10.5. How to make functions discontinuous.

Here is a discontinuous function:

(
x2 if x =
6 3,
f (x) =
47 if x = 3.

In other words, we take a continuous function like g(x) = x2 , and change its value somewhere, e.g. at x = 3.
Then
lim f (x) = 9 6= 47 = f (3).
x→3

The reason that the limit is 9 is that our new function f (x) coincides with our old continuous function g(x)
for all x except x = 3. Therefore the limit of f (x) as x → 3 is the same as the limit of g(x) as x → 3, and
since g is continuous this is g(3) = 9.

10.6. Sandwich in a bow tie. We return to the function from example ??. Consider
(
x cos x1


for x 6= 0,
f (x) =
0 for x = 0

Then f is continuous at x = 0 by the Sandwich Theorem (see Example ??).

If we change the definition of f by picking a different value at x = 0 the new function will not be
continuous, since changing f at x = 0 does not change the limit limx→0 f (x). Since this limit is zero, f (0) = 0
is the only possible choice of f (0) which makes f continuous at x = 0.

11. Substitution in Limits

Given two functions f and g one can consider their composition h(x) = f (g(x)). To compute the limit


lim f g(x)
x→a

we write u = g(x), so that we want to know

lim f (u) where u = g(x).

x→a

Suppose that you can find the limits

L = lim g(x) and lim f (u) = M.

x→a u→L

Then it seems reasonable that as x approaches a, u = g(x) will approach L, and f (g(x)) approaches M .
This is in fact a theorem:

11.1. Theorem. If limx→a g(x) = a, and if the function f is continuous at u = L, then

lim f g(x) = lim f (u) = f (L).
x→a u→L

Another way to write this is

lim f g(x) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

36
 √
11.2. Example: compute limx→3 x3 − 3x2 + 2. The given function is the composition of two func-
tions, namely p √
x3 − 3x2 + 2 = u, with u = x3 − 3x2 + 2,
or, in function notation, we want to find limx→3 h(x) where
√
h(x) = f (g(x)), with g(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2 and g(x) = x.
Either way, we have √ √
lim x3 − 3x2 + 2 = 2 and lim u= 2.
x→3 u→2
You get the first limit from the limit properties (P1 ). . . (P5 ). The second limit says that taking the square
root is a continuous function, which it is. We have not proved that (yet), but this particular
√ limit is the one
from example 6.3. Putting these two limits together we conclude that the limit is 2.
Normally, you write this whole argument as follows:
p q √
lim x3 − 3x2 + 2 = lim x3 − 3x2 + 2 = 2,
x→3 x→3
√
where you must point out that f (x) = x is a continuous function to justify the first step.
Another possible way of writing this is
p √ √
lim x3 − 3x2 + 2 = lim u = 2,
x→3 u→2

where you must say that you have substituted u = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

12. Exercises

Find the following limits. (2u + 1)4

65. lim
u→∞ (3u2 + 1)2

52. lim (2x + 5) (2t + 1)4

x→−7 66. lim
t→0 (3t2 + 1)2
53. lim (2x + 5)
x→7− 67. What are the coordinates of the points labeled A, . . . ,
E in Figure 2 (the graph of y = sin π/x).
54. lim (2x + 5)
x→−∞
68. If limx→a f (x) exists then f is continuous at x = a.
55. lim (x + 3)2006 True or false?
x→−4
69. Give two examples of functions for which limx&0 f (x)
56. lim (x + 3)2007
x→−4 does not exist.
57. lim (x + 3)2007 70. Group Problem.
x→−∞
If limx→0 f (x) and lim

x→0 g(x) both do not exist,
t2 + t − 2 then limx→0 f (x) + g(x) also does not exist. True or
58. lim
t→1 t2 − 1 false?
t2 + t − 2 71. Group Problem.
59. lim
t%1 t2 − 1
If limx→0 f (x) and limx→0 g(x) both do not exist,
t2 + t − 2 then limx→0 (f (x)/g(x)) also does not exist. True or
60. lim
t→−1 t2 − 1 false?
x2 + 3 72. Group Problem.
61. lim
x→∞ x2 + 4 In the text we proved that limx→∞ x1 = 0. Show
5 that this implies that limx→∞ x does not exist. Hint:
x +3
62. lim Suppose limx→∞ x = L for some number L. Apply the
x→∞ x2 + 4
1
x2 + 1 limit properties to limx→∞ x · .
63. lim x
x→∞ x5 + 2 √
x−3
73. Evaluate lim . Hint: Multiply top and bottom
(2x + 1)4 √ x→9 x − 9
64. lim by x + 3.
x→∞ (3x2 + 1)2
37
 sin θ
Proving lim =1
x→0 θ

B The circular wedge OAC contains the

C triangle OAC and is contained in the right
triangle OAB.
1
The area of triangle OAC is 2
sin θ.
θ

tan θ
1
The area of circular wedge OAC is θ.

sin θ
2
1
The area of right triangle OAB is 2
tan θ.
Hence one has sin θ < θ < tan θ for all
angles 0 < θ < π/2.

O A

1
x
− 21 77. Find a constant k such that the function
74. Evaluate lim .
x→2 x−2 (
3x + 2 for x < 2
√1 − √1 f (x) =
75. Evaluate lim
x
. 2 x2 + k for x ≥ 2.
x→2 x−2
is continuous. Hint: Compute the one-sided limits.
76. A function f is defined by

3 78. Find constants a and c such that the function
x
 for x < −1 
3
f (x) = ax + b for − 1 ≤ x < 1 x + c
 for x < 0

 2
x + 2 for x ≥ 1. f (x) = ax + c2 for 0 ≤ x < 1

arctan x for x ≥ 1.

where a and b are constants. The function f is continuous.
What are a and b? is continuous for all x.

13. Two Limits in Trigonometry

In this section we’ll derive a few limits involving the trigonometric functions. You can think of them as
saying that for small angles θ one has
sin θ ≈ θ and cos θ ≈ 1 − 21 θ2 .
We will use these limits when we compute the derivatives of Sine, Cosine and Tangent.

sin θ
13.1. Theorem. lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

Proof. The proof requires a few sandwiches and some geometry.

We begin by only considering positive angles, and in fact we will only consider angles 0 < θ < π/2.
Since the wedge OAC contains the triangle OAC its area must be larger. The area of the wedge is 12 θ
and the area of the triangle is 21 sin θ, so we find that
π
(13) 0 < sin θ < θ for 0 < θ < .
2
The Sandwich Theorem implies that
(14) lim sin θ = 0.
θ&0

Moreover, we also have

p
(15) lim cos θ = lim 1 − sin2 θ = 1.
θ&0 θ&0

38
 1
Next we compare the areas of the wedge OAC and the larger triangle OAB. Since OAB has area 2 tan θ
we find that
θ < tan θ
sin θ
for 0 < θ < π2 . Since tan θ = cos θ we can multiply with cos θ and divide by θ to get
sin θ π
cos θ < for 0 < θ <
θ 2
If we go back to (15) and divide by θ, then we get
sin θ
cos θ < <1
θ
The Sandwich Theorem can be used once again, and now it gives
sin θ
lim = 1.
θ&0 θ

This is a one-sided limit. To get the limit in which θ % 0, you use that sin θ is an odd function. 

13.2. An example. We will show that

1 − cos θ 1
(16) lim 2
= .
θ→0 θ 2
This follows from sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. Namely,
1 − cos θ 1 1 − cos2 θ
2
=
θ 1 + cos θ θ2
2
1 sin θ
=
1 + cos θ θ2
 2
1 sin θ
= .
1 + cos θ θ
sin θ
We have just shown that cos θ → 1 and θ → 1 as θ → 0, so (16) follows.

14. Exercises

Find each of the following limits or show that it does not sin(x2 )
87. lim .
exist. Distinguish between limits which are infinite and x→0 x2
limits which do not exist. x(1 − cos x)
88. lim .
sin 2α x→0 tan3 x
79. lim (two ways: with and without the double
α→0 sin α
angle formula!) sin(x2 )
89. lim .
x→0 1 − cos x
sin 3x
80. lim . x − π2
x→0 2x 90. lim .
x→π/2 cos x
tan θ
81. lim . π
θ→0 θ 91. lim (x − 2
) tan x.
x→π/2
tan 4α
82. lim . cos x
α→0 sin 2α 92. lim .
x→0 x2 + 9
1 − cos x
83. lim . sin x
x→0 x sin x 93. lim .
x→π x−π
1 − sin θ
84. lim sin x
θ→π/2 θ − π/2 94. lim .
x→0 x + sin x
2x3 + 3x2 cos x
85. lim . sin x
x→∞ (x + 2)3 95. A = lim . (!!)
x
x→∞

sin2 x cos x
86. lim . 96. B = lim . (!! again)
x→0 1 − cos x x→∞ x
39
97. Is there a constant k such that the function Here is a picture of A12 , B6 and π:
(
sin(1/x) for x 6= 0
f (x) =
k for x = 0.
is continuous? If so, find it; if not, say why.
98. Find a constant A so that the function

 sin x for x 6= 0
f (x) = 2x
A when x = 0
π
99. Compute limx→∞ x sin x
and limx→∞ x tan πx . (Hint:
substitute something).
100. Group Problem.
(Geometry & Trig review ) Let An be the area of the
regular n-gon inscribed in the unit circle, and let Bn be
the area of the regular n-gon whose inscribed circle has
radius 1.
(a) Show that An < π < Bn . On a historical note: Archimedes managed to com-
(b) Show that pute A96 and B96 and by doing this got the most accurate
n 2π π approximation for π that was known in his time. See also:
An = sin and Bn = n tan
2 n n http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
(c) Compute limn→∞ An and limn→∞ Bn . HistTopics/Pi_through_the_ages.html

40