Unit 1

Review of traditional network :-

Tradi onal networks are the founda on of modern communica on systems, connec ng devices and
systems to share data and resources. Below is a detailed review of various types of networks and
components:

 Review of LAN
 Defini on: A LAN is a network confined to a small geographical area, such as a building, office, or
campus.

 Characteris cs:

 High-speed connec vity.

 Limited coverage area.

 Typically owned and managed by a single organiza on.

 Applica ons: Office environments, schools, and homes for sharing printers, files, and local resources.

 Example: Connec ng mul ple computers within a library.

 Review of MAN
 Defini on: A MAN spans a larger geographic area than a LAN, o en covering a city or town.

 Characteris cs:

 Medium-range coverage, typically up to 50 km.

 Combines mul ple LANs using high-speed backbone connec ons.

 O en managed by telecom companies or large organiza ons.

 Applica ons: Connec ng mul ple branches of a business in a city or linking university campuses.

 Example: The network connec ng various departments of a city's municipal offices.

 Review of WAN
 Defini on: A WAN spans a large geographic area, o en na onwide or worldwide, connec ng mul ple
smaller networks like LANs and MANs.

 Characteris cs:
  Relies on external service providers (e.g., ISPs).

 Slower compared to LAN but supports long-distance communica on.

 O en uses technologies like satellite links or fiber op cs.

 Applica ons: Internet services, mul na onal corporate networks.

 Example: The internet itself or a company's global intranet.

 Review of internet
 Definition: The internet is a global WAN connecting billions of devices worldwide, allowing
data exchange and communication.

 Characteristics:

 Decentralized and public.

 Uses TCP/IP protocols for communication.
 Provides services like web browsing, email, and online applications.

 Applications: E-commerce, research, social media, cloud computing.

 Example: Browsing websites like Google or streaming videos on YouTube.

 Review of internet and interconnectivity

nternet interconnec vity involves the devices and technologies that allow networks to communicate.
Two major components are:

a) Bridge
 Defini on: A bridge is a network device that connects and filters data between two or more LANs.

 Characteris cs:

 Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 of the OSI model).

 Helps reduce network traffic by filtering and forwarding data to the intended segment.

 Example: Connec ng two departments' LANs in a company.

b) Routers
 Defini on: A router connects mul ple networks (LANs, WANs, or the internet) and determines the
best path for data packets.

 Characteris cs:

 Operates at the network layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model).

 Uses IP addresses for rou ng decisions.

 Essen al for internet access and inter-network communica on.

 Example: A home router connec ng your local network to the ISP's network for internet access.

Review of TCP/IP protocols architecture

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite is the founda on of internet
communica on. It is organized into layers that enable reliable data exchange. Below is a detailed review
of various components and concepts associated with it:

1) ARP/RARP
ARP (Address Resolu on Protocol):

 Resolves an IP address into a MAC (Media Access Control) address.

 Operates at the network layer to ensure devices in the same LAN can communicate.

 Example: Transla ng 192.168.1.5 to its physical Ethernet MAC address.

RARP (Reverse Address Resolu on Protocol):

 Resolves a MAC address to an IP address.

 O en used by diskless systems to retrieve their IP from a central server during boot.

2) IP
 Purpose: IP is the primary protocol for rou ng and addressing packets in a network.

 Features:

 Operates at the network layer.

 Uses IP addresses for end-to-end data delivery.

 Provides connec onless, best-effort delivery (unreliable without error-checking).

 Versions: IPv4 (32-bit addresses) and IPv6 (128-bit addresses).

3) IP diagram format and its delivery
The IP Packet Format includes the following fields:

1. Version: Indicates IPv4 (4) or IPv6 (6).

2. Header Length: Length of the header.

3. Type of Service (TOS): Defines the quality of service (e.g., priority, delay).

4. Total Length: Size of the packet (header + data).

5. Iden fica on, Flags, and Fragment Offset: For fragmenta on and reassembly.

6. Time to Live (TTL): Limits the packet's lifespan (hop count).

7. Protocol: Specifies the transport protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).

8. Header Checksum: Ensures header integrity.

9. Source IP Address: Sender's IP.

10. Des na on IP Address: Receiver's IP.

Delivery:

 Packets are routed from the source to the des na on based on their IP headers using rou ng
tables.

4) Routing table format

The rou ng table helps routers determine the best path for packet delivery. Its format typically includes:

1. Des na on: IP address of the target network or host.

2. Gateway: The next hop or intermediary device.

3. Subnet Mask: Defines the size of the network.

4. Interface: The outgoing network interface.

5. Metric: Cost or distance to the des na on.

5) ICMP Message
 Purpose: ICMP is used for network diagnos cs and error repor ng.

 Common ICMP Messages:

 1. Echo Request/Reply: Used by the ping command to test connec vity.

2. Des na on Unreachable: Indicates the packet cannot reach its des na on.

3. Time Exceeded: TTL expired during packet traversal.

4. Redirect: Suggests a be er route to the des na on.

6) Subnetting
 Defini on: Subne ng divides a large network into smaller, manageable sub-networks.

 Purpose:

 Improves network performance and security.

 Efficiently uses IP addresses by customizing subnet sizes.

 Example: Dividing a network with IP 192.168.1.0/24 into four subnets of /26.

7) Superneting
 Defini on: Combines smaller networks into a larger one, reducing the number of entries in rou ng
tables.

 Purpose:

 Op mizes rou ng and conserves IP addresses.

 Example: Merging 192.168.0.0/24 and 192.168.1.0/24 into a supernet 192.168.0.0/23.

8) CIDR
 Defini on: CIDR is a method of IP address alloca on and rou ng that replaces tradi onal class-based
addressing.

 Format: IP address followed by a slash and the prefix length (e.g., 192.168.0.0/16).

 Purpose:

 Allows flexible subne ng.

 Reduces the wastage of IP addresses.

9) DNS
 Purpose: Translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.google.com) into IP addresses (e.g.,
142.250.190.78).

 Components:

1. DNS Resolver: The client's query ini ator.

2. DNS Server: Provides the IP address for the queried domain.

3. DNS Records:

o A Record: Maps domain names to IPv4 addresses.

o AAAA Record: Maps domain names to IPv6 addresses.

o MX Record: Specifies mail servers for the domain.

 Example: Typing www.example.com into a browser resolves to an IP address.

NAT
Network Address Transla on (NAT) is a method used in networking to map private IP addresses within a
local network to a single public IP address or a pool of public IPs. This allows mul ple devices to share
one public IP for internet communica on, enhancing security and conserving IPv4 addresses.

1) Private addressing and NAT

2) Private Addressing:
a) Private IP addresses are reserved for use within private networks and cannot be routed
on the internet.
b) Ranges:
i) 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (Class A)
ii) 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (Class B)
iii) 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 (Class C)
c) Devices with private addresses use NAT to communicate with external networks.
3) NAT:
a) Translates private IP addresses into public IP addresses for internet-bound traffic.
b) Maintains a translation table to track communication between private and public
addresses.

Example:
A device with IP 192.168.1.5 is assigned a public IP 203.0.113.1 by the NAT device when
accessing the internet.

4) SNAT
 Defini on: SNAT modifies the source IP address of outgoing packets from private to public, allowing
devices within a private network to communicate externally.

 Purpose:

 Enables internet access for devices in a private network.

 Hides the internal network structure from external en es.

 Process:

 The private IP of the source device is replaced with a public IP from the NAT router.

 Example:

 Private IP 192.168.1.10 → Public IP 203.0.113.2 for internet access.

5) DNAT
 Defini on: DNAT modifies the des na on IP address of incoming packets, o en used to redirect traffic
to a specific server inside a private network.

 Purpose:

 Facilitates hos ng of services like web or mail servers behind a NAT device.

 Redirects traffic intended for a public IP to a private IP.

 Process:

 The NAT device replaces the public des na on IP with the private IP of the internal server.

 Example:

 Public IP 203.0.113.3 → Private IP 192.168.1.20 (a web server).

6) NAT and firewalls

  NAT is o en used alongside firewalls to improve security.

 By hiding internal IP addresses, NAT provides a layer of obscurity, reducing exposure to external
threats.

 Key Features:

1. Packet Filtering: Firewalls inspect packets and enforce security policies, ensuring only authorized
traffic is translated by NAT.

2. Port Forwarding: Allows specific traffic (e.g., HTTP, FTP) through NAT to internal servers.
 3. Stateful Inspec on: Firewalls track NAT sessions and maintain a state table for returning traffic.

 Example:

 A NAT-enabled firewall allows outgoing web traffic but blocks unsolicited incoming requests,
protec ng internal devices.

Type Purpose Example

Private Addressing & Enables private networks to 192.168.1.1 translated to
NAT access the internet. 203.0.113.1.
SNAT Changes source IP for 192.168.1.5 →
outgoing traffic. 203.0.113.2.
DNAT Redirects incoming traffic to 203.0.113.3 →
an internal server. 192.168.1.20.
NAT & Firewalls Enhances security by Only authorized traffic is
combining translation and forwarded.
filtering.

VLAN
VLANs allow the crea on of separate logical networks within a single physical network infrastructure.
They improve network segmenta on, security, and management by logically grouping devices based on
func on, department, or project rather than physical loca on

1) Concept with real LAN’S

 Tradi onal LANs:

o All devices connected to the same switch belong to a single broadcast domain.

o This setup leads to broadcast storms and inefficient network traffic as every device
receives broadcast traffic.

 VLANs in Real LANs:

o VLANs divide a physical LAN into mul ple logical broadcast domains.

o Devices within the same VLAN communicate directly, even if connected to different
switches, but devices in different VLANs require a router for communica on.

Example:
A company has three departments:
  Finance

 HR

 IT
Using VLANs, each department is assigned a separate VLAN (e.g., VLAN 10 for Finance, VLAN 20
for HR, and VLAN 30 for IT), isola ng their traffic for security and performance while using the
same physical switch infrastructure.

2) Type of VLANS
1 Default VLAN:
a. All ports are part of a single VLAN by default (usually VLAN 1).
b. Used for untagged traffic and management purposes.
2 Data VLAN:
a. Carries user-generated traffic, such as data from computers or printers.
b. Used to logically separate departments or functions.
3 Voice VLAN:
a. Dedicated for VoIP (Voice over IP) traffic.
b. Ensures prioritization of voice traffic over data traffic for better call quality.
4 Management VLAN:
a. Used to manage network devices (e.g., switches, routers).
b. Improves security by isolating management traffic.
5 Native VLAN:
a. Handles untagged traffic on trunk ports (used for backward compatibility).
6 Private VLAN:
a. Allows further segmentation within a VLAN for enhanced isolation.
b. Example: Isolating servers within the same VLAN to restrict access.

3) TAGGING
Tagging refers to the process of adding a VLAN iden fier (VLAN ID) to Ethernet frames to indicate which
VLAN the frame belongs to.

 VLAN Tagging:

o Frames traveling between VLAN-aware devices (e.g., switches) on a trunk link are tagged
with a VLAN ID.

o Uses the IEEE 802.1Q standard.

o Adds a 4-byte VLAN tag to the Ethernet frame header.

Key Fields in the VLAN Tag:

 1. TPID (Tag Protocol Iden fier): Iden fies the frame as VLAN-tagged (value: 0x8100).

2. TCI (Tag Control Informa on):

o Priority: For Quality of Service (QoS).

o CFI: Canonical Format Indicator (for compa bility).

o VLAN ID: A 12-bit field indica ng the VLAN (range: 0–4095).

 Untagged Frames:

o Frames without VLAN tags are assigned to the na ve VLAN on trunk ports.

Example of Tagging:

 A switch receiving a frame on a port assigned to VLAN 20 tags the frame with VLAN ID 20 before
forwarding it over a trunk link.

Aspect Details

Concept with Real VLANs segment a network logically, reducing broadcast domains and improving
LANs traffic management.

Types of VLANs Default, Data, Voice, Management, Na ve, and Private VLANs.

Tagging Adds a VLAN ID to Ethernet frames using the 802.1Q standard for inter-VLAN
communica on.

IPV6
IPv6 is the successor to IPv4, designed to address the limita ons of IPv4, such as the exhaus on of
available IP addresses. It introduces a larger addressing space, simplified header structure, and enhanced
features for efficient rou ng and security.

1) Addressing structure
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit iden fiers wri en in hexadecimal format, separated by colons (:). Each
address consists of 8 groups, each containing 16 bits.

 Format:
xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx
Each x represents a hexadecimal digit (0–F), and each group (16 bits) is separated by a colon.

 Address Types:

1. Unicast:

 Iden fies a single interface.

  Types:

 Global Unicast: Public, routable on the internet.

 Link-local Unicast: Used for communica on within a link; always starts

with FE80::/10.

 Unique Local Address (ULA): Private address; starts with FC00::/7.

2. Mul cast:

 Iden fies a group of devices; packets are delivered to all members of the group.

 Prefix: FF00::/8.

3. Anycast:

 Iden fies mul ple interfaces but delivers packets to the nearest one based on
rou ng.

 Compressed Nota on:

o Leading zeros in a group can be omi ed: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:8329 →

2001:db8::ff00:42:8329.

o Consecu ve groups of zeros can be replaced by :: (once per address):

2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:8329 → 2001:db8::ff00:42:8329.

2) Addressing space and header

Addressing Space:

 IPv6 provides 2^128 addresses (approximately 340 undecillion), vastly exceeding the 2^32
addresses of IPv4.

 This large space supports billions of devices, subne ng, and efficient address alloca on.

IPv6 Header: IPv6 simplifies the header structure compared to IPv4, enhancing processing efficiency. The
header is fixed at 40 bytes, regardless of addi onal op ons.

Fields in the IPv6 Header:

1. Version (4 bits): Indicates IPv6 (value: 6).

2. Traffic Class (8 bits): Specifies the priority of the packet (similar to Type of Service in IPv4).

3. Flow Label (20 bits): Iden fies a flow for special handling, such as real- me traffic.

4. Payload Length (16 bits): Specifies the length of the data following the header.
 5. Next Header (8 bits): Iden fies the protocol used in the payload (e.g., TCP, UDP).

6. Hop Limit (8 bits): Decreases at each hop; replaces TTL in IPv4.

7. Source Address (128 bits): IPv6 address of the sender.

8. Des na on Address (128 bits): IPv6 address of the receiver.

Example of an IPv6 Header:

Field Size Purpose

Version 4 bits IPv6 (value: 6).

Traffic Class 8 bits Packet priority/QoS se ngs.

Flow Label 20 bits Iden fies packet flows requiring special handling.

Payload Length 16 bits Length of the data por on of the packet.

Next Header 8 bits Protocol iden fier for payload (e.g., TCP = 6).

Hop Limit 8 bits Max hops before packet is discarded.

Source Address 128 bits Sender's IPv6 address.

Des na on Address 128 bits Receiver's IPv6 address.

Key Differences from IPv4:

1. Larger address space.

2. Simplified and fixed-length header for faster processing.

3. No NAT (Network Address Transla on) needed due to ample addresses.

4. Built-in support for IPsec for enhanced security.

5. Be er support for mul cast and mobility.

IPv6 addresses and headers provide scalability and efficiency, mee ng the growing demands of modern
networking.