive to CS connect.

To deploy cable select, each of the hard disks must be set to the "cable select" (CS) setting,
typically employing a jumper, with the usage of a special cable which typically has three
connectors, with the center one supposed for the motherboard. The remaining two
connectors are used alternatively to connect to the drives which can act as master or slave.
The drives can be inter-changed by altering the connector on the cable they use.

7.5 DEVICE DRIVERS

Device driver is a set of instructions that determines and helps in using a peripheral device
which is connected with the system. Once a program calls a particular procedure within
the driver, it sends instructions to the device. Drivers are specific to hardware and
dependent on operating system.

Application
Modern hardware and operating system drivers work in numerous environments. Drivers
may interface with many devices such as: printers, video adapters, Network and sound
cards, image scanners or digital cameras etc.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

State True or False

6. A jumper is closed when it is covering only one pin or no pin.

7. We use small tools like tweezers or very small plier to change the settings of
jumper.

8. Device driver is a set of instructions, that helps in using peripheral devices which
is connected with the system.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about BIOS, flash BIOS, functioning of BIOS, attacks on
BIOS, CMOS and its backup, bootstrap loading and its types, HDD, jumpers, Master/
Slave HDD, device drivers and their purpose and applications of device drivers.

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Some of the Keypoints to remember

Notes z Basic Input Output System (BIOS) is a type of firmware.

z An unauthorised alteration of the BIOS in a PC is called as BIOS attack.

z CMOS Checksum is used as an error-detecting code.

z When a computer is switched on, a set of instuctions are performed by a computer is

known as booting.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is a BIOS Attack?

2. Describe Flash BIOS? What is its use?

3. What is the purpose of Jumpers?

4. What are the applications of device drivers?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

7.1
1. C

2. A

3. False

4. True

5. False

7.2
6. False

7. True

8. True

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Notes

8
OPEARTING SYSTEM INSTALLATION

Operating System acts as an interface between the Computer System and the user. It is the
platform on which all other applications are installed. Hence Operating System installation
ensures that the hardware meet the least requirements for running the system efficiently.
You are also aware that data in Computers is stored in the form of files. To manage,
organize these files on various storage media, we have file systems. File system is a
method of managing various files in the computer. This lesson will make you understand
the system requirements, file system and installation steps for Windows and Linux
(Ubuntu) Operating Systems.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will able to:
z list file system used in Windows operating system.
z install Windows 7 operating system.
z list the types of file system used in Linux.
z install Linux (Ubuntu) Operating System.

8.1 WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

8.1.1 File System

As mentioned before, a file system is a technique for managing files on various storage
media, such as hard disks, CDs etc. In the Microsoft Windows operating system, users are
provided with the various options of file systems while formatting such media. In
Windows the following two most common file systems are used:
z FAT
z NTFS

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File Allocation Table

Notes The File Allocation Table (FAT) 32 and FAT were used in earlier versions of Windows
Operating systems. It was developed by Microsoft to manage data on storage media. FAT
contains names of files, date and time stamps, names of directories and attributes of files.

The FAT system is compatible with all major operating systems. It was the default file
system for all Windows opearting system prior to Windows 2000. But FAT suffers from
few problems such as over-fragmentation, file corruption and limits to file names and size.

New Technology File System

Microsoft required an operating sytem which gives additional steadiness and wellbeing
measures. The Windows objective was to design operating system that ought to be as
secure as Unix, supported expanded filenames, had network capability and did not waste
storage space. In 1993, Microsoft released Windows nongovernmental association 3.1
with NTFS (New Technology File System) version 1.0. NTFS provides a well-formed
File system that is largely used by Windows 2000 and XP and was developed by MS
Corporation for its Windows NT line of operating systems, beginning with Windows NT
3.1 and Windows 2000, including Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, and all their
successors to date.

NTFS is refined as compared to FAT file system in a number of respects:

z file compression - NTFS can compress files.

z encryption - provides strong and secure files or folders.

z journaling - NTFS is a journaling file system (uses NTFS log to record changes).

z hard links - allows different file names to directly refer to the same file contents.

8.1.2 WINDOWS 7
Windows 7 uses the NTFS (New Technology File System) which is the most regularly
utilized system these days. This is a file of an extraordinary configuration that is found on
the MFT (Master File Table) zone of an allotment. The master file table (MFT) is a
database in which information about every file and directory on an NT File System
(NTFS) volume is stored. There is at least one record for every file and directory on the
NTFS logical volume. Each record contains attributes that tell the operating system (OS)
how to deal with the file or directory associated with the record. This zone is just
accessible to OS administration applications and concentrated devices that can address
the hard drive straightforwardly. For e.g., windows kernel, device drivers etc. The MFT
is a table that rundowns all files with their traits and security parameters. The MFT
likewise stores locations of divisions (hard drive clusters) where file substances (fragments)
are physically present.

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Windows
This is the imperative folder that is placed on the computer’s hard disk partition. It keeps
Notes
all executables, drivers and libraries of the system. That is the reason it is emphatically
prescribed not to erase files from folder. This folder may have an alternate name.

Users

This folder contains client (users) profiles. Naturally it is found in the root folder of the
system partition. It contains various standard folders. These folders contain different
client subfolders including desktop, documents, pictures, favorites. Other subfolder is
utilized to store data of different applications, programs, appdata, application data,
cookies, local settings and others. You should not change their substance unless you are
truly certain what you are doing.

Boot

This folder contains working system boot files. It is covered up, and it is not prescribed
to change its content.

Program data

Applications store their information, setup files and other data in this folder. One should
not erase anything from this folder.

Recuperation

This folder contains data needed to log into the System Recovery Console. It is concealed
and you can not change its content.

Recycle.bin

This folder is Windows Recycle Bin which contains the erased files. The folder is covered
up, however you can securely erase its content and in addition the folder itself. The files
in this folder can be restored.

Windows 7 Installation

To start the installation of WINDOWS 7 on any supported PC, you must start with the
modifying your BIOS settings to make your PC boot from a CD/DVD or USB drive
before it boots from the primary hard disk.

1. Insert a genuine Windows 7 CD in your DVD-ROM drive. Now Windows 7

installation screen appears as shown in Fig. 8.1.

The Microsoft windows installation window appears

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Notes

Fig. 8.1 Starting Windows

2. On Windows 7 installation page you choose desired language (shown in

Fig. 8.2)

Fig. 8.2 Enter your language and other preferences

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3. Now select Install now as shown in Fig. 8.3

Notes

Fig. 8.3 Install Windows 7

4. Accept the terms and conditions (read instructions before accepting)

Fig. 8.4 Accept License terms

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5. Then the option for upgrading or reinstallation of the windows appears (shown
in Fig. 8.5)
Notes

Fig. 8.5 Choose type of Installation

6. If you are upgrading, then the compatibility report is checked and displayed as shown
in Fig. 8.6

Fig. 8.6 Compatibility Report

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7. Choose the drive in which Windows has to be installed and drive partition can be
selected from advanced options (shown in Fig. 8.7).
Notes

Fig. 8.7 Choose the drive

8. Windows 7 installation starts

Fig. 8.8 Installing Windows

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9. Now System reboots

Notes

Fig. 8.9 System reboots

10. Then the system registry settings are updated as shown in Fig. 8.10

Fig. 8.10 Setup is updating

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11. The boot process continues and the system will start its services as shown in
Fig. 8.11
Notes

Fig. 8.11 Setup is starting services

12. Then you are redirected to the boot page and video performance is checked by the
boot process (as shown in Fig. 8.12).

Fig. 8.12 Setup is checking video performance

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13. Enter username and computer name in the screen (refer Fig. 8.13) that appears.

Notes

Fig. 8.13 Enter username and Computer name

14. Enter your password (shown in Fig. 8.14)

Fig. 8.14 Set a password for your account

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15. The screen appears showing that Enter the product key and Click Next (as shown in
Fig. 8.15)
Notes

Fig. 8.15 Enter Product key

16. Time zone can be changed according to the place (as shown in Fig. 8.16)

Fig. 8.16 Review your time and date

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17. You can select the type of network whether home or office (as shown in Fig. 8.17).

Notes

Fig. 8.17 Select the type of Network

18. Choose home network and complete the remaining configuration if you need (as
shown in Fig. 8.18).

Fig. 8.18 Select Computer’s current location

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19. Then you get a key for the home devices sharing, then Welcome screen appears (refer
Fig. 8.19).
Notes

Fig. 8.19 Windows 7 Welcome screen

20. The Windows 7 installation is complete, now you can view the desktop. Fig. 8.20
depicts Windows 7 desktop.

Fig. 8.20 Windows Desktop

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Notes INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.1

1. ................... was the defàult file system for all Windows Opearting System prior to
Windows 2000.

2. Windows 7 uses ................... file system.

8.2 LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM

Linux is an open source operating system (means the original source code is freely
available for modification or enhancement by anyone ). It is a secured operating system.

8.2.1 LINUX File System

File system types used in Linux are Ext3 (Extended File System), Ext4 ,VFAT (Virtual
File Allocation Table) and Swap.

8.2.2 Partitioning of Disk

You prefer to have partitions in your disk. If your hard disk failed / crashed only that
particular partition will be effected, whereas other partitions will have your files.
Objectives of having diverse partitions is to accomplish higher information security if
some crash or hard disk failure occurs. When a mishap happens, only the concerned
partition information will be effected, whereas other partitions are likely to survive.
Linux has two segments in it:
z Data segment: It is a typical Linux framework information, including the root part
containing all the information to run the framework; and
z Swap segment: It is an extension of the machine’s physical memory, additional
memory on hard drive.

Mount Points
Windows operating system uses drives (C, D, E etc.,) to access disk space. Linux uses
mount points. In Linux mounted disk space, all folders will be under the root of the file
system. i.e., ‘/’ forms the root of the file system. Examples of mount points : /bin, /root,
/home.

Inode entry
For most clients and for most typical framework association errands, it can be recognized
that records and lists are in a tree structure, whereas machine does not understand tree-
structures.

In a record framework, which is simply the collection of records (inode numbers and hard
links pointing to the actual data) a report is identified with an inode number, a kind of

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serial number containing information about the genuine data that makes up the record: to
which this archive has a spot, and it is set on the hard disk tracks. A special type of link
called hard link is used to point to the actual contents of the file stored on disk tracks. Hard Notes
links are stored beside the inode number for a particular file in the inode entry.

Each part has its own specific set of inodes; all through a framework with different
segments, records with the same inode number can exist.

Each inode depicts a data structure on the hard drive, securing the properties of a record,
including the physical zone of the report data. Exactly when a hard drive is instated to
recognize data stockpiling, generally in the midst of the starting framework foundation
methodology or when adding extra plates to a current framework, a settled number of
inodes is made. This number will be the best measure of records, of diverse sorts (tallying
registries, one of a kind records, joins etc.) that can exist. We ordinarily have 1 inode, each
2 to 8 kilobytes of limit.

At the time another record is made, it gets a free inode. In inode, the accompanying
data is:

z Holder and gathering manager of the file.

z File sort type (normal, catalog, ...)

z Contents of the file.

z Date and time of data created and changed in the inode.

z Number of connections to this file (see later in this section).

z File size.

8.2.3 Ubuntu Installation (Step-wise procedure)

To start the installation of Ubuntu on any supported PC, you must start with the following
steps:

(i) Modify your BIOS settings to make your PC boot from a CD/DVD or USB drive
before it boots from the primary hard disk.

(ii) Create a bootable copy of the Ubuntu disk image on a CD, USB flash drive and
then insert it into the CD/DVD drive or USB port if using a USB drive.

(iii) Finally, installation begins.

1. Start and selection screen

Select a language. This selection screen also offers several choices (refer Fig. 8.21). Start
Ubuntu without any change.

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Notes

Fig. 8.21 Install Ubuntu

2. You can choose the time-zone manually (shown in Fig. 8.22) or let the system detect
it based on your location.

Fig. 8.22 Choose time zone

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3. You can choose your keyboard type/layout (shown in Fig. 8.23) or let the system
detect it .
Notes

Fig. 8.23 Choose Keyboard Layout

4. Select the option “Erase and Use the Entire disk” (shown in Fig. 8.24) and click
Forward button. All information on the drive chosen will be deleted.

Fig. 8.24 Choose Installation Type

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5. Enter your details in the next screen. Fill the data (name, password, machine name,
etc) and click on continue button (shown in Fig. 8.25).
Notes

Fig. 8.25 Enter your name, Computer Name

6. A Progress bar showing the status of Installation is displayed (shown in Fig. 8.26)

Fig. 8.26 Installing Ubuntu

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7. You may select Apt (Advanced Packaging Tool) if required.

Notes

Fig. 8.27 Configuring apt

8. Configuring hardware screen appears.

Fig. 8.28 Configuring hardware

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9. Installation Complete – Dialog box confirming that “Installation is Complete” is

displayed (shown in Fig. 8.29). Click “Restart Now” button to reboot the machine.
Notes

Fig. 8.29 Installation Complete

10. The login screen appears (shown in Fig. 8.30). Enter the password.

Fig. 8.30 Login screen

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11. The desktop is now displayed for the first time.

Notes

Fig. 8.31 Ubuntu Desktop

12. Ubuntu 14.04 LTS(Long Term Support) is now installed.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2

3. Linux has ................... and ................... segments in it.

4. ................... is used to point to the actual contents of the file stored on disk tracks.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about FAT & NTFS file system of Windows Operating
System and LINUX file system. You have also learnt about the steps for installing
Windows 7 and Linux Operating System.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the Windows 7 Home and Professional Editions system requirements?
2. What are the features of NTFS?
3. Follow the step-wise procedure and install Windows 7Home Edition.
4. Describe LINUX file system.

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5. Differentiate between Data segment and Swap segment

6. Follow the step-wise procedure and install Ubuntu on your machine.
Notes

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

8.1
1. FAT

2. New Technology File System (NTFS)

8.2
3. Data segments & swap segments

4. Hard links

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Notes

9
NETWORK BASICS

In the 21st century, worldwide telephonic networks, growth of computer industry and
launching of communication satellites, are integrating together. The merging of the
computer technology with the communication system has given birth to a whole array of
networking technologies. The use of a computer to serve a business need is rapidly being
replaced by a network of computers, catering to various needs of a business organisation.

Fig. 9.1 Network of Computers

In this lesson you will learn about various types of networks, their topologies,
communication media, addressing concepts, and network protocols.

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Notes OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to

z identify various benefits and types of networks.

z types of transmission media.

z uses of switching techniques.

z understand various types of topologies.

z differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP model.

9.1 WHAT IS A NETWORK?

Independent computers, referred to as personal computers (PCs), gave users the ability to
create and save documents with the help of different software. However, this was not
adequate for large organisation where the volume of work and amount of documents
created was high. These computers that are operated independently have a number of
limitations, some of which are as follows:

z Small hard drive capabilities.

z Resources like data, printers, CD drive cannot be shared.

z Communication from one system to another can be done only by using portable
storage devices.

To address these above mentioned problems, networks came into existence. It is a group
of computers connected to each other physically or logically for data communication.

9.2 BENEFITS OF A NETWORK

The evolution of network was a boon to the mankind. The amount of time, money and
energy saved was very high with the use of network. Benefits of a network are:

z Resource sharing: The main benefit of networking is "Resource sharing", and it is

to make all programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network without
being influenced by the physical location of the resource and the user.

z Reliability: A second benefit is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources

of the same information. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three
machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the copies on the other machines could be
accessed/used.

z Lower cost: Another benefit is saving money. Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly ten times faster
than the fastest single chip microprocessors, but mainframes cost thousand times

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more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to build systems consisting
of powerful personal computers, one per user, with data kept on one or more shared
file server machines. This benefit leads to networks with many computers located in Notes
the same building. Such a network is called a LAN (local area network).

z System performance: Another closely related benefit is to increase the system’s

performance as the work load increases by just adding more processors. With central
mainframes, when the system memory is full, it must be replaced by a larger one.

Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A file that was updated/
modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the network immediately.

9.3 ORIGIN OF INTERNET: THE BIGGEST PUBLIC NETWORK

Do you know the origin of internet? Evolution of a computer network started way back
in 1969 with the development of first network called ARPANET. It was created by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence.
ARPANET was one of the first general-purpose computer networks. It connected time-
sharing computers at government-supported research sites, principally universities in the
United States, and it soon became a critical piece of infrastructure for the computer
science research community in the United States. In the 80's, another organisation called
National Science Foundation(NSF) created an independent network called NSFnet,
which was more advanced than ARPANET. It allowed only the students and educators of
various universities to do their research related work. It did not allow any kind of private
business related activities. Later US separated their defence related work in to a separate
network called DARPANET. In the 90's ARPANET, NSFnet, and many more private
networks across the world shook hands with each other and the combination of them gave
birth to today's internet. So internet can be called as super network. Internet can be defined
as the worldwide network of computer networks.

These networks have to follow certain rules and regulations to communicate among
themselves. The set of rules that governs the communication between the computers in a
network is called protocol. The ruling protocol standard followed by internet is TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).
Other than the public networks, one can build up a private network which can be accessed
if the user has access rights to it. There are business organisations which have their own
networks where the users are authenticated using valid User Ids and passwords.
Therefore, the benefits and applications of these networks can be enjoyed by only their
employees who have access to these privileges.

9.4 NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES

To know more on computer networks, you need to learn few important terms of networks.
Workstation: The term workstation or a node refers to the computers that are attached
to a network and share the resources in the network. On a network, there can be computers
that do not have either a Hard disk (or Floppy disk drives) can not store any data or

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software. Such computers are called dumb terminals. They get operated directly with the
help of server. On the other hand the computers that can work independently on the
Notes network are called intelligent terminals.
Server: A server is a computer that provides data, software and hardware resources that
are to be shared on the network. A network can have more than one server. Each server has
a unique name in the network. All network users identify the server by its name. It is of
two types: (1) Non dedicated server - It acts as a server and workstation (2) Dedicated
server - It can be used as a server only.
Intranet: Intranet is a private network.
Inter space: It is client-server software that allows computers in a network to share online
audio, video and text through dynamic 3D environment. It provides a real time
communication platform on the Internet today.

9.5 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS

Based on the area covered by the computer network, it is classified as
z LAN (Local Area Network)
z MAN (Metropoliton Area Network)
z WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN: When a group of computers get connected in a local area like a building or a school
campus for data sharing, then it is termed as a LAN. It usually uses unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) cables for connectivity. A client server LAN is shown in Fig. 9.2

Fig. 9.2 LAN

Metropolition Area Network (MAN): It covers an area larger than a LAN. Generally,
when the network is spread across a city, then it is called a MAN. For example, a school
having branches in different parts of the city are connected to form a network. The
computers in each of these branches get connected to form separate LANs. These LANs
get connected to each other to form a MAN as shown in Fig. 9.3. It usually uses
microwave link for communication. It covers an area larger than LAN but smallar than
WAN. e.g. cable television network available in many cities.

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Notes

Fig. 9.3 MAN

Wide Area Network (WAN): It covers an area larger than a MAN. Various computer
networks located in different countries can be connected with each other to share
information through WAN. It usually uses satellite for communication. For example the
computer network of a multi national organisation with the head office at California
connects to a network of its branches in London. This forms a WAN as shown in fig 9.4

Fig. 9.4 Wide Area Network

Depending on processing capability and use of the connected computers, a network can
be classified in to two types: peer-peer network and a client server network.

Peer to peer: Every computer on the network acts as a workstation as well as a server.
Any computer on the network can access the shared resources. These networks provide
low level security. Fig 9.5 shows an example of a peer to peer network.

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Notes

Fig. 9.5 Peer to Peer Network

Client Server: It consists of client computers and server computers as shown in fig 9.6.
A workstation is generally known as a client. A server computer provides services for the
client requests. It also handles the security and administrative responds to the tasks of the
network. These networks provide high level security. The client computers are dependent
on the server computer.

Fig. 9.6 Client Server

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1

1. Interspace provides _____________.
(i) storage area (ii) real time communication platform
(iii) WAN (iv) None of these
2. Workstation is a _____________.
(i) dedicated server (ii) node
(iii) port (iv) none of these

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9.6 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission media is also known as communication channel. It describes the technologies Notes
connecting the computers in a network. It is of two types

z Wired media
z Wireless media
Wired media talks of the physical connectivity that takes place using cables while wireless
media uses waves through air, water or vacuum. Now let us know about wired media.

9.6.1 Wired Media

1. Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and
unshielded.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most

popular and is generally the best option for small
networks. The cable has four pairs of wires inside
the jacket (Fig. 9.7) Each pair is twisted with a
different number of twists per inch to help
eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and
from other electrical devices. The standard
connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is
Fig. 9.7 Twisted pair cable
an RJ-45 connector.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (TelephoneWire)
2 4 Mbps Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
5 100 Mbps (2 pair) 100 BaseT Ethernet

6. 1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference (it should not be used too close to electric motors,
fluorescent lights, etc.).

Shielded Twisted Cables (STP) is a better option than UTP. Each pair of wires in
STP is individually shielded with foil. There is a shield around each individual pair,
as well as around the entire group of wires. They have 16-155 Mbps of speed and

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can be extended up to maximum 100 meters. Cables require special connectors for
grounding but this cabling method resists electrical interference and is less susceptible
Notes to overhear.

2. Coaxial cable: It has a single copper conductor at its centre. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the centre conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield
helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other
computers. An image of coaxial cable is
shown in fig. 9.8. Although coaxial cabling
is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to
signal interference.

In addition, it can support greater cable

lengths between network devices than twisted
pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling
Fig. 9.8 Coaxial cable
are thick coaxial and thin coaxial. Thin
coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying ethernet signals.
2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. Thin coaxial
cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications
for thick coaxial cable carrying ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment
length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover
that helps to keep moisture away from the centre conductor. This makes thick coaxial
a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage
of thick coaxial is that it is difficult to install.

3. Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cabling consists of a central glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective materials as
shown in Fig. 9.9. It transmits light rather
than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference. This makes
it ideal for certain environments that contain
a large amount of electrical interference. It
has also been made the standard for
connecting networks between buildings, due
to its immunity to the effects of moisture and
lighting. It has the ability to transmit signals
over much longer distances than coaxial and
Fig. 9.9 Fibre optics cable
twisted pair cables. It also has the capability
to carry information at vastly greater speeds.
This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video
conferencing and interactive services.

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9.7 NETWORKING HARDWARE

Modem: A modem is a device that enables a computer to transmit data over telephone or Notes
cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted
over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts an
analog signal to digital and vice versa. The conversion of data into analog data vice versa,
allows two computers to communicate with one another. This is called Modulation/
Demodulation (MODEM).
Do you know the types of modem? Modems are of two types: internal modem and
external modem. Internal modems are fixed inside the system box while the external
modem connects CPU externally.
RJ-45 connector: It is the short form of Registered Jack - 45 and is an eight-wire
connector. It is used to connect computers on a Local Area Network, especially Ethernet
LANs. It looks similar to a RJ-11 connector which is used to connect telephone cables. A
RJ-45 houses 8 wires while a RJ-11 houses 4 wires.This is a plastic connector that looks
like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way.
RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed
from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin
inside the connector.
Network Interface Controller: In computer networking, a network interface controller
(NIC) (also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter) is a
computer hardware component that connects a computer to a network. It provides the
hardware interface between a computer and a network. Some NIC cards work with wired
connections while others are wireless. Most NICs support either wired Ethernet or Wifi
standard. In new computers, many NICs are now pre-installed by the manufacturer. NIC
contains connections for either twisted pair cable or coaxial cable or both.
Hub: It is a device for connecting multiple computers together and making them act as a
single network segment. It has multiple Input/Ouput ports. The device is a form of multi
port repeater. It is used for broadcasting. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments
of a LAN. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets. Suppose 5 computers are connected through a
hub. One of them sends a message to another. When the message arrives at the hub, it
broadcasts to all the other computers which are connected. The computer for whom the
message is sent receives it, while the others simply discard it. Data communications
becomes very slow if more number of systems are busy in sending messages at the same
time because of collision and data loss.
Hubs can be two types:
z Active hubs: These devices not only function as regenerator, but also provide multiple
ports for several computers to connect in a network.
z Passive hubs: These devices only provide multiple ports for several computers to
connect to a network.
Switch: It is a device for connecting multiple computers and networks together to form
single network segment. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that

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processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. A switch is a
telecommunication device that receives a
Notes message from any device connected to it
and then transmits the message only to
the device for which the message was
meant. Do you think switch is more Fig. 9.10 Switch
intelligent than a hub? Yes. It is more
intelligent than hub because hub simply
broadcasts the message to all computers which are connected to it. An eights port switch
is shown in Fig 9.10.
Repeater: Repeaters are used in a network to regenerate digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. It has the ability to reconstruct a signal to near its original quality. In
a network, a repeater, can relay messages between sub networks that use different protocols
or cable types. It works similar to amplifier in an analog network. When two computers
are connected in a network using cables and the distance is greater than the specification,
then to avoid data loss repeaters should be used in between.

Bridge: It is a device as shown in Fig. 9.11, which

connects two networks segments. It basically
filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges
reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing
it into two segments. Bridges inspect incoming
traffic and decide whether to forward or discard Fig. 9.11 Bridge
it based on pre-defined rules.

Router: It is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks. A router is
connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in
one of the lines, the router reads the
address information in the packet to
determine its ultimate destination.
Then, using information in its routing
table it directs the packet to the next Fig. 9.12 Router
network elements on its journey. It
works with IP addresses. A router's image is shown in Fig. 9.12.

Gateway: It is a device as shown in Fig. 9.13 that connects dissimilar networks. It is an

internetworking system capable of joining together
two networks that use different base protocols.
Depending on the types of protocols they support,
network gateways can operate at any level of the
OSI model (Refer 9.12.1 section). They are also
called as protocol converters and translators.
These activities of a gateway are more complex
than that of the router or switch, as it communicates Fig. 9.13 Gateway
using more than one protocol.

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Satellite: It is a device that works as a receiver as well as a transmitter. It is fitted with

different transponders for communications. It uses microwaves for transmission. These
are generally used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, Notes
planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting.

9.8 SWITCHING TECHNOLOGIES

One of the major purpose and use of networks is sharing or transfer of information. Do
you know how data is transmitted across the network? Well, for this, the switching
techniques are used which are explained as under :

z Circuit switching: In this technique, communication medium is wired. A physical

connectivity is established between the source and the destination computer before
communication takes place. Messaging takes place one after another in a sequence.
The telephone networks are generally based on circuit switching. The circuit or the
connection may pass through a number of telephone exchanges in different parts of
the country. At each stage the connection remains blocked until a link is made between
the two ends. This communication is generally slow.

z Message switching: In this technique the message to be sent has no restriction in

size and the computers use wireless connectivity between them. However, the traffic
is more efficiently handled using the "store-and-forward" technique. Unlike circuit
switching no physical link is established in it. Here the communication medium is
wireless. The messages communicated can vary in size. A message is stored and then
forwarded as soon as the destination is free to receive traffic. Messages can be entered
regardless of whether the receiving terminal is busy or operational. The queuing of
messages and the persistence of automatic dialling leads to better utilisation of lines
reducing the call charges.

z Packet switching: With message switching there is no limit on block size. In contrast,
packet switching places a tight limit on the block size. Data is divided in the form of
packets stored in the main memory. The packet size is fixed and there is no limit on
data. Communication medium is wireless. This type of system was originally designed
to provide reliable transmission through a communications network where switches
or lines may suddenly become unavailable or alternative routes may have to be chosen.

A packet consists of a "header" section which contains information such as the network
address of the destination terminal, a data section containing the information to be
transferred and a "tail" section containing checking information. A stream of data is
therefore split into a number of packets when these techniques are employed. Packets
may vary in length from a few bytes up to several thousand. Once a message has
been transmitted, the packets which comprise it may take different routes through
the communications system and arrive at the receiver at different times. In this scenario
it is up to the receiver to reassemble the packets into the correct order, to obtain the
complete message. This is done based on pre-defined identifiers/ headers and rules.

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9.9 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Notes This section will introduce you to a number of different network topologies with various
types of network architecture. Network architecture is made up of a topology, a cable
type, and an access method.

A network topology is the physical layout of computers, cables and other components of
a network. There are number of network topologies, and a computer network may be built
using multiple topologies. Various topologies of networks are given below:

z Bus topology
z Star topology
z Ring topology
z Mesh topology
z Hybrid topology
z Wireless topology

Bus topology: This topology uses one cable as the main trunk to connect all the
computers together as shown in Fig. 9.14. It is very easy to set up and requires no
additional hardware like hub. The cable is also called the trunk, a backbone, or a segment.
With bus topology, when a computer sends
out a signal, the signal travels the cable length
in both directions from the source computer.
When the signal reaches the end of the cable
length, it bounces back and returns in the
direction it came from. This is known as
signal bounce. If another signal is sent from
the opposite direction at the same time, the
two signals collide and get destroyed. In such
a situation, the signals get retransmitted. It Fig. 9.14 Bus topology
happens till the signals get transmitted to the destination system. For this reason,
terminators are placed at both the ends of the trunk.

The terminators are used to absorb the signal when it reaches the end of the trunk. This
prevents signal bounce. There are two situations when the network collapses, first when
there is no termination, due to signal bounce it happens and second when the cable breaks,
even then the network goes down. A bus is a passive topology, which means the signal
travels visiting each of the computers one by one without getting regenerated in any way
by them. These have no role in functioning of the bus.

Advantages of bus topology:

1. Cost is low as it uses short cable lengths and no connecting hardware.
2. Installation is easy.
3. Failure of a computer does not affect the working of the network.

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Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult - fault isolation and diagnosis is diffcult.

Notes
2. Breaking of the trunk collapses the network.

3. It is not very scalable (easy to extend).

Star topology: In this topology, all the computers

are connected through a central device known as
hub or a switch as shown in figure 9.15. Each
computer is connected to the hub, using a separate
cable.
Advantages of star topology:
1. Easy to troubleshoot and isolate problems.
2. Cable failure affects only a single computer.
3. Easily scalable.
Fig. 9.15 Star topology
Disadvantages of a star topology
1. Requires long cable length.
2. A single connecting device allows for a single point failure.

3. Installation is difficult.

Ring topology: In this topology, all the

computers are connected via a cable that loops
in a ring or circle as shown in fig 9.16. It has no
start and no end. Because there are no ends,
terminators are not necessary in a ring topology.
Signals travel in one direction on a ring. Here
each computer contributes to the network by
regenerating the signal.

Advantages of a ring topology

1. Cable faults are easily located, making

troubleshooting easier.
Fig. 9.16 Ring topology
2. Installation is easy.

3. Signal retransmission not required as it gets regenerated often.

Disadvantages of a ring topology

1. A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.

2. Expansion is not easy.

3. It is not very scalable.

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Mesh topology: It is not very common in computer networking today. In a mesh topology,
every computer has a connection to every other computer of the network.
Notes
Advantages of mesh topology
1. Provides multiple paths between computers. So even if one cable link breaks,
communication takes place using the other links.

2. Network can be easily expanded.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

1. Requires much more cable length than any other topologies.

2. Installation is difficult.

Hybrid topology: It is a mixture of the topologies discussed so far. A very popular hybrid
topology is a star-bus topology, in which a number of star topologies are connected by a
central bus. Another very popular topology is a star-ring topology. It looks like a star that
acts like a ring.

Wireless topology : A wireless topology is one in which few cables are used to connect
the computers. The network is made up of transmitters that broadcast the packets using
radio frequencies. The
network contains special
transmitters called cells or
access points which extend a
radio sphere in the shape of a
bubble around the transmitter.
It can extend to multiple rooms
and possibly floors in a
building. The computers and
network devices have a special
transmitter-receiver, which
allows them to receive
Fig. 9.17 Wireless topology
broadcasts and transmit
requested data back to the access point as shown in fig 9.17. The access point is connected
to the physical network by a cable, which allows communicating with systems on the
wired network.

Advantages of a wireless topology

1. Allows wireless remote access.

2. Network can be easily expanded.

Disadvantages of a wireless topology

1. Potential security issues.

2. Limited transmission speed.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.2 Notes

Choose the correct answer:
3. Repeater is ....................
(i) regenerater of a signal (ii) network connector
(iii) wave (iv) software
4. Router is a device used to connect a ....................
(i) LAN to LAN (ii) WAN to WAN
(iii) LAN to WAN (iv) None of these

9.10 NETWORK MODELS

There are two important network models: OSI and TCP/IP models. These two models
will explain you about how communication between computers takes place.

9.10.1 The OSI Network Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, developed by ISO (International
Standards Organization) for understanding data communications between any two
networked systems.

An OSI model is a conceptual seven

layer architecture where each layer is
considered to be responsible for a task
of the communication session between
two computers. It got introduced in the
late 1970s. The layers are arranged
here from the lower levels starting with
the physical (hardware) to the higher
levels. OSI Model comprises of seven
layers. Suppose, computer A wants to
send some message to computer B. At
computer A, some task will take place
before it is transmitted. Starting from
layer 7, every layer from top to bottom,
till layer 1 will do their respective job
on the message and finally layer 7 i.e.
the physical layer will do the
transmission in the form of bits. The
message is in its raw form when it
reaches the destination computer B, it
gets operated by all the seven layers but
Fig. 9.18 OSI Model

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in the reverse order i.e. from layer 1 to layer 7. Finally layer 7 will be responsible to get
back the message into its original form to be read at the destination computer.
Notes
A summary of the function of each layer is given in the Fig. 9.18.

9.10.2 TCP/IP Network Model

This model describes a set of communication protocols that implement the protocol
dependencies on which the Internet and most commercial networks run. The TCP/IP
network model has four basic layers: Application layer, Transport layer, Internet layer
and Link layer.

Link layer (layer 1): Deals with all physical components of network connectivity
between the network and the IP protocol.

Internet layer (layer 2): The work in this layer is managed by IP. It contains all
functionality that manage the movement of data between two network devices over a
routed network.

Transport layer (layer 3): The work in this layer is managed by TCP. It manages the flow
of traffic between two hosts or devices, ensuring that data arrives at the application on the
host for which it is targeted.

Application layer (layer 4): Acts as final endpoint at either end of a communication
session between two network hosts.

Now, let us know more on TCP and IP protocols.

Transmission Control Protocol: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) supports the

network at the transport layer. It provides a reliable connection oriented service.
Connection oriented means both the client and server must open the connection before
data is sent.

TCP provides:
1. End to end reliability.
2. Data packet re-sequencing.
3. Flow control.

Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for exchanging information

between routers so that routers can select the proper path for network traffic, while IP
provides the method of distributed data in packets. Thus it can distribute packets to a
destination via different routes and can handle congestion.

IP provides for:
1. Addressing.
2. Type of service specification.
3. Fragmentation and re-assembly.
4. Security.

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9.13 NETWORK PROTOCOLS

A protocol means the rules that govern the communication process between two computers Notes
in a network. It defines standardized formats for data packets and techniques for
identifying errors. You have already learnt about TCP / IP protocol in the previous
section. Some other common protocols are being expalined below:
z Ethernet: Provides transport of information between physical locations on UTP
cable. Data is passed in packets.
z SLIP: Serial Line IP, a form of data encapsulation for serial lines.
z PPP: Point to Point Protocol is a form of serial line data encapsulation that is an
improvement over SLIP.
z ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol is a message control and error reporting
protocol between a host server and a gateway to the Internet.
z SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol, is used to manage all types of network
elements based on various data, sent and received.
z HTTP: (Hyper Text Transmission Protocol is an application-level protocol intended
for distributed, collaborative and hypermedia information system. It has various
built-in request methods which allow users to read and save a web page.
z FTP: File Transfer Protocol allows secure file transfer between two computers with
login required.
z SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a protocol that governs the e-mail system
in a computer network.
Each protocol ultimately has its data packets wrapped in an ethernet, SLIP, or PPP packet
(at the link level) in order to be sent over the UTP cable. Some protocol data packets are
wrapped sequentially multiple times before being sent. For example FTP data is wrapped
in a TCP packet which is wrapped in an IP packet, which is wrapped in a link packet
(normally ethernet).

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson, you have learnt the fundamentals of computer networking, the communication
channels, topologies and layers of computer network models.
Some major points to remeber:
z Network can be defined as an interconnection of multiple computers.
z Internet is a public network across the globe governed by TCP/IP protocol.
z Bus topology does not need a hub but expansion is much easier.
z Star topology provides a better reliability as a collapsed system will not affect the
rest of the computers connected in the network.

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z A hub is a device used to connect several computers together.

z A switch is a device that works as an intelligent hub. It filters the message to the
Notes intended computer.
z A repeater is a device that regenerates a signal and joins two LANs of same protocol.
z A bridge is a device that joins two LANs.
z A router connects a LAN to a WAN. It does the work of routing.
z Network Card also known as NIC is used to connect a computer to a network.
z Network topology is the physical layout of computers, cables and other components
of a network.
z A protocol means the rules that govern the communication process between two
computers in a network.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. State the benefits of a computer network.
2. What is internet? Discuss the origin of internet.
3. Differentiate between peer to peer and client server network.
4. State the difference between LAN and MAN.
5. What is STP? How does it differ from UTP?
6. State any two differences between star topology and ring topology.
7. What are the seven layers of OSI network architecture?
8. Explain TCP/IP network architecture.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

9.1
1. (i) real time communication platform

2. (ii) node

9.2
3. (i) regenerates a signal

4. (iii) LAN to WAN

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Notes

10
NETWORK CONFIGURATION

In the previous lesson you have learnt the basics of network. Now you are ready for
learning Network configuration. Network configuration describes a broad range of
activities associated with establishing and maintaining a network. In this lesson you will
understand how to configure wired and wireless networks on Windows and Unix
operating systems and also on how to configure network applications like Outlook
Express. This lesson will also expalin how to connect smart devices such as smart TV and
smartphone to your PC.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:

z configure Windows operating system for networking.

z configure LINUX operating system for networking.

z configure network applications (Outlook Express).

z connect smart devices with the computer.

10.1 CONFIGURING WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM FOR

NETWORKING

10.1.1 Set up a broadband connection for a personal computer

Broadband connection is used by most of us for using Internet. For setting up DSL
(Digital Subscriber Line) broadband connection, you require a router, modem or a device
that combines these two devices (modem and router).

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To connect your computer for Internet connection do the following steps:

Wired Internet connection:

Notes
1) Connect your device(modem and router) to phone card or cable provided by Internet
service provider.

2) Supply electric power to your device (modem and router).

3) Plug Ethernet cable in to LAN port of device (modem and router) and other end of
Ethernet cable plug in to networking port (LAN Port) of computer.

4) Turn on or start your computer and verify LAN driver of your computer if it is not
installed then install LAN driver for your computer ( use LAN driver setup file for
your computer and double click on it and follow the steps and click ok).

5) Re-start your computer.

6) On command line type “ipconfig” if IP address is same as the IP address provided

by ISP’s range of IP address. Then click ok.

7) Now your computer is connected to Internet.

Fig.10.1 Internet connection

Wireless Internet connection:

1) Follow first two step of wired connection.

2) Your device (modem and router) and computer/laptop should have Wi-Fi facility.

3) Install Wi-Fi driver in your laptop/computer( Use Wi-Fi driver setup file for your
laptop/computer and double click on it and follow the steps and click ok).

4) Enable Wi-Fi in your laptop/computer.

5) Open connect to a network by clicking the network icon ( or ) in the

notification area.

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6) In list of network, select your device (Modem and Router) that you want to connect.

7) If security key required , enter key and connect to your device(modem and router). Notes
8) On command line type “ipconfig” if IP address is same as IP address is provided
by ISP’s range of IP address then ok.

9) Now your computer is connected to Internet.

10.1.2 Installation of Wired Network in Windows 7

In Windows 7 operating system, installation of a wired network is simpler than ever
before.

Following is the process of establishing a network.

1. All the computers should be turned off and unplugged.

2. All the peripherals of computers should be turned off.

3. If required network adapters should be installed.

4. If required, computers cases should be replaced and connect a network cable between
router and each computer’s adapter.

5. In the router’s WAN port, users of broadband Internet should plug their modems.

6. Select an appropriate network location.

All the newly attached network equipment are noticed by Windows 7 when it wakes
up. The level of security is determined by your choice.

7. Windows enquires about the Homegroup by choosing Home as your network

location.

Different files are shared between different PCs by the permission of Homegroup.

8. Run any necessary software for network adapter installation.

If things are not working properly, a new driver for your network adapter might be
required. If new networks are not been recognized by any of the computers, try restarting
them all again.

10.1.3 Network Configuration in Windows

Appropriate LAN driver should also be installed in computer for network configuration
in Windows.

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There two methods for configuring network in Windows7.

Notes 1) Click on Start→Control Panel→Network and Sharing Centre→Local Area

Network.

2) Open Connect to a Network by clicking the network icon ( or ) in the

notification area→Local Area Network.

After clicking on Local Area Network, follow the steps given below for manual
configuration of IP4 in Windows7 operating system.

a) Click on properties.

b) Select Internet Protocol Version 4 and click on properties.

Fig. 10.2 LAN Status

c) Select “use the following IP address” and enter IP address , Subnet Mask and
Default Gateway for network configuration.

d) Select “Use the following DNS server addresses” and enter preferred DNS server
and alternate server for network configuration.

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Notes

Fig.10.3 LAN properties

Fig.10.4 IPV4 properties

Now network is configured for wired network connection.

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10.2 CONFIGURING LINUX SYSTEM FOR NETWORKING

Notes
10.2.1 LINUX Networking Setup
In order to enable networking, network interface cards must be configured. The kernel
must have either modular or direct support for cards to compile in. The steps to configure
NIC are :-

From your network administrator:

1. Find out your computer’s IP address.

2. Determine network mask.

3. Network address is Internet Protocol address with network mask.

4. To deliver packets to every machine on your subnet your broadcast address is

used.

5. The address of the computer is a gateway to the outside world is gateway address.

6. Conversion of host names into IP addresses is nameserver address.

Configuration Tools

Various interactive GUI network configuration tools are available on Linux operating
system. Those are netconf, linuxconf, netconfig and ifconfig. These tools or programs
modify values in /etc directory.

Analysis Tools

z netstat – provides information about the systems network connections, (including

routing tables, port connections etc.).

z traceroute – It is used to find the network route from your machine to some other
machine on your network or the internet.

z nslookup – It is used to find more information about hosts from DNS servers.

z arp – Users read or modify their arp cache, using this program.

z tcpdump - Helps the user to check TCP traffic on their network.

z dig(1) - For debugging or testing, it sends domain name query packets to name
servers.

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10.2.2 Network Configuration in Ubuntu

Following is an example of network configuration of latest Linux based operating system
Notes
(UBUNTU)

1. Go to Network Connection by selecting system preferences → Network connection

Fig. 10.5 Network connections

2. Select the “Wired” tab and then click on “Auto eth0” and then click “Edit” to
check the IPV4 settings.

Fig. 10.6 Wire network connections

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3. IPV4 Settings. As shown in the following image select the method as manual if
you want to manually enter the DNS settings.
Notes

Fig. 10.7 IPV4 settings

DNS Server address is to be assigned. click on Add button to assign the address,
network and gateway adresses. Then provide the DNS server address as shown
below and click Apply.

Fig. 10.8 Assigning DNS server address

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For example to check the IP address settings.

1. Go to Applications → Accessories → Terminal

Notes

Fig. 10.9. IP address settings

2. Write "sudo ifconfig" (without quotes) command into terminal to find your new
address. The inet address broadcast addness, and mask address will be shown by
Ifconfig command.

Fig. 10.10. Sudo command

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Notes

Fig. 10.11 Ifconfig command

10.3 CONFIGURING A WIRELESS NETWORK WITH WINDOWS 7

To connect to a wireless network, each machine will need settings such as a network name
and network security key.

Follow these steps to create wireless network on machine with Windows 7:

1. From Control Panel → Networking and Internet → Network and Sharing Centre
→ Manage Wireless Networks, then click Add.

2. Choose type of profile you want to create. Select the “Create an ad-hoc network
profile” if you want to connect two computers (computer-to-computer) together.
Choose “Manually create a network profile” to connect to machine to a wireless
router or an access point. A screen will appear similar to the following figure.

Fig. 10.12 Manually connecting to a wireless network

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3. Type the name of the access point (also called SSID) in the network name field,
and select the settings.(ex: WAP)
Notes
4. Select the Next button.

5. When finished, select Close.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1

1. What is the purpose of nslookup?

2. Why netstat tool is used?

3. Why do we use traceroute?

10.4 CONFIGURING NETWORK APPLICATIONS

10.4.1 Configuring Outlook Express for E-Mail Accounts

The following steps will explain how to configure outlook express.

1. Open Microsoft Outlook. Now select Accounts under Tools

Fig. 10.13 Configuring Outlook Express

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2. Click Mail under Add

Notes

Fig. 10.14 Adding email

3. Enter your user name as you like.

4. Enter the email address.

Fig. 10.15 Adding email address

5. Choose server type and enter incoming and outgoing mail servers.

Fig. 10.16 Entering incoming and outgoing mail server details

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6. Enter Account Name and password.

Notes

Fig. 10.17 Adding account name and password

7. Next → Finish → Select domain → Properties

8. Select My server requires authentication.

Fig. 10.18 Properties window.

9. Click Ok. Now outlook configured your E mail address.

10. Repeat these steps again to set up multiple accounts.

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Once you have completed these steps outlook will take some time for receiving all your
emails to your Inbox. Once the process is completed your outlook is ready to send / receive
Notes any emails.

10.4.2 To enable sharing of file

Below steps are to be followed for network discovery and file sharing:
1. Open Network and Sharing Centre, (go to Control Panel, then Network and Internet,
click on Network and Sharing Centre), Select option for Network Discovery and
Enable File sharing. Select if you want to share files and turn on printer sharing.
2. Now do one of the following to share the file:
z Select Share by right clicking the folder you want to share and then choose
from the given list all those with whom you want to share, and then press
Share.
z In the public folder on your system, place all files and/or folders to be shared.
Click Start button, and then click Documents to find the public folder. In the
Navigation pane, under Favorite Links, click Public.

10.4.3 Internet Explorer 8 - Browser Configuration

For configuring internet explorer (8), Open Internet Explorer → Tools → Pop-up Blocker
→ Add web site → In blocking Level, Allow pop-ups from secure sites → Close.

1. Pop up management
z If you do not want the pop ups to come up then you can select the blocking level as
high.
z If you want to allow pop-ups from secure sitls then keep the level as low: as shown
in Fig. 10.19.

Fig 10.19 Pop-up Blocker Setting

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2. Clean up / file system Management – In order to experience better browsing it is

recommended to keep deletion of copies at reguler intervals (1 week).
Notes
You should also delete temporary internet files, history to clean up lone space.

Goto Cookies: Tools → Internet Options. In Browser History → Delete

Fig 10.20 Deleting Brosing History

3. Security Management - Use security settings tab to define the level of security
you want while browsing.

Choose Custom Level Security in Internet Options under Tools menu.

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Notes

Fig 10.21 Security Settings

Fig 10.22 Internet options - customs level

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Select level by customising the level as shown in Fig. 10.22.

SSL Issue: While exploring a secured website on Internet Explorer 8 sometimes the
Notes
message Page cannot be displayed popped up. To resolve this problem go to internet
options of tools menu and select the content tab, after that select Clear SSL state button
and press OK.

10.5 CONNECTING SMART DEVICES

10.5.1 Connecting Your TV to a PC

Now-a-days with smart TVs one can browse the Internet in the same way as on computers
and are able to access all online features. Wireless technology provides simple solutions
to connect your TV to a personal computer.

Connecting Wi-Fi PC and Wi-Fi TV

If you have Wi-Fi network and having a television with Wi-Fi and personal computer with
Wi-Fi then you can connect both of them using the following steps:

1. Turn on the system and television.

2. Enable the Wi-Fi mode and select Wi-Fi as its input on the television.

3. Activate the Wi-Fi mode on your system.

4. On your computer, select WiFi connection to the TV. To connect the television
with your Wi-Fi, if required provide the security key or password and re-boot the
network.

5. Four-digit Pin that is generated by television is to be feed on the system. After this
a connection is established between television and system.

6. Adjust screen resolution if needed.

7. Select extend desktop onto this monitor.

8. Windows desktop screen will be displayed on television. If required adjust the

screen resolution.

9. If required drag the open windows of the system on television.

10.5.2 Connect Smartphone to Desktop

You can also connect your smartphone to computer/laptop by using a USB cable. Once
you connected your smartphone to computer/laptop you will be able to view all the files
present in your smartphone. And also you can transfer the files from your smartphone to
your computer or laptop.

You can connect a smart phone to your computer with Bluetooth technology, if you do not
want to use USB cable.

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WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Notes
In this lesson you have learnt how to configure wired networking systems running on
Windows 7 and Ubuntu. It also illustrated how to configure various network applications
such as outlook express, file sharing and Internet Explorer browser. You have also learnt
about connecting smart devices such as smart TV to personal computer and smartphone
to PC.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Discuss the steps for installing a wired network in Windows 7.

2. Setup your machine running on Ubuntu for networking.

3. Discuss the steps for setting network in LINUX.

4. Configure your machine running on Windows 7 for wireless network.

5. Configure Outlook Express on your machine.

6. What are the various options to be set while configuring Internet Explorer?

7. How can we connect a Wi-Fi television to a Wi-Fi computer?

8. What should be done to connect Smartphone to desktop?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

10.1
1. nslookup is used to find more information abouts hosts from DNS servers.

2. Netstat is used for providing information about the systems network connection.

3. the network route from one machine to antoher machine.

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Notes

11
PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS, TROUBLE-
SHOOTING AND MAINTENANCE

While using computers many times we face problems. Sometimes the computer runs very
slow, sometimes the system is not turning on, sometimes some external device is not
working. As a hardware professional you have to be ready to solve these common
problems. This lesson gives the knowledge and competency to diagnose the faults for
systematic repair and maintenance of computers and computer peripherals.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:

z recover the system.

z use Control Panel.

z troubleshoot hardware.

z troubleshoot software.

z perform network troubleshooting.

z secure your system.

11.1 SYSTEM RECOVERY

System restore is system utility provided by Microsoft Windows which can be used to
recover from Windows faults or errors. It has been incorporated in all editions of
Windows apart from the Windows Server. While operating windows if a serious error
occurs then you can restore the data by using system restore option. To use this option,
you must be using a Windows installation disc for restore. If you do not have a Windows
installation disc you can use a system repair disc to restore the Windows.

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Notes

Fig. 11.1 Adjust computer’s settings

To create a system repair disc

1. Open backup and restore option from Control Panel (adjust your Computer’s
settings).
2. Click on create system repair disc. You may be asked for username and password
for authentication.
3. System repair point will be created.

Fig. 11.2 Backup or restore our files

For reinstalling Windows, a System Image can be used as a copy of drive. A system restore
image can be used anytime for restoring the Windows if the hard disk or Windows stops
working. System restore option can be used for the complete restoration of the system,
you can not choose a specific file for restoration, all your current data will be backed up
in one go.

System Restore option can be used to restore the system to a point where the current
setting of the system was running. You can actually restore your system to an earlier point
by using the systems restore point which was created in your system by default. The
restore point is always created automatically for the events such as Windows update etc.
To restore system files and settings using a recommended restore point:
1. Click to open system restore.
2. If prompted enter the password and username for authentication.
3. Choose the recommended restore point.
4. Review the restore point and click OK.

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11.2 CONTROL PANEL

The purpose of Control Panel is to change the features of Windows Operating Notes
System in respect of display, security, handling peripherals, settings of networks, etc.

Fig. 11.3 Control panel

The table below explains some of the commonly used options of the Control
Panel –

Category Uses and options

System and Security To set and change System and Security settings.
System settings include:
z Action Center
z System
z Windows Update
z Power Options
z Backup and Restore
z Administrative Tools
Security settings include:
z Windows Firewall
z Bit Locker Drive Encryption

User Accounts To create, maintain, and delete user accounts. This

category includes:
z User Accounts
z Windows Cardspace
z Credential Manager
z Mail (32-bit)

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Network and Internet To change the network and Internet settings like creating
new network group or joining an existing network group,
Notes
adding new Internet connection or removing an existing
one. This category includes:

z Internet access Network and Sharing Center

z Homegroup

z Internet Options

Appearance and To change the wall paper, screensaver, Folder

Personalization options etc. This category includes:

z Personalization

z Display

z Desktop Gadgets

z Taskbar and Start Menu

z Ease of Access Center

z Folder Options

z Fonts

Hardware and Sound To add or remove hardware devices and to change sound
settings. This category includes:

z Devices and Printers

z AutoPlay

z Sound

z Power Options

z Display

z Windows Mobility Center

Clock, Language, To change clock, date, and region settings.This

and Region category includes:

z Date and Time

z Region and Language

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Programs To uninstall programs or Winows features, uninstall

gadgets, get new programs from the network or online.
This category includes: Notes

z Programs and Features

z Default Programs

z Desktop Gadgets

Ease of Access To adjust your computer settings for vision, hearing,

and mobility, and use speech recognition to control your
computer with voice commands. This category includes:

z Ease of Access Center

z Speech Recognition

The Control Panel can also be displayed in other two views (i) Large Icons view, and (ii)
Small Icons view.

Small Icons view of the control panel is displayed below:

Fig. 11.4 Small icons view of control panel

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11.3 HARDWARE TROUBLESHOOTING

Notes When the computer is working unusually, turn off the computer and restart after a while.
Precautions before the diagnose or troubleshooting
1. Never replace a computer peripheral near the main power supply.

2. Never touch a computer peripheral with wet hands. Make sure your hands are clean
and dry when you handle them.

3. You can, always use an anti-static computer repair kit.

4. Always use proper tools.

5. Never use your teeth to clean or cut wires or any other electronic and electric parts.

6. Always have good power cords/extension boards and earthing system.

Troubleshooting of Monitor
If your monitor is not working or not getting power, then first check whether the monitor
is ON. Then verify whether the power switch is ON and also check if the monitor is in
power saving or sleeping mode. In case it is not getting on then check it whether all
peripherals are connected or not.

To change the display settings, select Start menu --> open Control Panel then choose
Display. Then choose Change Display Settings. The following window will be displayed.
Change the resolution, orientation, text size etc., from this window and click OK.

Fig. 11.5 Display settings

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Printer Troubleshooting
There are lot of printers available in the market. If the pritner is not functioning follow the
troubleshooting steps given below. Notes

z If your printer is not printing, then first check whether the printer cable is attached
with your computer or not and, also check whether your printer is ON. In case the
printer you are using is a network printer then check whether it is accessible in your
network. In case, there is still a problem, then you try to update the printer driver.

z Load the paper in case your printer is not having paper on printer tray. Printers may
have more than one tray, load the paper accordingly and take printouts.

z Also check if there is any paper jam in the printer, if yes then clear the paper jam and
restart the printer.

z To test whether printer is working properly, open Control Panel → Devices and
Printers. It will display devices and printers attached to your computer. Now right
click on your printer name and choose Printer Properties. Printer Properties dialog
box will be displayed. Choose Print Test Page

Fig. 11.6 Printer properties

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It will display the message that "A test page has been sent to your printer". Your test page
will be printed.
Notes

Fig. 11.7 Test page sent to printer

In case, the printer does not print the test page you can use Printer Troubleshooter.
From start menu, select Devices and Printers → select Printer → Right click on the
Printer Name and choose Troubleshoot . It will detect the printer problem and fix the
problem if any.

Fig. 11.8 Printer troubleshoot

CD Troubleshooting
In case if you inserted any CD or DVD on the drive, and it is not working:, then remove
CD /DVD from your Computer, insert it again and check.
z Verify whether the CD is placed properly.

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z Verify whether the CD can be used on the CD drive of an alternate machine.

z Verify whether the CD is scratched.
Notes
z Verify whether the CD is a CD-R or CD-RW that was copied.

Keyboard Troubleshooting
If your keyboard is not responding then try the following

z first check whether the keyboard cable is connected properly.

z Connect the keyboard into the different USB port.
z Disconnect your keyboard, clean it with dry cotton cloth. Connect it again and check
if keyboard is getting power.

Mouse Troubleshooting
If your mouse is not responding then try the following

z First check whether the mouse cable is connected properly.

z Connect the mouse into the different USB port.
z Disconnect your mouse, clean it with dry cotton cloth.

If you are using wireless mouse/ keyboard check whether you have placed correct type of
batteries and whether the batteries are optimally charged.

Video Troubleshooting
If you get a black screen on your personal computer then perform the following checks:

z If monitor's light is on, check your screen's brightness. If your screen's brightness is
turned down then turn it up.
z If the power cord is unplugged, then plug the power cable.
z If the display is not proper and unclear than it could be related to display settings or
problem in graphics card.

Sound Troubleshooting
Suppose you are unable to hear any sound, from computer then perform the following
steps-

z Check if external speakers (if you have) are connected to proper audio port.
z Check to see if the speakers are turned on, if not then turn them on.
z Check to see if the volume is turned up, if not then turn it up i.e., check whether the
speaker is mute, if yes then unmute it.
z Try unplugging and re-plugging the speaker again.

If you still face problem then you should check the driver (sound device driver).

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No Power
1. If the computer does not power up at all, reset the BIOS first and then try. This can
Notes be done by restarting/rebooting and immediately pressing F5/F8 keys on the keyboard.
And it will go to BIOS. Then press / enter RESET.
2. If it still does not power up, disconnect all the peripherals and wires except processor
and power supply, then try to switch it on from the motherboard's front panel connector.
3. If still does not power up, change the power supply and try.
4. If still does not power up, remove the motherboard with processor from casing and
lay it on antistatic surface and plug a power supply and try.
5. If same problem still exists, replace the processor and try.
6. If even this does not solve the problem, the motherboard itself is faulty.

Reinstall/Update Drivers
Numerous hardware related issues happen due to driver clashes, degenerate driver parts,
and drivers which need to be overhauled for utilization. At the point when something does
not work, reinstall the appropriate driver.

11.4 SOFTWARE TROUBLESHOOTING

Update softwares
One general guideline to remember while doing programming related troubleshooting is
to verify you have the latest adaptations of your applications, drivers and working
framework. Additionally install good anti-virus software which automatically scans and
cleans your computer as and when required.
The softwares you were using might be an old version. Check the current version and
download application patches. Recently launched applications may have bugs. When the
application developer or product maker gets to know about some bug in the application,
they develops and posts patches, fixes, and administration packs on its site to rectify the
same. When you have programs that contain bugs, check the site of your product maker
- they may have posted the fix you require. You should download the patch(es) and install
them on your computer.

Preliminary Measures
When you have any problem with your computer, the first thing you need to do is to restart
the machine but before restarting please save your files (word, excel etc.).

Reinstall
If a specific program/software starts working in an unexpected manner (or) is not working
properly even after a few attempts, reinstalling the particular program/software is
required. Before re-installing a software, you have to uninstall it (through Control Panel
→ Add / Remove Programs).

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Eliminate Troublesome Programs

If you notice that consistent problems began after you installed a particular software, then
uninstall and re-install the software. If the problems arise again then either uninstall the Notes
software permanently (if you think that the software is unnecessary), or contact the
software developer to get the issue resolved.

Defragment the Hard Drive

After a machine has been utilized for some time, the files on the hard disk get fragmented.
We do not get to know about this fragmentation because we always get the correct data
from the files. But fragmentation slows down the performance of the hard drive.
Therefore, you should periodically defragment your hard disks. Defragmentation software
is usually supplied as a utility with the operating system.

Formatting Your Hard Disk (HDD)

In the extreme situation, you may need to format your hard disk, and reinstall your
operating system, drivers, and programs from scratch. This is the situation when
machines have been hit by specific sorts of viruses. When you format your hard disk drive,
everything will be permanently deleted. Before formatting you can take the important
files/data into an external hard / flash drive by connecting it through USB port on your
CPU via USB cable.

11.5 NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING

You have learnt hardware troubleshooting and software troubleshooting. Now let us
know about network troubleshooting.
When you are working in the network computers, sometimes you may not be able to
access network files or unable to connect the network. In this situation you follow these
steps.
z Check to see if the network cable is plugged, if not then plug it.
z Check to see if the light is blinking when the network cable is plugged.
z Check to see if username, password and domain are entered correctly.
z Re-enter new username, password and domain and try again.
z If you still get an error message then check the login credentials on other PCs, if it
works correctly then the problem is solved.
z If it does not work on other PC then your login credentials could be incorrect.
Otherwise your PC network hardware has to be checked.

Basic Network Troubleshooting Tools

Pinging
Ping command - to check the reachability of the host on an Internet protocol. i.e., to verify
that computer can communicate with other computer (device) on the network. It displays

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the time taken for the hop to connect, the number of packets received, the number of
packets lost and the number of packets sent.
Notes

Fig. 11.9 Use of ping command

Traceroute
Traceroute is a command used by a computer network administrator to check the number
of hops and if the packet is being lost or the internet connection is unable to be established.
As the command suggests, it traces the route completely and checks each and every hop
of the route.

Fig. 11.10 Ttraceroute command

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Ifconfig
Ifconfig is a system administration tool used for the configuration of interface mostly in
Unix like architecture. By using this command a user can configure each and every Notes
interface connected to the hardware whether it is input/ output interface.

Fig. 11.11 Ifconfig command

Netstat
Netstat command, also known as the network statistics command is used to display the
network connections for transmission of packets. It also displays the routing table with the
complete network protocol statistics.

Fig. 11.12 Use of netstat command

Testing Speed
The broadband speed of the internet connection can be tested easily with various
applications like speedtest.net. It tracks and displays the number of hops, the upload speed
and the download speed. It works for both symmetric and asymmetric internet connections.

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Notes

Fig. 11.13 Testing speed of internet

Fig. 11.14 Broadband quality test

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11.6 INDICATIONS OF COMMONLY FOUND PROBLEMS

The following is a some of the most well-known PC issues that are accounted by the Notes
customers and users:

"404" / "Page Not Found" Error

You may get this error because the requested page is not available on the server.
Sometimes this error will be solved by refreshing the page or ensuring the correct spelling
of the web page. If you are the owner of the website then contact your hosting provider to
solve. Otherwise check the internet connection is there.

Fig. 11.15 “404” page not found error

Death of Screen
Sometimes the computer shows Blue Screen of Death." It is also called as STOP Error.
STOP 0x0000008e and STOP 0x0000007b are two of the most basic mix-ups of this
type.

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Notes

Fig. 11.16 Blue screen

In this case, you can try rebooting your PC in safe mode and then it will try to
AutoCorrect.

Abnormally Functioning Operating System or Software

Sometimes your operating system or software is not working or responding properly, then
restart your machine and scan for virus in your system. If virus is found in your system,
delete the virus.To prevent this, install antivirus software in your system.

Strange Noises
Sometimes your system makes strange noise due to harddrive problem or fan may be
making noise. In this case, first check the CPU fan and case fans are working properly.
If not then replace them. If hard drives makes noise, backup your data otherwise you may
loss your data.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1

1. What is "404/Page Not Found" Error?
2. ............... command is used to display the network connections for transmission of
packets.
3. In Control Panel ............... will help in adjusting your computer settings for vision,
hearing, and mobility.
4. ............... command is used to verify that computer can communicate with other
computer (device) on the network.

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11.7 SYSTEM SECURITY

Computer system security guarantees that your machine does what it is desired to do. It Notes
secures the data from being lost or altered either intentionally or unintentionally. Also it
ensures that no unauthorized person can access your data.

Encryption (system level security)

Most tools encrypt the information kept in the secret word document. Encryption
guarantees that no matter even if the data could be accessed by unknown person, the
intruder will not have the right to use the passwords in the document. Most tools perform
one-way encryption of passwords.

Data Access: Protecting Your Data

When you are working alone on a PC, you do not have to think about access controls.
When you start to work on a system that supports various clients or is in network, you will
need to be careful over information security and access controls. You may not need each
client to have the right to use your records or documents.

Network Level Security

A small flaw in the network can result in major financial damage or loss of sensitive data.
Network security consists of authorization of data access in network. Users are assigned
authenticated information which permits them access to information and programs based
on permissions.
Firewall enforces access policies for e.g., services which will be allowed for access by the
network users. Intrusion detection and prevention system helps in detecting such intrusions.
Networks are prone to attacks from malicious sources. Network attacks can be of two
types: Passive attack (attempts to make use of information from the system ) and Active
attack (modify system resources or affect their operation). Tools are to be used for
preventing the intrusion on networks.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

After going through this lesson, you have learnt about how to recover your system,
features of control panel, how to troubleshoot hardware, software and network. You have
also learnt about the common problems in the computer and their remedies.
Some of the keypoints to remember
z Purpose of Control Panel is to change the features of Windows operating system in
respect of display, security, handling peripherals etc.
z Ping command checks the reachability of the host on an Internet protocol.
z Traceroute is a command used by a computer network administrator to check the
number of hops and if the packet is being lost or the internet connection is unable to
be established.

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z Ifconfig - by using this command a user can configure each and every interface
connected to the hardware whether it is input/output interface..
Notes
z Types of network attacks are passive attack and active attack.

TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. How do you access the System Recovery options menu?

2. Discuss about the System Restore Utility.

3. What are the various causes for having No Power in the system?

4. Discuss the steps to be taken if power is there but display is not coming?

5. What are the preliminary measures to ensure that system is working properly?

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.1
1. Requested page is not available in server

2. Netstat

3. Ease of Access (Ease of Access Center)

4. ping

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Notes

12
NEW TRENDS IN COMPUTING

This lesson is aimed to provide awareness about some of the latest technologies in the
domain of computing and IT. With increase in usage of internet connectivity and need of
high end computing, today's world is witnessing a shift from the era of mainframe
computing and individual computing to a new era of mobile and green computing where
the computing power, software and data are not necessarily located in office premises,
rather, these can be stored somewhere in a "cloud" and can be accessed via internet at
anytime and anywhere.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to

z define virtualization.

z list the types of computing.

z describe cloud computing.

z explain mobile computing.

z explore grid computing.

z use green computing.

12.1 VIRTUALIZATION
Literal meaning of virtualization is simulation. Virtualization allows the pooling and
sharing of the computational power (processor, server) and storage of multiple computers,
network and other resources among multiple users. This simulation technique is adopted

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to give user a feel that all infrastructure (whether hardware or software) belong to user
only. This is achieved by simulating the computational facility by creating a virtual
Notes version of given resource like for hardware platform virtual version of storage device,
network resources can be made, and for software platform virtual version of operating
system and other software is created. This virtual version provides a complete execution
environment. An user is able to interact with these virtual resources as if it were a real
single logical resource.

A concept of virtualization can be made clear with a common example of division of hard
disk into different partitions. A partition is a logical division of a hard disk and it creates
an effect of two separate hard disks to the user. This partition makes the management of
files easier.

Virtualization is the ability to create a virtual copy of a device or some type of resource
like server, storage, device, network and even operating system, etc. It divides the multiple
resources into different execution environments. Thus, one of the main objectives of
virtualization is to centralize administrative tasks while improving scalability and
workloads.

12.1.1 Architecture
Virtualization can be achieved at different levels. If you consider hardware, the organization
needs:

z A large data storage system where complete data of an organization can be kept with
complete security. Further, there should be a secured and reliable intra department
access to database as per the policy.

z A high end server that can retrieve the data from the storage and process it with fast
speed.

z A fast and reliable internet connectivity.

All these are required with an objective that the process is completed almost at the same
instant the user has entered the necessary input data. As discussed earlier it is not possible
to provide dedicated resources to each user, however we can give an illusion of dedicated
resource through virtualization. Let's see how the server, network and storage virtualization
is done.

12.1.2 Server Virtualization

It is a partition of a physical server into smaller virtual server. i.e., logically server
resources were divided into multiple copies. The idea is to present the illusion of one huge
machine that looks like many machines or multiple machines tied together to look like a
single system.

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Notes

Fig. 12.1 Server Virtualization

12.1.3 Network Virtualization

The bandwidth available in the network environment is much more than is needed for a
single user. Thus, for complete utilization of this bandwidth, it is required to partition the
available bandwidth into channels. Each of which is independent from the other and each
of which can be assigned to a particular server or device in real time.

Fig. 12.2 Network Virtualization

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12.1.4 Storage Virtualization

This is perhaps the most widely deployed and highly used virtualization practice. Storage
Notes
virtualization allows separate storage devices to be combined into a perceived single unit.
Storage virtualization attempts to maximize the efficiency of storage devices in information
architecture.

Fig. 12.3 Storage Virtualization

12.1.5 Software Virtualization

Operating system virtualization is to allow a piece of hardware to run multiple operating
system images at the same time. It helps to accommodate multiple platforms simultaneously
providing user more flexibility. Application software virtualization leads to create a
logical image of application software to the user.

A system that provides both virtualizations of hardware as well as software is referred to

as Universal Virtualization, as shown below:

Fig. 12.4 Universal Virtualization

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Advantages of Virtualization
z Improved hardware utilization: As the same resource is used by many users,
utilization of resources is increased. Notes

z Lesser hardware cost: You need lesser number of hardware resources, thus overall
cost is reduced .

z Increased operational agility and reduced downtime: As more alternative resources

are available, the system does not crash even if any one component goes out of order.

z As lesser resources are needed, this approach is considered to be more environment-

friendly.

z Lower total cost of ownership.

z It improves overall efficiency and effectiveness of the system.

z Increased network capacity: channelizing the network increases the transmission

capacity.

Disadvantages of Virtualization
z The various advantages of virtualization can be appreciated only if these benefits are
achieved without compromising the overall security, reliability and availability of
the IT infrastructure.

z The virtualized environment is considered more vulnerable as there are more chances
of potential attack to gain unauthorized access to resources from guest operating
systems.

12.2 CLOUD COMPUTING

As virtualization allows the user to access any resource by simulating a logical version of
it, this technology gave an idea if you need any particular facility only for say one hour
a day then why to pay for it for whole day or why to maintain the complete infrastructure
if you can get this facility just by creating a logical version of it. Keeping these objectives
in mind the idea of pay-per-use services was implemented through cloud computing.
Cloud computing in simple words refers to selling any type of IT services including

z delivery of resources via creating a virtual simulation of the resource.

z selling of application software.

z platform on which we need to execute the application;

All of these services are delivered through internet.

z Cloud services allow individuals and businesses to use software and hardware that
are managed by third parties at some remote locations. Examples of cloud services
include online file storage, social networking sites, webmail, and online business

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applications. Thus, through cloud computing, one can increase its storage capacity,
usage of high end server or add computational capabilities without investing in new
Notes infrastructure, training new personnel, or licensing new software.

The cloud computing model allows access to information and computer resources from
anywhere where a network connection is available. Cloud computing provides a shared
pool of resources, including data storage space, networks, computer processing power,
and specialized corporate and user applications. Cloud computing encompasses any
subscription-based or pay-per-use service, that too, in real time over the Internet, thereby
it extends existing IT capabilities of any organization by letting organization to pay just
for the service it needs. The best feature of cloud computing is that it provides the end user
many flexibilities like:

z Anything (i.e., any IT related service)

z Anywhere (at any place via internet)

z Anytime(at any instant of time)

z With any device that is compatible with internet usage

The following definition of cloud computing has been developed by the U.S. National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST):

“Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to

a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with
minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model
promotes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics, three service
models, and four deployment models.”

12.2.1 Essential Characteristics

The five essential characteristics that should be there in a computing environment so that
it can be considered as cloud computing are:

1. On-demand self service

2. Broad network access

3. Resource pooling

4. Rapid elasticity

5. Measured service.

On-demand Self-service: As an user can request and manage your own computing
resources as per your need i.e., the user can choose the computing capabilities, such as
server time, network bandwidth, storage capacity etc. These requests are fulfilled
automatically without requiring human interaction.

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Broad Network Access: You can access the given service over the internet or private
network. Thus it is required that all cloud services should be always available over the
network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous Notes
thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, and PDAs).

Resource Pooling: Pooled resources mean that user can select any resource from a pool
of computing resources. Examples of resources include storage, processing, memory,
network bandwidth, and virtual machines. The cloud service provider need pool all
computing resources to serve multiple users using a multi-tenant model, with different
physical and virtual resources. These resources are dynamically assigned and reassigned
according to user demand. The user generally has no control or knowledge over the exact
location of the provided resources but may be able to specify location at a higher level of
abstraction (e.g., country, state, or data centre ). Thus, for the end user, resource usage is
independent of its location.

Rapid Elasticity: The services, which are provided, can be rapidly and elastically
changed. To the user all these services are available and can choose any one of them. It
should appear to the user that all services are unlimited and can be purchased in any
quantity at anytime from anywhere.

Measured Service: Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by
leveraging a metering capability according to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing,
bandwidth, and active user accounts) i.e., the service provider will charge the user as per
the usage of IT services. Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported
providing transparency for both the service provider and user who are utilizing the
service. The resource service which is provided can be scaled larger or smaller; and
according to the use of a service (type of service and amount of time which this service is
used, also on number of user) the customers are billed.

You can say, through cloud computing, service provider provide access to software,
platform or infrastructure on a basis of demand raised by user and user has to pay for it
on a metered basis.

12.2.2 Three Services

The cloud computing can be accessed for usage of any particular software, platform or
the complete infrastructure. Based on these the following three services are characterized:

Cloud Software as a Service (SaaS): This service provides user a capability to use any
applications (which are developed by service provider) by executing it on a cloud
infrastructure i.e., any pre-made application, along with the required software, operating
system, hardware and network, is provided by the service provider. The applications are
accessible from various client devices through Internet via a thin client interface such as
a web browser (e.g., web-based email). The consumer does not manage or control the
underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage,
or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-
specific application configuration settings.

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Examples: Many of the most popular cloud-based applications are business productivity
tools such as email (e.g., Gmail, Hotmail), online productivity software (e.g., Google
Notes Docs, Microsoft Office 365), conferencing services (e.g., Microsoft LiveMeeting,WebEx),
and customer relationship management software (e.g., Salesforce).

Cloud Platform as a Service (PaaS): This service provides user a capability to deploy
user-created or acquired applications onto the cloud infrastructure. This application is
created using programming languages and tools supported by the cloud service provider.
Thus cloud service provider provides an operating system, hardware, and network where
the user installs or develops their own software and applications. The consumer does not
manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers,
operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly
application hosting environment configurations.

Examples:Google App Engine allows developers to create and run web applications that
run on top of a custom Google platform and use Google's computing resources.

Cloud Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): This service provides user a provision

processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources, such that, the
user is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and
applications. Thus IaaS model provides just the hardware and network, and the user can
install operating systems, software and applications. Although here also user does not
manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating
systems, storage, deployed applications, and possibly limited control of selected networking
components (e.g., host firewalls).

Examples: cloud storage (e.g., Data centres), providing users access to scalable online
storage

12.2.3 Cloud computing Deployment Models

There are four different ways through which a cloud computing can be deployed

Private Cloud: The cloud infrastructure is used exclusively by an organization. These are
usually used by large organizations which have multiple business units. It may be
managed by the organization itself or by some other third party. It can be deployed either
in premises (on-site) or off premises (off site).

Community Cloud: The cloud infrastructure is shared exclusively by a specific group of

organizations, especially those, sharing common concern (e.g., business interest, mission
or goal, security requirements, policy, and compliance considerations). Similar to private
cloud, it may be managed by the organizations or a third party and may exist on premises
or off premises.

Public Cloud: The cloud infrastructure is made available for the use to the general public
or a large industry group and is owned by an organization selling cloud services.
Examples of public clouds are Amazon EC2, Amazon S3, Google, Microsoft Azure etc.

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Hybrid Cloud: The cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more clouds (private,
community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together by standardized
or proprietary technology that enables data and application portability (e.g., “cloud Notes
bursting” for “load-balancing” between clouds).

Advantages of Cloud Computing

z It creates a more flexible environment that allows organizations to "rent" computing
power on requirement.
z An organization can scale up or down its IT usage, according to demand.
z No need to procure space for creating infrastructure.
z Provide more mobile solution i.e., it is not necessary for the user to be in office to
access the information. He or she can access the information through mobile also.
z Organization can build its infrastructure on its actual use of IT resources, rather
than creating an overbuilt capacity, based on potential demand. Potential demands
can be met by renting services through cloud.
z Organizations can easily upgrade their applications as they can change platforms
simply by switching cloud service providers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.1

1. ................ allows the pooling and shaing of resources among multiple users.
2. Which of the following is not a essential characteristics of cloud computing.
(a) On demand self service.
(b) Static environment.
(c) Resource pooling.
(d) Rapid elastisity.

12.3 MOBILE COMPUTING

The advancement in technology of portable computers, which are capable of accessing
the wireless technology, has made a huge revolution in the domain of Information and
Communication Technology. It has given birth to new era of mobile computing, a
platform that allows mobile user to have a versatile communication with other people and
notification of events, messages and allows continuous access to services and resources
of land based network.

Mobile computing is an umbrella term used for describing the technologies that enable
people to access network services any place, any time, and anywhere. It is an extension
of mobile voice communication technology which is capable of sending and receiving data
across the cellular network.

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Mobile computing basically involves designing of application and resolving technical

issues of the people who are on move around within a region or country, or travel between
Notes countries and continents. Mobile data communication has become a very important and
rapidly evolving technology as it allows users to transmit data from remote locations to
other remote or fixed locations. This proves to be the solution to the biggest problem of
business people who are frequently on the move.

In simple terms Mobile computing can be defined as a computing environment over

physical mobility.

OR

“A technology that allows transmission of data, via a computer, without having to be

connected to a fixed physical link.”

OR

“Mobile computing is the ability to use computing capability without a pre-defined

location and/or connection to a network to publish and/or subscribe to information.”

Here you need a computing environment which is mobile and moves along with the user.
For that you need a computing environment which fulfils the three important needs
namely:

z Wireless communication

z Mobility

z Portability

Wireless Communication: In mobile computing platform, information between processing

units flows through wireless channels. The demand for mobile communication creates the
need for integration of wireless networks and existing fixed networks

z Local Area Networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11 or HIPERLAN for handling

interoperability and issues between different wireless LANs.

z Wide Area Networks: GSM and ISDN for global access.

z Internet: Mobile IP extension of the Internet protocol (IP).

Common technologies used are IR (Infrared Receivers), BlueTooth, W-LANs, Cellular,

W-Packet Data networks, SAT. etc

Mobility: Mobile computing needs that device should be able to remain connected with
network while changing its location. Different aspects of mobility are:

z User Mobility: users communicate “any time, anywhere, with anyone” (example:
read/write email on web browser).

z Device Mobility: a small battery driven devices that can be connected any time,
anywhere to the network.

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z Session Mobility: A user session should be able to move from one user-agent
environment to another.
Notes
z Service Mobility: User should be able to move from one service to another.

Portability: It is not feasible to carry a desktop because of its size, weight and heat
dissipation. You need a portable device that is small, light weighted, durable, capable to
be operational under wide environmental conditions and having a battery with long life.

To develop a mobile computing environment, you need a wireless communication facility,

a mobile PC or mobile device and software which is specially designed keeping the needs
of mobile device and user of mobile device.

Mobile Data Communication: Whenever a user is using a mobile, he / she will be using
different networks at different places at different times as discussed earlier. Some
common examples are GSM, CDMA, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, Bluetooth etc.

Mobile laptop and notebook computers can use one of two types of wireless access
services when away from the home or office. The most commonly used and least
expensive is Wireless Fidelity also known as WiFi. The WiFi uses radio waves to
broadcast an Internet signal from a wireless router to the immediate surrounding area. An
alternative to WiFi is cellular broadband. This type of mobile computing technology
utilizes a cellular modem to connect to cell towers for Internet access.

Mobile Device: Mobile telephony took off with the introduction of cellular technology
which allowed the efficient utilization of frequencies, enabling the connection of a large
number of users. There are many different types of mobile computing devices designed to
make it easier to travel and conveniently access technology on the go. Notebooks are small
laptop computers that typically feature built-in wireless networking, and are great choices
for those who want to work even while travelling. Mobile computing devices with a
smaller size, such as smart phones or tablet computers, are becoming very popular as they
are much easier to carry and now-a-days, these devices include many advanced features
of computing, even comparable to those found on a laptop computer. Common devices
that are used in mobile computing are

z Notebook PCs
z Personal digital assistant/enterprise digital assistant
z Smartphone
z Tablet computer
z Ultra-Mobile PC
z Wearable computer
z Palmtops
z Cell phones
z Pagers
z Sensors

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Mobile Software: Mobile applications commonly called mobile apps are the applications
that run on a mobile device. These usually run on web browser (HTML, JavaScript,
Notes Flash, server-side components, etc). Designing software of mobile application is a
challenging task.

One of the major constraint is that user of this technology demands intuitive user
interfaces, fast response times, and deep relevant content, high processing (specially for
gaming and multimedia application) but the device which are used for mobile applications
usually have limited processing speed, storage, power backup and display facilities.

Mobile computing is widely used in:

z Vehicles: use of GPS in vehicles for identifying the area.

z Nomadic User: user usually uses laptop and connects to network.

z Smart mobile phone: widely used for playing games, up-to date information, e-mail
facility.

z Invisible computing, Wearable computing: These are tiny embedded "computers"

that can be worn by the user as an accessory and use Bluetooth over cable connections,
for providing connectivity.

z Intelligent house or office: Using mobile computing control various functions of

computers and embedded systems that are used in office or home.

Various common usage of this computing are:

z Finding a local printer in the office even without being physically plugged.

z House recognizes inhabitants.

z House regulates temperature according to the need of person by adjusting the

temperature of AC which can be achieved even without entering the house.

z Meeting Room/Conference: Share data instantly, send a message to someone else

in the room or secretly vote on controversial issues.

z Taxi/Police/Fire Squad Fleet: use this computing facility for remaining connected,
for controlling and communicating.

z Emergency Services: Received information regarding the address, type and other
details of an incident can be dispatched quickly, via a CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet
Data) system using mobile computers, to one or several appropriate mobile units
which are in the vicinity of the incident.

z Disaster Relief: After earthquake, tsunami, volcano eruption, etc. infrastructure

cannot be established immediately but mobile communication is established via
Satellite or Ad-Hoc network and proves very advantageous for relief and early
transmission of patient data to hospital.

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z Disaster Alarm: With help of satellite communication and sensors one might be able
to alarm disaster early Example: Tsunami.
Notes
z Military / Security: can be widely used during war for communication and controlling
the weapons in real time environment.

Advantages of Mobile Computing

z As devices used in mobile computing are portable, it can be easily carried by the
user. Hence it provides an opportunity to develop an environment, where user always
has a computing facility.
z As these devices have Internet access, these provide the user a facility to seek any
information at any time.
z These devices are typically GPS enabled.
z Usually devices are multimedia enabled and typically have cameras & microphones
z Apps are free or low-cost.

Disadvantages of Mobile Computing

The following are not exactly disadvantages; rather these are some of the limitations of
mobile computing:
z Limited screen size.
z Limited battery life.
z Limited processor speed.
z Limited and sometimes slow network access.
z Limited or awkward input: soft keyboard, phone keypad, touch screen, or stylus.
z Limited web browser functionality.
z Range of platforms & configurations across devices.

12.4 GRID COMPUTING

Grid computing applies the resources of numerous computers in a network to work on a
single problem at the same time. Usually this environment is used for solving large
scientific or technical problem where huge amount of computing is involved. A large
project is divided among multiple computers to make use of their resources. However, in
cloud computing, small applications run on different systems, simultaneously. Enables
communities (“virtual organizations”) to share geographically distributed resources as
they pursue common goals.
The prime objective of grid computing are:
z Sharing computing resources between organisations.

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z Solving complex and other software applications that demand high computing by
providing widespread access to powerful computers and storage.
Notes
z Integrating existing systems together.

“A computational grid is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides dependable,

consistent, pervasive, and inexpensive access to high-end computational facilities”.

As explained in the beginning of the lesson, this decade has emphasized on community
learning, which use to develop a low cost high performance computing system, popularly
called clusters. These clusters share their resources to overcome the resource related
problems in application domains. Grid is an infrastructure that involves the integration of
different application such that they collaborate with each other to get complex problem
solved with an ease. It involves integration of various resources of computers, networks,
database and scientific instruments, owned and managed by multiple organizations. This
is an environment which provides a secure resource sharing across organizational
boundaries i.e., through intra cluster communications.

Solving complex problems can be achieved through grid computing by:

z Simulation of large complex systems.
z Large scale multi site data mining, distributed data sets.
z Sharing the resources by simulating their virtual version.
z Interactive collaboration.
z Real-time access to remote resources.

Grid resources are registered within one or more grid information services. The end
users submit their application requirements to the Grid brokers, who then discover the
suitable resources, by querying the information services, schedules the application jobs
for execution on these resources and then monitors their processing until they are
complete. Software tools and services, providing these capabilities to link computing
facilities and data sources in order to support distributed analysis and collaborations, are
collectively known as grid middleware.

Common grid applications are

z Distributed supercomputing
z High-throughput computing
z On-demand computing
z Data-intensive computing
z Collaborative computing

Advantages of Gird Computing

Cost effective way to utilize the given amount of computing resources by

z Virtualizing resources across an enterprise.

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z Enabling collaboration of all virtual resources across the organizations or community.

z Identifying the underutilized resources.
Notes
z Performing load balancing of resources so that all resources are used equally.

12.5 GREEN COMPUTING

Popularity of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has increased among
common man and the hardware devices used in it have become an integral part of daily
routine activities. Hence, it is very important to analyse the impact of this technology on
the environment. Also, to make an attempt to develop a system which is environment
friendly. The relationship of ICTs and the environment is studied in terms of three distinct
kinds of effects:

z Direct Effects: This effect includes issues related to environmental changes that
arise because of the design, production, distribution, maintenance and disposal of
ICT goods and services.
z Indirect Effects: This effect includes issues related to environmental changes that
arise because of the application and use of ICTs in different domains of society.
z Systemic Effects: This effect includes issues related to environmental changes that
arise because of the changes in economic and social structures due to use of ICT
products and services.
Impact of computer on environment needs to be studied from its manufacturing to its
usage and disposal stages. As thousands of computers are used in every domain of life,
great amount of power is used and a great amount of both paper and electronic wastes are
produced.
Common hazards that arise as result of massive usage of computers and other computing
devices in our life are:
1. Computers and office equipment play an increasingly large role in energy consumption.
Desktop computers, fan, screen savers, scanners and other electronic technology
account for the fastest growing source of energy consumption. Even in presently,
people do not use energy saving CRT and processor. Further, they keep the computer
"ON" even when not in use and also do not adopt power saving strategies such as
'sleep' and 'standby' modes. As a result, such a system remains active 24 hours per
day, 7 days per week.
Possible solution: all computers in offices or home or any organization should have
z LCD energy saving monitors,

z CPUs that are ENERGY STAR. ( ENERGY STAR certified technology

allows computers to automatically switch to standby mode when inactive for
a certain amount of time) and allowing for energy savings.
z Making a practice of Switching off equipments when not in use. The usual
usage should be 8 hours per day, 5 days per week.

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2. Paper usage: Eventhough it is believed that using an automated system will reduce
the paper work in any organization but practically it is observed that it has increased
Notes the paper consumption as

z printing is often wasteful

z It is common practice that the people take print outs of emails or meeting
agendas

z printing out partial drafts

z maintain a hardcopy backup of entire data which often becomes obsolete

once data changes

Possible Solutions:

z Do not print unless not very urgent

z Awareness should be provided to the users that all information is stored in

the computer and can be retrieved any time hence they need not maintain a
hardcopy backup of every partial drafts also

3. Manufacturing and packing of computing devices: Pollution is increased because

there are toxic chemicals used in the manufacturing of computers and components

Solution: manufactures should use non toxic and recyclable material for
manufacturing the products

4. Disposal of unused devices: The hardware technology changes very fast and as a
result often people feel to replace their existing system. Disposal of these devices
constitutes 20-50 million tons per year (about 5% of the total waste of the planet).
This waste is also known as e-waste. The improper disposal of computers and
components may lead to entry of these toxic material in our food chain and water

Solution: proper reuse and recycling of the products.

z Reuse: Organizations like play way schools, libraries etc may not need a
high end latest configuration system, and instead of disposing the entire system,
one can donate a computer or even its components to organizations who need
lesser quality computers

z Refurbish: Rather than discarding the computer completly on release of the

next generation. One can even upgrade the system by just replacing the
processor and memory chips. Hence, many components like monitor, cables,
UPS, speakers, keyboard, mouse etc., can be used (i.e., need not be replaced).
This results in upgrading of computing facility without increasing the e-
waste.

z Recycle: The companies that can recycle the plastics and other components,
can also recycle the e-waste components.

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The prime objective of green computing is study and practice of environmentally

sustainable computing through Information Technology.
Notes
The objectives of green computing are similar to green chemistry i.e.,

z It should reduce the usage of hazardous materials for manufacturing any product.
z Enhance the energy efficiency of any product by reducing the power consumption of
that product.
z Promote the recyclability.
z Usage of biodegradable products and factory waste.

Many corporate IT departments have taken lot of green computing initiatives to reduce the
environmental impact. Green ICT and its services present opportunities to deliver low
carbon footprints and mitigate carbon emissions because of the unique ability to make
energy consumption and green house gas emissions visible through its products and
services.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.2

3. ..................... computing allows transmission of data via computer without having
to be connected to a fixed physical link.

4. Solving complex problems can be achieved through ..................... computing.

5. Prime objective of ..................... computing is study and practice of environmentally

sustainable computing through Information Technology.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have got familiarized with recent trends and future world of IT. You
have learnt the basic concept and architecture of future technologies like virtualization,
cloud computing, mobile computing, grid computing and green computing. You have also
learnt that advantages, disadvantages and future prospects of these technologies.

Some of the keypoints to remember

z Virtualization allows pooling and sharing of the computational power and storage of
multiple computers, network and other resources among multiple users.

z Cloud computing model allows access to information and computer resources from
anywhere where a network connection is available.

z Mobile computing is the ability to use computing capability without a pre-defined

location and /or connection to a network to publish and / or subscribe to information.

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z Grid computing applies the resources of numerous computers in a network to work

on a single problem at the same time.
Notes
z Objective of green computing is study and practice of environmentally sustainable
computing through information technology.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is cloud computing?

2. What is virtualization and how does it improve resource utilization?

3. How we can develop eco-friendly environment for computing?

4. What is mobile computing and what are its applications?

5. What is grid computing and in which environment it is found very useful?

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

12.1
1. Vitualization

2. (b) Static Environment.

12.2
3. Mobile 4. Grid 5. Green

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Notes

13
ENGAGE WITH CUSTOMERS

For many organizations active and productive engagement of customers is a big

challenge. It involves additional effort, skill and design on top of keeping the business
running. However, many challenges businesses face can be resolved through better
relationships with customers enabled by engaging them at the right moment with the right
offer. Today's consumers, however are much more empowered than in the past and are
forcing companies to build plans that more perfectly cater to their actual wants and needs.
This means that businesses must start doing a lot more to ensure the customer experience
by living up to the demands of the modern consumer, both from a product perspective and,
importantly, a customer service viewpoint.

In this lesson, the details and best practices of customer engagement and interactions are
being discussed in detail. It will serve as a guide for employees who handle where
customer interaction and engagement.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson you will be able to:

z effectively interact with the customer prior to the visit.

z explain customer's requirements prior to and on visit.

z suggest possible solutions for customers.

z understand the documentation process involved in customer engagement.

z improve productivity and quality based on customer feedback.

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13.1 INTERACTING WITH CUSTOMERS

Notes The way you interact with your customers will determine how your customers identify
you, your business and your products or services. It is important that you promote your
company at every turn and this does not necessarily only involve times when you are
meeting customers. Networking is something that you are doing every time you leave your
house, you should always be as prepared as possible for meeting prospective clients and
dealers. The interaction between a company and its customers is becoming more and more
important. Interacting with your customers can go a long way in not only helping you
develop your brand, but also in bringing in additional customers as well.
For effective engagement and interaction with customers, you need to look into following
aspects:
z Call the customer based on inputs logged into customer care
Check in the details of complaints, suggestions, feedbacks logged in by the customer.
Try to understand the customer profile. Call the customer and discuss with them all
the relevant issues with an open mind. A key element of delivering excellent customer
service is the way that you interact and communicate with your customers.
z Greet the customer and listen to their problems attentively
Greet customers in a courteous, friendly, and professional manner using agreed upon
procedures. Listen attentively to customer needs and concerns; demonstrate empathy.
Clarify customer requirements; probe for and confirm understanding of the problem
customer is facing. Avoid prejudice - think about the words you are hearing and not
the person saying them.
z Check with customer about time for visit, field work and confirm location
The customer visit should be well planned. There should be clear communication
with respect to the time of visit, place and date. Meeting space should be booked well
in advance. It’s always a good idea to communicate the agenda of the meeting well in
advance.
z Follow etiquette when interacting with customers
Everyone person who is supposed to interact with customers should be aware of
company policies regarding the same. People interacting with customers reflect the
image of the company. Give time to customer to explain the problem. Be patient
whenever you hear the same question again and again. Be responsible by taking the
responsibility for helping the customer.
z Seek feedback from customers after completion of work
Project feedbacks are often ignored by the vendors or project teams, which are valuable
in building a successful team and company. After completing each project, feedback
from the customers becomes a self- evaluating tool for the team, more often they
trigger process changes within the company. So for long term success of the
organization, seeking feedback from the customers is key aspect after completion of
the assigned task.

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13.2 UNDERSTANDING CUSTOMER'S REQUIREMENTS

Understanding customer requirements is the first step towards customer satisfaction. Notes
Understanding user requirements is a difficult task in any Industry. More so in new age
technology driven companies, where the field is growing and customer expectations are
changing fast. Changing technology makes the process of satisfying customers more
difficult. Customer requirements are dynamic and can change very quickly depending on
market conditions, the economy, the competition, etc. Address your customers the way
they want to be perceived: as people who can be identified by names, phone numbers and
email addresses.

A business cannot survive without conducting ongoing efforts to better understand

customer needs. To discover if your product or service is having a positive effect and
creating customer loyalty, take time to determine your customer’s emotional and material
needs, then offer valuable incentives for remaining loyal to your company. Getting
customer feedback does not have to be expensive; from creating simple email surveys to
taking an extra minute to engage on the sales floor, you can learn a lot about what
customers want just by asking and listening. Also to learn more, you could even ask them
for a little bit of time just to fill out a questionnaire.

“What do our customers expect from us?” “What aspects of production could be changed
while not affecting the satisfaction level of customers?” These are the questions to ask
oneself when defining customer requirements and expectations. In our market-based
economy, there is nothing more important than satisfying customer expectaions and
establishing long-term business relationships with clients, which is why meeting or
exceeding the requirements of customers, with precision, time and time again, is essential
to a successful or flourishing enterprise.

Understanding the basic needs and a requirement of the customer is vital to managing a
successful business. It’s a competitive world out there, and attention to detail and being
helpful goes a long way. The needs and requirements for service and support differ greatly,
by customer, by site, by usage, and by many other aspects too numerous to mention.

For effective understanding of customer’s requirement, you need to look into following
aspects:

• Understand location requirements of customers.

The Customer Support Executive should ensure optimum operational performance
for hardware systems installed at the customers’ site. They deliver technical service
to customers including installation, relocation, repair and preventative maintenance.
They optimize system performance to minimize equipment downtime and ensure
maximum overall customer satisfaction.

z Seek inputs to understand symptoms for the problem faced

Seeking input from customers is an important component of effective customer service.
Take the time to ask questions. Give customers the opportunity to express their
opinions (both positive and negative) about the quality of the products and services.

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Use problem situations to obtain information from customers. A customer concern

or complaint is really just a request for action. If you seek inputs from the customer,
Notes the symptoms of the problems faced will be more clear.

z Ask open and close ended questions to understand the problem faced

Specific questions such as how or why questions, will invite positive interactions
and will lead to better understanding of problem faced by the customer. Open ended
questions are easy for the responder to answer and can lead to more specific questions.
Closed questions, which require only a simple yes or no answer, yield less but specific
information. Both are important and employees should develop the skill to ask right
questions for effective resolution of problems faced by the customer.

z Inform customer about the replacement or repair process

After a product or service is delivered to a customer, there are continued opportunities

to service the customer. This is a troubleshooting, repair and replacement, data
collection and communications activity. These services are critical to customer
satisfaction and provide excellent opportunities for long term engagement with
customers. Customers should be politely and clearly communicated about the
replacement or repair process if there are problems with the service or product being
delivered. Be clear about the relevant company policy and communicate the same to
the customer. Apologize for the issue if required.

z Enquire about warranty coverage

Customer relation executives should clearly understand the warranty clauses for
various products sold to the customers. They should enquire about the warranty
coverage from the customers. In case there is a mismatch in the customers version
and what the company policy is, the executive should inform the customer about it
and ask him for the next steps (paid visits, purchase, extended warranty) etc.

z Educate about other useful products and maintenance contract

While interacting with customers, it’s a good opportunity to educate them about
various other products of the organization without making it sound like a sales pitch.
Also inform them about the annual maintenance contract. These are agreements with
customers to maintain and service equipment located at customers end. Such
agreements are typically and preferably conveyed at the time the product is purchased.
Service may initially be provided without separate charge during the warranty period,
and then made available at pre-set rates in the years after any warranty has expired.

13.3 SUGGESTING SOLUTIONS

Customers, buyers and clients want to pay a fair price for quality service or products, and
feel satisfied they have paid for a service/product and received what they have paid for in
return. They also want someone to take care of them. They need someone to understand
their needs and help to answer them. Customer service starts with the ability to listen to
the customer and find out through polite questioning to know their expectations.

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Customer service and contact with a client mean that the customer will be heard and their
problems will not go unanswered or ignored. It also means getting to know your client,
likes-dislikes, ideas, background, etc. The other most important aspect to do is to listen to Notes
what the customer is saying. If people do not understand what is appealing the customer,
they will not be successful in handling them. Do research on customers, their habits, and
what they want and expect.

One commonality among all companies or organizations that provide good service is the
development of a system and attitude promoting customer friendly service. By “customer
friendly” we mean viewing the customer as the most important part of your job. The
saying, “The customer is always right” is derived from this customer friendly environment.
The two main tasks of successful customer relations are to communicate and develop
relationships. Positive dialogue/communication with your customers and developing
ongoing relationships with your customers are perhaps the two most important qualities
to strive for in customer service.

When a customer asks you to do something that you do not know how to do or do not have
the authority to do, become a facilitator by leading the customer to the person or
department who can help them is solving the problem. Many inexperienced customer
service representatives think by sympathizing with the customer’s trouble, he/she will win
over the customer rather than actually doing something to solve the customer’s problem.
If a customer expresses annoyance or frustration, do not make it worse by consoling with
him/her. Understand the customer problem but seek to solve the problem.

Suggesting appropriate solutions to customers takes some training and experience:

z Summarize the problem and suggest possible solutions

Summarize the problem in a problem statement and get it validated by the customer
so that its clears that you are solving the right problem.

If you can suggest a solution, do it. If not tell the customer what actions you will take
and what actions will follow. Never make the mistake of promising something you
are not able to do. Suggest the customer alternative solutions, if they exist. Customers
appreciate the opportunity to choose the ways of problem solving. Make sure that
the promised measures are taken. If you do not fulfill what was promised and ignore
the customer’s complaint, the problem will grow. Next time it will be more difficult
to solve.

Emphasizing what you can do for the customer and what’s unique about your solution
creates a perception of value that can raise your proposal above the rest, even if
other solutions might cost less.

z Inform customers whether module needs to be replaced or repaired

If the customer is facing problem with a particular product module which requires
replacement or repair, the customer service executive should apologize for the trouble
caused to the customer. Any such problem should be prioritized so that customer
feels comfortable. It should be resolved as soon as possible as it is impacting the
customer experience about the product as well as the organization.

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z Explain to the customer about repair process, time taken and charges if any

Notes Having good systems in place ensures repairs are carried out correctly, within a
reasonable time, and that the customer is kept informed. This is essential to ensuring
the customer has confidence in your work. Where there are no legal obligations,
offer a solution that in the circumstances best meets the needs of your business. For
example, if the law says a customer is entitled to a repair, you may be willing to offer
a replacement if that is what the customer wants and is not causing too much financial
burden.

z Seek customer’s approval for further service

If there are value added services, inform and educate the customer about it and the
applicable charges. Take customer’s approval before putting extra financial burden
on the customer. If the customer is not ready to take the additional services, do not
force the argument further.

13.4 COMPLETING DOCUMENTATION

z Provide note to customer and retain a copy

The executives dealing with customers must provide a detailed note to customers
about the problems and issues encountered by customer, what actions the company
has taken to rectify the problem and the cost involved which needs to be paid by the
customer. A copy of the same shall be retained by the company after taking signatures
from the customer.

z Provide invoice for purchased parts

Proper invoice and bills shall be provided to the customer for all the parts purchased
by the company or by the customer. It should include parts replaced or add on
components/parts purchased.

13.5 ACHIEVING PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY

z Interact with customers within specified time agreements

Every company has a detailed policy on customer interaction, clearly outlining the
timelines for servicing a customer initiated complaint in Service Level Agreement
(SLA). It’s a major objective for quality improvement for customer service agreement
and must be tracked properly for improving the customer experience.

z Identify the customer’s requirement and available resources

For new customers, the requirements shall be accurately identified to streamline the
purchase process and enhance customer experience. Also executives shall be able to
identify the resources and records at their end to let the customers know about the
availability and timelines in a crisp manner.

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z Accurately assess the problem and suggest solutions

Understanding the customer viewpoint on problems faced by him is very important
to serve and suggest the possible solutions. It goes a long way to establish a relationship Notes
with customers. So the quality matrix must ensure that this assessment is properly
measured.
z Communicate problem effectively
Customer executives not only need to assess the problem faced by customer but also
need to communicate their understanding back to customer. A clearly understood
problem wins customer’s confidence, so it’s an important measure of quality for
customer service executives.
z Gauge customer satisfaction during service visits
A cordial discussion with customer regarding location, placement and other details
about the module or equipment (product) sold to customer is important to understand
their satisfaction with the product as well as service being provided.
z Achieve good feedback and customer satisfaction
Every organization must strive hard to achieve 100% customer satisfaction and good
feedback from the customers. It is important to win new clients for your products
and services. It gives you a good starting point to sell your services and products to
new customers.

13.6 KNOW ABOUT YOUR COMPANY

From organizational perspective, the concerned individuals dealing with customers
should be aware of following aspects:
z Company’s policies on customer care
Every organization has clearly defined policies on how a customer service executive
should deal with customers. Customer service executives as well as all those people
who need to deal with customers like marketing executives should be aware of the
company policy regarding the same.
z Company’s code of conduct
Employees should be aware of company’s code of conduct, both in terms of internal
code of conduct and external code of conduct.
z Organization culture and typical customer profile
Employees should be well versed with the organization culture and values. They
should also be acquainted about the typical customer profile to serve them better.
z Company’s reporting structure
Employees should know the reporting structure of the organization in order to escalate
the matters which need immediate attention.

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z Company’s documentation policy

Employees should be properly trained in documentation policy being followed by the
Notes organization vis-a-vis engagement with customers and clients. This is very handy in
case of issues arising at a future date.
From technical knowledge perspective, the concerned individuals requiring customer
engagement roles should be aware of following aspects:
z Companies products and recurring problems reported
Executives should be thoroughly aware of the products being sold by the company.
They should also know about the recurring problems faced by many different
customers and should suggest appropriate feedback for such issues to the satisfaction
of customers.
z Communication etiquettes
Customer service executives should be well trained in the etiquettes of communication
with customers. They should be polite and good listeners. They should empathize
with customers in case of severe problems faced by them.
z Functionalities of various parts and modules
Customer service executives should be aware of various functions being performed
by the modules and different parts of the system or product being sold to the customer.
z Behavioral aspects at customers premise
Customer service executives dealing with on the field roles, should be well behaved
and should interact with customers in a cordial manner whenever they are visiting
the customer premise.
z Precautions to be taken while dealing with customers
Many a times, executives are faced with rowdy customers or phone calls. They
should be patient and be well trained to take appropriate precautions while handling
such calls or customers.
z Appropriate reference sheets and manuals
Field service executives should carry appropriate reference sheets, manuals and other
relevant documents at customer location which can make their task much easier.

13.7 SKILLS
Apart from important aspects as discussed in above sections while engaging with
customers, there are certain generic and professional skills which can enhance the
customer experience and engagement further.

z Generic Skills
Field executives dealing with customers should be able to read the product and module
serial numbers and interpret the details like manufacturing date, model number etc.
in an easy and fluid way. They should be able to document the issues on job sheet and
also enter the details of work being done.

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z Professional Skills
Professional skills include interpersonal skills which will help in developing the rapport
with the customers. It improves the listening capabilities and executives are more Notes
aware about the problems and possible solutions. Communication skills are very
important in order to seek inputs and assess the problem, making customer bit more
relaxed about the issues and informing them about the contractual obligations in an
easy manner. Behavioral skills include personal grooming, etiquettes on maintaining
appropriate physical distance during conversation, being patient and courteous with
customers. Decision making skills are also very important in situations where
supervisor is not available or customer is being restless.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.1

1. Which of the following is important for good customer engagement?

A. Understand the issues faced by customer

B. Speaking without listening
C. Having dinner with customer
D. Suggest problems at customer's end

2. Documentation is important for customer initiated complaints because:

A. It creates an agreed upon reasons, solutions and cost to customer

B. It gives promotion to customer service executives
C. Customers always lie
D. Customer service executives always lie

3. Which of the following is not a professional skill required for customer engagement:

A. Interpersonal skill
B. Communication skill
C. Decision making skill
D. Computer Programming

4. Service Level Agreement (SLA) contains:

A. Details of products or modules

B. Timelines to close service requests from customers
C. Costing for the product
D. Competitors details

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5. Suggesting solutions does NOT include:

A. Summarize the problem

Notes
B. Suggest possible solutions

C. Explain time required to rectify the problem

D. Companies policy on customer care

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about important skills required for effective and long term
engagement with customer which are required to enhance customer delight and cause
repeated business opportunities for the organization. You have also learnt
z effectively interact with customers
z understanding customer's requirements
z to suggest possible solutions to customer's issues
z the importance of documentation in customer dealings
z the importance of company policies and processes
z various professional skills required for efficient delivery of customer service

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Suggest important ways in which customer service executives should interact with
customers.
2. What best practices should be followed while suggesting solutions to the customers.
3. Elaborate four professional skills which are required for effective customer
engagement.
4. What is the importance of documentation while dealing with customer initiated
complaints or requests?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

13.1
1. A 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. D

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Notes

14
COORDINATE WITH COLLEAGUES

The organizations of today have become lean with minimal hierarchical structures
defined within the organization. This has lead to increased importance of inter personal
skills, both with our colleagues and superiors in order to obtain smooth work flow and
achieve the company targets in an efficient way. This lesson is about the salient points
which are required for individual’s level of communication with colleagues and other
departments within the organization. It lays down objectively the qualities and abilities
which determine the ability to work as a team member to achieve the required deliverables
on schedule.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
z interact with superiors smoothly.
z coordinate with colleagues efficiently.
z explain teamwork and multitasking.
z make decisions.

14.1 INTERACTING WITH SUPERIORS OR SUPERVISORS

In the workplace, interacting with other employees is one of the most critical aspects of
synergy. When it comes to interacting with your immediate supervisor, the quality of your
relationship can have an impact on every aspect of your job and the surrounding
workplace. It can impact you and other employees in several ways.

The immediate supervisor of a department helps to set the tone for everything that goes
on there. When you interact with your supervisor, the way that she/he treats you will
determine how you work. So it’s important to develop a cordial relationship with the
supervisor. This will lead to a much more soothing and cooperative environment in the
organization. It will also lead to excellent results for the organization as well as individual.

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To have a good coordination and communication with the supervisor, the individual must
proactively focus on following aspects:
Notes
z Understand and assess work requirements
z Understand the targets and incentives
z Understand new operating procedures and constraints
z Report problems in the field
z Resolve personnel issues
z Receive feedback on work standards and customer satisfaction
z Communicate any potential hazards at a particular location
z Meet given targets
z Deliver work of expected quality despite constraints
z Receive positive feedback on behavior and attitude shown during interaction

Understand and Assess Work Requirements

All employees need to know what is expected from them at work and know how they are
doing. No one can do their best without clear direction and ongoing, constructive feedback
on their work performance. An employee has the responsibility to ensure that she/he
understands the work objectives and strive to meet them.

Understand the Targets and Incentives

Fully participate in performance discussions and meetings, welcoming them as opportunities
to discuss your achievements, areas where you can improve, and your career interests.

Understand new Operating Procedures and Constraints

In general, employees should thoroughly undergo training programs that have very
specific and quantifiable goals, such as operating a particular piece of machinery,
understanding a specific process, or performing certain procedures with great precision.
They should interact with the supervisors if some part of the process or procedure is not
clear to them.

Report Problems in the Field

When a problem pops up or a mistake occurs, respond to it proactively and don’t keep
your supervisor in the dark. Communicate your own proposed solutions when you present
the problem so that you and your supervisor have basis to start a problem solving
conversation.

Resolve Personal Issues

To share a personal problem with your supervisor, you need to ensure the situation is
something you should share. Before you disclose personal information, you need to ask

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yourself whether the details you are about to convey would be better left unsaid. After
analyzing the matter beforehand, you find that you must express problems of a personal
nature to your superior, then be polite and ask for an appointment and thank your Notes
supervisor for the help and time he has provided.

Receive Feedback and Customer Satisfaction Findings

Your manager/supervisor will monitor your progress in achieving the required
improvements by the deadlines specified in your action plan. At the end of this period, she/
he will indicate in the action plan whether you have succeeded in achieving these
improvements and will provide his or her comments on your efforts. As an employee, it’s
always good to ask your supervisor to provide timely feedback. The feedback should be
discussed and one should be open towards both criticism and suggested improvements.

Communicate any Potential Hazards

Every employee has the responsibility to bring notice of their supervisors any potential
hazard or unwanted effect on surroundings and environment due to procedures, processes
or unexpected events in their working location. It will prevent potential damage to the
organization and supervisors in general will be very receptive towards such suggestions
from employees.

Meet given Targets

Although discussions about your performance should occur throughout the year, take
advantage of your mid-year review to discuss with your manager/supervisor whether
your work objectives and/or learning and development plan should be adjusted. Once the
targets are set after mutual discussion and agreement, employee should try her/his level
best to achieve those targets as that will reflect positively for the supervisor. In case there
are issues in achieving the targets even after putting up his/her best effort, the employee
should consult the supervisor and discuss the future plan.

Deliver Quality Work even under Constraints

You should clearly understand that in organizations, things are many times not perfect or
ideal to execute a project. There can be different constraints, in terms of resources, cost,
technology, skill set etc. As an employee, you should strive hard to deliver quality work
under these given constraints. You should be upfront in discussing these constraints with
the supervisor and get insights from them regarding best possible approach under the
given circumstances. Normally, supervisor will be able to provide guidance which will be
very useful as he/she might have faced similar situation earlier.

Receive Positive Feedback for Behavior and Attitude

Most often supervisors do recognize the hard work, good attitude and positive behavior
in the employees. A frank and open discussion should be done by the employee with their
superiors as far as an honest feedback is concerned. They should clearly communicate the
times when they have shown good or ideal performance in terms of attitudes and
behaviors.

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14.2 COORDINATING WITH COLLEAGUES

Notes Business organizations are, by definition, groups of people, but the formal use of teams
as a way of organizing work has grown tremendously in the past half-century. The
implication for anyone who wants a career in business is clear: it is virtually impossible
to be successful in business without being successful in groups. Team communication is
consistently named as a key skill for business success.

Many employers define “good communication” as an ability to get along with others and
behave pleasantly in the workplace. This attribute might seem more a personality trait
than a communication skill, but for many employers it counts for more. Fortunately, you
can learn to project a positive attitude, regardless of how you actually feel, and that in
itself is an important business communication skill.

Willingness to communicate and coordinate with colleagues is a developed skill, not

something most people are born with. Even when they are busy with important work, you
will find them more willing to work with you if they are comfortable with the personal
relationships.

In turn, you should consistently show that you are willing to help others, get their work
done. Some people worry more about being taken advantage of others than they do about
the welfare of the group. Most co-workers consider this kind of an attitude as a
“negative” one, and it will virtually always lose you the support of others–and often your
job.

Apart from above mentioned general guidelines, to have an effective coordination and
communication with the colleagues, the individual must proactively focus on following
aspects:

z Interact with colleagues from different functions and understand the nature of the
work.
z Pass on customer complaints to colleagues in respective geographical area.
z Assist colleagues with resolving problems.
z Resolve conflict for smooth work flow.
z Follow company policy for cross functional interactions.

Interact with Colleagues from Different Functions

When coordinating at the organization level, you need to reach out to other departments,
request comments and negotiate approval. The challenge is to overcome opposition and
gain acceptance. You won’t win them all. If not, get a written explanation from the
dissenter. Present the objections to the supervisor for a decision on how to proceed.

Pass on Customer Complaints to Colleagues in respective geographical area

Many contact centers exist to provide information and support to customers using a range
of services or products. Providing that support requires detailed knowledge and

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understanding of the services and / or products together with the communication skills to
deal with customers. It also involves teamwork so that colleagues learn from each other
as the organization gains experience and services and/or products develop. Notes

Assist Colleagues with Resolving Problems

One of the most important hiring criteria for many companies is the ability to work as a
team player. Teamwork in general is part of performance management system. So it’s
important for anyone not only to seek help of peers and superiors but also to readily offer
help to colleagues who are in need for resolution of technical and other problems in the
organization. Although some people believe it is best to keep work life and personal life
separate, and therefore avoid making friends with colleagues, for most people, having
strong friendships makes work more fun.

Look forward at work by supporting and developing your colleagues. You can begin with
showing genuine interest in their lives, asking them for opinions and caring about them.
Share about yourself and build trust. Involve others in your projects or collaborate on
ideas. Share your knowledge and proficiency while learning from your colleagues. You
will make work a better place to be.

Resolve Conflict for Smooth Work Flow

Coordination helps to minimize the conflicts, wastages, delays and other organizational
problems. It ensures smooth working of the organization. Therefore, with the help of
coordination an organization can achieve its objectives easily and quickly. Handling and
resolving conflicts that arise in the workplace is one of the biggest challenges managers
and employees face. Typically there are two responses to conflict: run away (avoidance)
or ‘battle it out’. In either case, you often feel uncomfortable or dissatisfied with the
results because no resolution has been achieved. By learning to constructively resolve
conflict, you can turn a potentially destructive situation into an opportunity for creativity
and enhanced performance.

Arriving at a positive resolution of conflict is always the ultimate goal. In resolving

conflict, it is important to make sure you do the following:

z Clearly express the causes of the conflict – openly acknowledging there will be differing
perceptions of the problem(s).

z Make a clear statement of why you want the conflict resolved and reasons to work on
conflict.

z Communication of how you want the conflict resolved.

z Address the issues face-to-face (notes, email correspondence, memos are not a
productive way to resolve differences).

z Stick to the issues. In trying to resolve conflict, it is tempting to resort to name

calling or bring up issues from the past. It is important to address specific behaviors
and situations if change is to take place.

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z Take time out if necessary. In the resolution of a conflict, our emotions may interfere
with arriving at a productive resolution. If this transpires, take a time-out and resume
Notes resolving the conflict at another designated time.

Follow Company Policy for Cross Functional Interaction

Cross-functional teams provide an organization with some significant advantages. You
can greatly increase creativity and problem solving with the use of cross-functional teams
because of their composition. Members of cross-functional teams come with a diversity
of experiences, expertise and knowledge. This diversity can help broaden perspectives
and create a synergy - where interaction of the members create a greater effect than the
sum effects of each member acting alone - leading to a high level of creativity. Companies
have consciously developed policies and incentives for cross functional roles. One should
be aware of these policies and should discuss the same with colleagues and supervisors if
anything is not clear.

Receive Feedback and Customer Satisfaction Findings

Check with your superior and colleagues from quality department, about the ratings,
feedbacks, comments and observations you and your team has got from customers, clients
and other groups dependent on you. Take the feedback in positive spirit, both good and
bad. Appreciate your team for the good feedback being received, discuss the negative
feedback with a sense of improving the quality of services and deliverables. Do not try to
argue or start blame game in case the feedback received in not on expected lines. It does
not serve any purpose. There is always a scope of improvement and you along with your
team should focus on that.

14.3 ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT

While most employees are aware of a company’s general mission upon getting hired, the
precise details should be spelled out and distributed to each employee. Mission statements
include things such as sales goals and marketing initiatives, where a company has been
and where it hopes to go. This should include top management’s vision of the company.

Employees should orient themselves towards companies goal while understanding the
company policies and also improving upon their knowledge with respect to the skill set
required to accomplish the tasks effectively.

14.4 UNDERSTANDING COMPANY POLICIES

All employers set general policies regarding employee conduct. This includes guidelines
on what is considered appropriate behavior between two employees, as well as employees
and managers and employees and customers.

Employees have a wide range of pay, but those who work for the same company are often
paid on the same day. Policies and procedures are outlined when employees will be paid.
Employees should also be aware if direct deposit is available, as well as the guidelines on
bonus pay and reimbursement for mileage and other work-related expenses.

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Companies that offer health benefits also include key aspects, such as pricing for
individuals and families, in their list of employee policies and procedures. Many
companies also have a mandatory waiting period of anywhere from 30 to 90 days before Notes
benefits become available to an employee. Employees should be aware of these policies
and should discuss with HR or other concerned department in case of any confusion.

Employee policies and procedures consist of every imaginable situation and topic,
ensuring that employees understand all aspects of working for a company. That includes
policies on acceptable attire, safety, termination and resignation, working from home and
overtime. It is important that employees are trained on these aspects from time to time and
it’s the responsibility of the employees to discuss these with colleagues and superiors if
required.

14.5 INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN WORKFLOW

Understanding your job role and description is the most important aspect when starting
a new job. This will ensure that you ultimately understand the tasks and duties that you
are expected to fulfill in order to earn your remuneration and also add value to the
company you work for.

Make sure you understand:

z The job duties you are expected to perform;

z Your supervisor’s expectations for your job performance; and

z The performance review process that will be used for your position.

Talk to your supervisor if you are unsure of the work that you are expected to perform or
the standards you are expected to meet in order to gain a better understanding of his or her
expectations. If there are things you think you need help with to be successful, discuss
them with your supervisor. These could be instructions, training, support/cooperation
from coworkers, etc.

14.6 REPORTING STRUCTURE

Reporting structure refers to the authority relationships in a company — who reports to
whom. For small businesses with only a couple of employees, that structure is often self-
evident: Everyone reports to the owner. With enough new employees, though, coordinating
everyone’s efforts will likely demand a formal organizational structure. This framework
establishes who is in charge of different tasks, departmental areas and the organization as
a whole. These authority boundaries and the relationships among people in authority
serve to create the reporting structure.

Organizational structure provides guidance to all employees by laying out the official
reporting relationships that govern the workflow of the company. A formal outline of a
company’s structure makes it easier to add new positions in the company, as well,
providing a flexible and ready means for growth.

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14.7 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Notes The success of an individual in a team depends greatly on the extent to which she/he can
engage in effective communication. Faulty communication in organizations can lead to
lowered efficiency and effectiveness at the organizational as well as individual level.

Skill to communicate depends on the capacity of an individual to convey ideas and

feelings to another to evolve a desired response. In management, communication is a
mixture of personal attributes and organizational aspects. Good communication is
necessary for all organizations as management functions in organizations are carried out
through communication.

Effective management is a function of effective communication. Interpersonal

communication takes places every time we interact with others. Communication is
considered effective when it succeeds in evoking a desired response from the other person.
Moreover failures in communication can be very costly for the organization by way of
reduced co-operation and subsequent ill feeling between employees. Communication, to
be effective, cannot be a random process. It has to be planned and executed so that it
evokes the desired response.

Communication in organizations has the following role

z Helps in fostering motivation fucntion of control
z Aids in the function of control
z Provides information for making decisions
z Gives vent to one’s feelings
z Helps in the satisfaction of social needs

Measuring the effectiveness of your communication is just as important as delivering it.

Measurement is key to understanding the success of your communications and an
opportunity to invite feedback.

You can measure communications in many ways using informal and formal channels. A
good communicator makes use of the measurement systems available within your
organization, but also uses the most powerful form of measurement – feedback. By
inviting feedback you can not only measure the success of the communication, but also
enter into valuable two-way dialogue, which will help your future communications and
engage the audience with your message and the company.

14.8 BUILD TEAM COORDINATION

Coordination is the act of organizing and enabling different people to work together to
achieve an organization’s goals. It is a managerial function in which different activities of
the business are properly adjusted and interlinked.

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Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a specialized

set of tasks, such as engineering. This leads to operational efficiency within that group.
However, it can also lead to a lack of communication between various functional Notes
groups within an organization, rendering the organization slow and inflexible.
Increasing coordination internally can be accomplished by keeping all moving parts of the
organization on the same page. There are a number of ways to improve upon the
coordination of different departments, work groups, teams, or functional specialists.
These include creating a well-communicated and accurate mission statement; clearly
defining strategic objectives; monitoring and evaluating each functional group; providing
company-wide updates and communications from each department; and, wherever
possible, promoting cross-departmental meetings and projects.
Structure is a central determinant of effective coordination across an organization as it
enables communications, underlines responsibilities, and provides concrete authority in
decision-making.

14.9 TEAM WORK AND MULTITASKING

Team projects often arise in the workplace whether one likes it or not. Being successful
with this skill means working productively with a variety of people, utilizing the various
skills within the group, and overcoming any differences between members. Being able to
communicate and relate effectively with your coworkers is not only beneficial to you but
your employer as well. Relationship building with coworkers makes work more enjoyable
for you and saves your supervisors from having to resolve conflicts between employees.
Businesses are always happy to drive down costs, and the best way to do this is by hiring
fewer individuals who can multi-task. It is often the case that one efficient employee can
do the work of two typical employees. Employees are paid for the hours they work, and
employers want to get the most out of what they pay. An employee who can complete
multiple tasks at once is the solution.
The best way to use multitasking skill is:
z Use your past experience while carrying out a new task even if the previous task was
not related to the current assignment, there’s always the scope of applying past learning
in the current situation. Look out for such opportunities.
z Prepare a list of projects that required you to separate tasks into clusters that could
be addressed simultaneously. Use these to carry out multi-tasking assignments.
z Show a willingness to take on many responsibilities. Any worker can pick up one or
two, but if you can pick up more without getting spread too thin, you become a
valuable asset.

14.10 DECISION MAKING

Decision making can be defined as the process of making choices among possible
alternatives. The skills considered important to effective decision making are based on a
standard model of decision making, which prescribes how decisions should be made.
These skills include: 1) identifying the possible options; 2) identifying the possible

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consequences that follow from each option; 3) evaluating the desirability of each of the
consequences; 4) assessing the likelihood of each consequence; and 5) making a choice
Notes using a “decision rule”.

Problem solving and decision-making are important skills for business and life. Problem-
solving often involves decision-making, and decision-making is especially important for
management and leadership. There are processes and techniques to improve decision-
making and the quality of decisions.

z Define and clarify the issue.

z Gather all the facts and understand their causes.
z Think about or brainstorm possible options and solutions.
z Consider and compare the ‘pros and cons’ of each option - consult others if necessary
or useful - and for bigger complex decisions where there are several options, create
a template which enables measurements according to different strategic factors.
z Select the best option - avoid vagueness and weak compromises in trying to please
everyone.
z Explain your decision to those involved and affected, and follow up to ensure proper
and effective implementation.

An important area where decision making process becomes critical is at the time of
unforeseen disruptions in the work flow. Employees should be able to take informed
decisions at such times. Normally, every organization develops its own set of best
practices to deal with such emergency situations. Employees should be aware of such best
practices and should be able to communicate to the supervisor if that is required. They
should be aware of their responsibilities and should make appropriate judgment regarding
whether to inform the superior or to handle the situation along with other colleagues.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1

1. Which of the following is important for good coordination with supervisor?

A. Understand and Assess Work Requirements

B. Meet Given Targets
C. Resolve Personal Issues
D. All of the above.

2. Resolving conflict for smooth workflow requires:

A. Articulating the causes of the conflict

B. Reading company policy
C. Understanding compensation policy
D. Deliver quality work

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3. Reporting structure defines:

A. Nearby police station telephone numbers

Notes
B. Who reports to whom in organization
C. Details guidelines for employees
D. Peer to peer interaction

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about important skills on coordination and communication
which are required for effective workflow in the organizations. In particular the learning
include:
z How to effectively interact with supervisors.
z Efficient coordination with colleagues.
z Importance of understanding company policies, delivery standards, ethics.
z Reporting structure and individual’s role in workflow.
z Effective communication tips.
z Teamwork and multitasking.

After going through this lesson, you can apply these principles at their respective
workplace to make it more robust, dynamic and interesting place to work.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Suggest important ways in which organizations can foster team work and team
coordination skills within the employees.

2. What are the important aspects which are required for smooth work flow for cross
functional interaction?

3. Suggest best practices for fruitful interaction with supervisors.

4. Briefly elaborate the three important professional skills.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

14.1
1. D 2. A 3. B

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