BSN 112

MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY 1
PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The cells of the body need energy for their chemical activity that maintains homeostasis.
• Most of this energy is derived from chemical reactions which can only take place in the
presence of oxygen (O2).
• The main waste product of these reactions is carbon dioxide (CO2).
• The respiratory system provides the route by which the supply of oxygen present in the
atmospheric air gains entry to the body and it provides the route of excretion of carbon
dioxide.
• The condition of the atmospheric air entering the body varies according to the external
environment, e.g. it may be dry, cold and contain dust particles or it may be moist and hot.
• As the air breathed in moves through the air passages to reach the lungs, it is warmed or
cooled to body temperature, moistened to become saturated with water vapor and 'cleaned'
The organs of the respiratory system are:
Nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
bronchioles and smaller air passages
two lungs and their coverings, the pleura
Muscles of respiration — the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.

DRAW A DIAGRAM OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Upper respiratory tract

• Mouth, nose, nasal cavity and pharynx are the organs of the upper respiratory tract.
• The functions of this part of the system are to warm, filter and moisten the inhaled
air.
• The pharynx is a chamber shared by the digestive and respiratory systems. The
pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavity with the larynx.
• The pharynx is divided into three regions called the nasopharynx, the oropharynx
and the laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx sits behind the nasal cavity
• Both the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are passageways for food and drink
as well as air
• Respiratory function of the nose-The function of the nose is to begin the process
by which the air is warmed, moistened and 'filtered'.
• Olfactory function of the nose. The nose is the organ of the sense of smell. There
are nerve endings that detect smell, located in the roof of the nose in the area of the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones and the superior conchae.

Lower respiratory tract

• The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, the trachea, the right and left
bronchi and all the constituents of both lungs.
• The larynx or 'voice box' extends from the root of the tongue and the hyoid
bone to the trachea.

Functions.

• Production of sound. Sound has the properties of pitch, volume and resonance.
Speech. This occurs during expiration when the sounds produced by the vocal
cords are manipulated by the tongue, cheeks and lips.
• Protection of the lower respiratory tract. During swallowing (deglutition) the
larynx moves upwards, occluding the opening into it from the pharynx and the
hinged epiglottis closes over the larynx.
• This ensures that food passes into the esophagus and not into the lower
respiratory passages.
• Passageway for air. This is between the pharynx and trachea. Humidifying,
filtering and warming.
Trachea.
• The trachea (windpipe) extends from the laryngopharynx at the level of the
cricoid cartilage
• The trachea contains cartilage rings that reinforce and protect the trachea to
prevent it from collapsing or overexpansion as pressure changes within the
respiratory system.
• It also possesses sensory nerve endings which cause coughing if food or water
is inhaled accidently.
• Bronchi and bronchioles
• The bronchi are composed of the same tissues as the trachea. They are lined
with ciliated columnar epithelium.
• The bronchi progressively subdivide into bronchioles, terminal bronchioles,
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and finally, alveoli.
• Functions of air passages not involved in gaseous exchange . Control of air
entry.
• Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
• consisting of: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli (tiny air sacs
• It is in these structures that the process of gas exchange occurs.
• The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
• The exchange of gases during respiration takes place across two membranes,
the alveolar and capillary membranes.
• Interspersed between the squamous cells are other cells that secrete surfactant,
a phospholipid fluid which prevents the alveoli from drying out.
• In addition, surfactant reduces surface tension and prevents alveolar walls
collapsing during expiration.
• Secretion of surfactant into the distal air passages and alveoli begins about the
35th week of fetal life.
 • Its presence in newborn babies facilitates expansion of the lungs and the
establishment of respiration.
• It may not be present in sufficient amounts in the immature lungs of premature
babies, causing difficulty in establishing respiration.

Functions of respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

• External respiration.
• Defense against microbes.
• Warming and humidifying. Inhalation of dry or inadequately humidified air
over a period of time causes irritation of the mucosa and facilitates the
establishment of pathogenic microbes.
• The lungs
• The lungs are divided into distinct regions called lobes. There are three lobes
in the right lung and two in the left.
• The space between the two pleura, the pleural space, is minute and contains a
thin film of lubricating fluid.
• This reduces friction between the two pleura, allowing both layers to slide over
one another during breathing. The fluid also helps the visceral and parietal
pleura to adhere to each other

AIR PASSAGES

• After passing through the nasal passages and pharynx, where it is warmed and
takes up water vapor,
• the inspired air passes down the trachea and through the bronchioles, respiratory
bronchioles, and alveolar ducts to the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
• This air mixes with the gas in the alveoli, and, by simple diffusion, O2 enters
the blood in the pulmonary capillaries while CO2 enters the alveoli

MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION

• The lungs and the chest wall are elastic structures.

 • Normally, no more than a thin layer of fluid is present between the lungs and
the chest wall (intrapleural space).
• The lungs slide easily on the chest wall, but resist being pulled away from it.
• The contraction of the inspiratory muscles increases intrathoracic volume.
• The intrapleural pressure at the lungs, which is normally about –2.5 mm Hg
(relative to atmospheric) at the start of inspiration, decreases to about –6 mm
Hg.
• The lung is pulled into a more expanded position. The pressure in the airway
becomes slightly negative, and air flows into the lungs and air flows out of the
lungs.
• Expiration during quiet breathing is passive in the sense that no muscles that
decrease intrathoracic volume contract.

GAS EXCHANGE

• Gas exchange occurs at two sites in the body:

• In the lungs, where oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is released at the
respiratory membrane,
• and at the tissues, where oxygen is released and carbon dioxide is picked up.
• External respiration is the exchange of gases with the external environment, and
occurs in the alveoli of the lungs.
• Internal respiration is the exchange of gases with the internal environment, and
occurs in the tissues.
• The actual exchange of gases occurs due to simple diffusion.
• Energy is not required to move oxygen or carbon dioxide across membranes. Instead,
these gases follow pressure gradients that allow them to diffuse.

External Respiration

• The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood into the lungs from the heart, where it
branches and eventually becomes the capillary network composed of pulmonary
capillaries.
• These pulmonary capillaries create the respiratory membrane with the alveoli.
 • As the blood is pumped through this capillary network, gas exchange occurs.
• Most of the oxygen is picked up by red blood cells and binds to a protein called
hemoglobin.
• Oxygenated hemoglobin is red, causing the overall appearance of bright red oxygenated
blood,
• Carbon dioxide is released in the opposite direction of oxygen, from the blood to the
alveoli.

• External respiration occurs as a function of partial pressure differences in oxygen and

carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

Internal Respiration

• Internal respiration is gas exchange that occurs at the level of body tissues.
• Similar to external respiration, internal respiration also occurs as simple diffusion due to a
partial pressure gradient

the partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low, because oxygen is continuously used for
cellular respiration.

LUNG VOLUMES

• Tidal volume. The amount of air that moves into the lungs with each inspiration (or
the amount that moves out with each expiration) .
• Inspiratory reserve volume. The air inspired with a maximal inspiratory effort in
excess of the tidal volume
• Expiratory reserve volume, the volume expelled by an active expiratory effort after
passive expiration
Residual volume. the air left in the lungs after a maximal expiratory effort
• The space in the conducting zone of the airways occupied by gas that does not exchange
with blood in the pulmonary vessels is the respiratory dead space

Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth

Factors that affect respiratory rate and depth include:

• Blood pH: Acidosis or alkalosis can affect breathing

• Carbon dioxide levels: can affect breathing

• Oxygen levels: Hypoxia can affect breathing

• Medications: Some medications, like opioids, can decrease the rate and depth of breathing

• Health: Acute or chronic illnesses, like kidney failure can affect respiratory function

• Age: Age-related developmental considerations can affect breathing

• Pain: Pain can be a respiratory stimulant

The medulla oblongata and pons in the brainstem adjust the rate and depth of breathing in
response to these factors.
The main functions of the respiratory system

• The main function of the respiratory system is to provide the body with oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide.
• The respiratory system also performs other functions, including:

• Warming and moistening air

The respiratory system warms air to match body temperature and adds moisture to bring it to
the right humidity level.

• Protecting the body

The respiratory system protects the body from harmful particles by blocking them from
entering or pushing them out if they do get in.

• Speech

The respiratory system allows for speech by vibrating the vocal cords when air is expelled.

• Smell

The respiratory system helps with smell by moving air molecules past the olfactory nerve,
which sends messages to the brain about the smell.

• Maintaining acid-base balance

The respiratory system removes carbon dioxide, which helps maintain the acid-base balance
in the body.