MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

“The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or standard quantity is called a Measuring instrument.”
OR
“An instrument may be defined as a machine or system which is
designed to maintain functional relationship between prescribed
properties of physical variables & could include means of
communication to human observer.”
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories, that are;
1. Absolute instruments,
2. Secondary instruments.
- Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be measured in term of
instrument constant & its deflection.
- In Secondary instruments the deflection gives the magnitude of
electrical quantity to be measured directly. These instruments are
required to be calibrated by comparing with another standard
instrument before putting into use.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified according to
the kind of quantity, kind of current, principle of operation of moving
system.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
• Secondary instruments can be classified into three types;
i. Indicating instruments;
ii. Recording instruments;
iii. Integrating instruments.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the
time when it is being measured. The indications are given
by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.
- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a continuous record of the
variations of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be
observed over a defined period of time.
- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the total amount of either
quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied over a
period of time. For example energy meters.
Types of Measuring Instruments
• Permanent magnet moving-coil (PMMC) – most accurate type for DC
measurement
• Moving Iron
• Electrodynamometer
• Hot wire
• Thermocouple
• Induction Type
• Electrostatic
• Rectifier
TYPES OF AMMETERS & VOLTMETERS
1) Moving Iron Type Meters (AC & DC);
a) Attraction type,
b) Repulsion type.
2) Moving Coil Type Meters (AC & DC);
a) Permanent Magnet type,
b) Electrodynamic or Dynamometer.
3) Hot Wire Type (AC & DC);
4) Induction Type (AC & DC);
a) Split phase,
b) Shaded Pole type.
5) Electrostatic Type for Voltmeters Only;
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument
(PMMC) - Construction
Moving Coil : Moving coil consists of a number of turns which are made up of silk-covered copper wire.
Whenever current flows through the moving coil and is kept in the magnetic field, a deflecting torque is
produced and the coil moves due to which the pointer shows deflection. The coil is wound on a
rectangular aluminum former. The former is pivoted on jewel bearings so that the coil sides lie in the air
gap between the poles of the permanent magnet.
Magnet System : The magnet system consists of permanent magnets. The function of the magnet system is
to produce a magnetic field. Permanent magnets are available in different shapes and sizes. Nowadays,
the magnets are designed in such a way that the magnets themselves act as a path for the magnetic field
i.e., core.
Control System : The function of the control system is to produce the necessary and sufficient controlling
torque. The control torque in PMMC instrument is provided by two phosphor bronze hairsprings. These
springs also allow the current to flow in and out of the coil. The control torque produced is equal in
magnitude but opposite to that of deflection torque, for the pointer to reach the steady-state position.
Gravity control and ribbon suspension are also used for producing controlling torque.
Damping System : The function of the damping system is to provide the damping torque for allowing the
pointer to reach the rest position within a short duration of time. The damping produced in the PMMC
instrument is electromagnetic damping which is obtained by the movement of the aluminum former in
the magnetic field on which the core is mounted. Eddy current damping system and bearing friction also
provide the damping torque.
Pointer and Scale : Whenever the coil moves in the magnetic field, the pointer shows deflection and the
deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the coil current. The pointer is a thin device that is
lightweight in construction. It is made up of aluminum and is flattened at one end in order to make it as
an edge of a knife. The pointer is mounted on a spindle that moves a graduated scale and it is balanced by
the balancing weight which is connected to it. A mirror is placed below the scale in order to avoid parallax
error.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument
(PMMC) - Working
• When the current to be measured is applied to the moving coil
terminals placed in the magnetic field. The coil experience a torque
and starts moving. This movement of the coil also moves the pointer
attached to it i.e., causing deflection of pointer over the scale.
• The torque produced is called deflecting torque and it is proportional
to flux density and dimensions of the coil. The deflection of the
pointer or the deflecting torque produced is in such a way that it is
equal to the amount of current flowing through the coil.
• Therefore, the value indicated by the pointer over the scale will be
equal to the magnitude of the current being measured. It is the most
accurate instrument for dc measurements. The accuracy of this
instrument is in order of 2-5% of full-scale deflection. Since the
deflection of the instrument is directly proportional to the current,
the scale can be linear and uniform.
PMMC-Advantages
• Sensitive to the small current
• Accurate and reliable
• Uniform scale up to 270 degree or more
• Effective built-in damping
• Low power consumption: 25 μW – 200 μW
• Free from hysteresis and not effected by the external fields because
of its permanent magnet shields the coil from external magnetic
fields.
• Easily adopted as a multi-range instrument.
PMMC-Disadvantages
• This type of instrument suits for DC only. In AC, the instrument does
not operate because of equal amount force experienced by the
pointer but opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it
(pointer) remains at zero position.
• The moving system is highly delicate so needs careful handling.
• The coil being very fine, can not withstand prolonged overloading.
• Costlier
• Error occur at the later stage due to Ageing effect (permanent magnet
and control spring).
Moving Iron (MI) Type Instrument-
Construction & Working
• Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating
voltages and currents.
• ▪ In moving-iron instruments the movable system consists of one or
more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to
be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
• Range: 10mA -100A
• There are two general types of moving-iron
instruments namely:
• Repulsion (or double iron) type
• Attraction (or single-iron) type
Construction
• Here, for the construction of the device either a plate or a sheet of soft iron is employed as the
movable component for the device. This sheet is placed in the way so that it has free movement
in the stationary coil’s magnetic field. The conductor element creates the stationary coil and this
is stimulated either by current or voltage for which magnitude has to be calculated.
• The device makes use of the stationary coil to function as an electromagnet.
This electromagnet is only the transient magnitude where its magnetic field ability either
enhances or lessens along with the current’s magnitude that flows across it.
Working Principle of Moving Iron Instrument
• These devices make use of either aluminum constructed wire or a static copper coil in order to
function as an electromagnet when there is a current passage all through the instrument. The
capacity of the magnetic field is stimulated by the electromagnet and it has a direct relation to
that passage of current.
• Either the plates of the iron sheets that pass across the coil enhance the static coil inductance
(The inductance is the conductor’s factor that enhances its EMF when there is variable
movement through the inductor). There will be an attractional force for the electromagnet to
attract the iron sheet.
• The sheet that is passed through the coil attempts to absorb the least reluctance path where
reluctance is the magnetic property that obstructs the current flow. The sheet which is passed
via the coil will get repulsion force where this is created by the electromagnet. This force
enhances the ability of the coil’s inductance. With this, the reluctance and inductance properties
are inversely related. This is a moving iron instrument operation.
Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
• In this type, the iron plate is attracted towards the stronger field from the weaker field is termed as the
attraction type of instrument. Here, the static coil in the device is in a flat shape and it has a small opening.
The movable element is considered as the iron core’s flat disc. The flow of current across the static coil
generates the magnetic field and this has the attractional force to attract the coil.
• The iron plate will get deflect from the low to the high magnetic field and this deflection capacity has a
direct relation to the current flow magnitude which flows through the iron plate. In a brief, it is defined that
an iron coil will be attracted.
• This kind of device makes use of a spring where creates torque regulation. The coil’s deflection is minimized
by the piston made of aluminum metal and this is attached to the movable coil.
Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument
• This device is constructed with two iron sheets where one is static and the other sheet is movable. These
iron plates will be magnetized when there is current flow across the static coil and this created repulsion
force in between the plates. Due to this repulsion force, the movable coil begins to start away from the
static plate.
• The spring in the device will provide regulation movement of the torque. The air friction stimulates the
damping torque where obstructs coil movement. These kinds of moving iron instruments come under the
category of the non-polarized device where means that the device is to be set free from the current path
that flows the device. So, it is employed for both the direct and alternating current.
Differences in Attraction and Repulsion Types
• The attraction type of moving iron device will posses minimal inductance when compared with the
repulsion type device and because of this voltmeters are completely precise over extended frequency
levels and so there exists enhanced scope of employing shunts with the ammeters. Whereas repulsion
devices are mainly applicable for economical purposes and with these instruments linear scale can be
easily achieved.
MI type instruments -Advantages
❖ The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.
❖ The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
❖ The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
❖ Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
❖ Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
MI type instruments -Disadvantages
▪ Error due to variation in temperature.
▪ Error due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving coil instruments.
▪ Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced
by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to reduce this
effect.
▪ Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the
coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighboring metal.
▪ Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the
current due to non-linear characteristics of iron material (I2R loss).
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENTS
• The necessity for the a.c. calibration of moving iron instruments as
well as other types of instruments, which cannot be correctly
calibrated, requires the use of a transfer type of instrument.
• A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c.
Source and then used without modification to measure a.c.
• This requires the transfer type instrument to have the same accuracy
for both d.c. and a.c., which the electrodynamometer instruments
have.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETER
• Fixed coil – The fixed coil connects in series with the load. It is considered as a current
coil because the load current flows through it. For making the construction easy the
fixed coil divide into two parts. And these two elements are parallel connected to each
other. The fixed coil produces the uniform electric field which is essentials for the
working of the instruments. The current coil of the instruments is designed to carry the
current of approximately 20 amperes for saving the power.
• Moving Coil – The moving coil consider as the pressure coil of the instruments. It
connects in parallel with the supply voltage. The current flows through them is directly
proportional to the supply voltage. The pointer mounts on the moving coil. The
movement of the pointer controls with the help of the spring. The current flows through
the coil increases their temperature. The flows of currents control with the help of
resistor which connects in series with the moving coil.
• Control – The control system provides the controlling torque to the instruments. The
spring control system is used for the movement of the pointer.
• Damping – The damping is the effect which reduces the movement of the pointer. In this
Wattmeter the damping torque produces because of the air friction. The other types of
damping are not used in the system because they destroy the useful magnetic flux.
• Scales and pointers – The instruments use a linear scale because their moving coil moves
linearly. The apparatus uses the knife edge pointer for removing the parallax error which
causes because of oversights.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETER
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETER
• The Electrodynamometer Wattmeter has two types of coils; fixed and
the moving coil. The fixed coil connects in series with the circuit
whose power consumption has to be measured. The supply voltage
applies to the moving coil. The resistor controls the current across the
moving coil, and it is connected in series with it.
• The pointer is fixed on the moving coil which is placed between the
fixed coils. The current and voltage of the fixed and moving coil
generate the two magnetic fields. And the interaction of these two
magnetic fields deflects the pointer of the instrument. The deflection
of the pointer is directly proportional to the power flows through it