GUIDELINES FOR DISCOVERY TEACHING

A Handbook for Teachers of

General Mathematics and Prealgebra
in Grades 9-12.

United States Department of Education

Basic Skills Improvement Program
Contract 300800953
September 30, 1980- September 29, 1982

Helen Smiler, Project Director

Project SEED, Inc.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword i

Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview. 1

Introduction . . . . . . . • . . 1
Key Elements of Discovery Teaching . 3
A Note on Large Group Instruction . . 4

Chapter 2 General Socratic Strategies . . . . 8

Effective Questioning Techniques 8

Review . . . • . 14
Vocabulary . . • . . . • . . . . 18
Boardwork . . . . . • • . • . • . . 19

Chapter 3 Mathematics Development Structures 21

Gradual Escalation to a Generalization . 21
Equivalent Sentences . • . . . . 25
Use of Generalizations to Extend
Definitions. . . • • . .•.. 27
Patterns . . . . • • . • • • . . . • . . 28
Equality; Transitivity . . . . . 30
Embedding the Material in a Conceptual
Framework. . . . . . • .• 33

Chapter 4 Feedback and Involvement . 35

Circulating· . . . . . . • • • 35
Polling· . • . . . . . . . • . • • . 36
Finger and Hand Signals. • • · • . • • . 37
Chorus Response· . . . • . . . . . 38
Rapid Oral Questions . • . 39
Counting, Naming, Predicting Hands . 39
Chain Answering. . . . 40
Deliberate Errors. . • • . 41
Attention and Focus. . • • 43

Chapter 5 Building Student Confidence. 47

Success Reinforcement • • . 47
Student Errors . . . . • • 50
Encouraging Insecure Students. 52
Student Interactions • . . • . 53

Appendix Checklist of Discovery Techniques. 56

 FOREWORD

Since 1963, mathematicians and scientists trained by

Project SEED have been using a Socratic, group discovery
method of instruction to teach abstract, conceptually-oriented
mathematics (topics from high school and college level algebra)
to elementary school children from educationally disadvantaged
backgrounds. Not only were the students successful at learning
algebra, but their basic arithmetic scores improved dramatically.

The basic Project SEED group discovery techniques were

initiated by William F. Johntz, the founder and National
Director of Project SEED. Over the years they have been
refined by SEED specialists throughout the country into a
powerful tool for teaching mathematics. Although the methods
have been used primarily with elementary school students, they
have implications for teaching students at all levels.

Project SEED techniques are designed to overcome the low

motivation and feeling of academic inferiority that are common
among students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. They are
designed to maximize student involvement in the development of
the mathematics being taught. Project SEED mathematicians
concentrate on making students feel good about their ability
to do mathematics and want to participate in each lesson.
There also is an emphasis developing the students• critical
thinking and problem solving abilities.

the school years 1980-81 and 1981-82, under contract

with the U.S. Department of Education, Basic Skills Improvement
Program, Project SEED staff in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Detroit,
Los Angeles, and Oakland worked with ninth through twelfth grade
students and their teachers in Title I eligible areas in an
attempt to modify the SEED methods for use with secondary school

i
students. Our work primarily focused on general mathematics *
and prealgebra classes. Students in these classes usually
have fallen behind the norm and seem to be trapped by their own
feelings of academic inferiority. On the whole, our efforts
were quite successful in providing these students with a
successful learning experience. We remain, however, firmly
convinced that it would be far more effective to work with these
same students in elementary school, before their attitudes about.
their academic abilities have set so firmly.

11
The present manual, Guidelines for Discovery Teaching, ..
is the result of this experience with secondary school students.
It is written for teachers of general mathematics and prealgebra
classes, although it contains many suggestions that apply to
other levels and other subject areas. It is designed to capture
the essential elements of discovery teaching which we found
successful with students in grades nine through twelve.

Usually mathematicians who are trained to teach by the

Project SEED method learn their techniques through a procedure
of observation, discussion, and supervised teaching over an
introductory period of several weeks and continuously throughout
their tenure as SEED specialists. Each mathematician who teaches
SEED group discovery classes has learned the process through
modeling and oral tradition. Experienced SEED specialists are
successful because they have imitated a successful SEED
specialist.

In using these notes to adopt discovery teaching in your

classroom, you will not have this luxury. It is unlikely that
there will be an experienced SEED specialist to observe or to
give you feedback on your teaching. We recommend, therefore,

*There are a variety of titles, such as "Math Workshop,"

"Consumer Math," and "General Mathematics," given to classes
for secondary students who have not yet mastered the basic
arithmetic skills to enroll in prealgebra or algebra. General
Math is used throughout to refer to these classes.
ii
that you begin by reading the entire manual quickly. This will
give you an overall picture of the method that would have been
provided by observation.

Begin discovery teaching by picking your own topic or

using one of the Curriculum Modules developed by Project SEED.
Go back through this manual and pick out one or two key
techniques from each chapter to incorporate into your lesson.
As they become part of your permanent repertoire, experiment
with additional techniques. Use the checklist in the Appendix
as a reminder to keep your methods varied.

We hope this-manual will become a guidebook leading both

you and your students to experience greater success.

iii
I
I

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Introduction

If you were to observe a successful group discovery class,

you would witness both the instructor and the students actively
involved in the learning process. Students discover mathematical
concepts through answering the instructor's questions. There
is a positive atmosphere in which there are no "wrong" answers,
and students who ask questions often receive more recognition
than students who answer them. Students are confident of their
ability to learn and frequently debate with the instructor or
their peers.

To help orient the reader, we begin with an illustration.

The following lesson is typical of hundreds of SEED lessons
over the past nineteen years with students traditionally labeled
.. educationally disadvantaged" because of their socioeconomic
and achievement levels.

The lesson began with some review material, which was

designed to prepare a receptive mood for the central question
"2E-1=?" ("E" here is used for the operation of exponentiation
3
so that 2E3=2x2x2=2 .) The class had never considered questions
on negative exponents before although, as shown by the review
questions, they were familiar with the additive law for E and
also with addition of integers.

When the instructor invited conjectures on 2E 1 he received

a number of answers, but most favored 2E-1=1. The students'
arguments in favor of this answer were various and interesting.
The one which seemed to have the most support turned about the
11
similarity between 2+-1" and 11
2E-1". Then one student
suggested using "2E-1 in a sentence: (2E 1) x (2E2)=2E(-1+2)=2E1.
From this the class derived, in the usual way, that 2E-1 was

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acting like (2E-1)x(2E2)=2E1
t .t. T
lEX 4 =2

This result provoked a truly excellent debate, with some

students arguing for the previous answer (2E-1=1 ), and other
- 1
students for 2E 1=2· One student devised a further argument for
by pointing out the pattern
2E3=8
2E2=4
2E1=2
2E0=1
. - 1
2E 1- 2

Throughout the lesson there was a great deal of student

dialogue, which the instructor handled in a purely non-legis-
lative fashion--being careful to keep open the status of 2E 1.

At one point in the discussion, a student was insisting

that "2 and -1 make 1, doesn't make sense."
Whereupon another student replied that "2 and -1 are 1 in addition,
but not in exponentiation.

In the above lesson, the students were thinking critically

about mathematics, exchanging ideas and listening to each others'
opinions. There are numerous strategies and techniques which
are used to establish this classroom

The techniques fall roughly into four major categories which

are described briefly below. The remaining chapters of these
guidelines elaborate more fully on each of the categories, and
contain detailed suggestions on how to successfully incorporate
discovery teaching into the teaching of general mathematics and
other subjects. Specific techniques often accomplish more than
one purpose; however, to avoid repetition, we have tried to
place each where it is used most frequently.

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Key Elements of Discovery Teaching

There are four main elements of discovery teaching as used

by Project SEED.

1. Questioning - Virtually all the dialogue in SEED

classes consists of instructor questions and student
responses, except, of course, when the instructor
responds to a student's questions with another question.
Structured sequences of questions lead the class to
an understanding new mathematical concepts. Other
questions review and reinforce previously learned
material. Chapter 2 is devoted to general strategies
for presenting without lecturing.

2. Advanced, conceptual mathematics - Students often view

mathematics as a sequence of arbitrary, meaningless
rules to be memorized. It's no wonder they often don't
retain what they learn. Conceptual understanding is
an essential component of discovery teaching. Students
who thoroughly investigate and understand key examples
are better able to retain what they've learned and
apply it to new situations.

Frequent repetition of material leads to boredom,

resentment, and perhaps discipline problems, even when
students have not mastered the material. This is
particularly true of general mathematics students, who
know that the material they are covering is normally
taught in 6th or 7th grade. SEED instructors choose
advanced topics which embed and reinforce elementary
ones (or teach elementary concepts from an abstract,
conceptual point of view). Because the material is
fresh, they are able to capture the students' interest,
while at the same time reinforcing basic skills.

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 Chapter 3 contains techniques for structuring questions
to develop conceptual understanding. The reader is
also referred to the curriculum modules which are a
companion to these guidelines. The modules contain
·outlines illustrating ·in detail the Socratic develop-
ment of selected topics.

3. Feedback and involvement - The instructor constantly

uses a variety of techniques to monitor student under-
standing and to maintain a high level of participation.
The teacher uses information about the class level of
understanding in formulating the next question.
Feedback and involvement techniques are found in
Chapter 4.

4. Positive, supportive atmosphere - The previous three

characteristics are combined with additional techniques
for supporting and motivating students to present an
atmosphere in which there is a strong individual and
group sense of achievement and success. There are no
wrong answers. Students feel that they can learn and
they do. Chapter 5 describes techniques for building
student confidence.

A Note on Large Group Instruction

The techniques contained in this manual deal primarily

with whole group instruction. While individual practice
(seatwork and homework) are clearly necessary to reinforce
skills, we have found that the discovery process for learning
mathematics works most effectively with an entire class,
particularly in courses like general mathematics, where the
students lack confidence in their own academic abilities.

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Some reasons for this somewhat surprising phenomenon are:

1. Frees the student to think.

A group of sufficient size (20-30 students) can create

an illusion of anonymity for the student, freeing him
or her* to think creatively. In a one-to-one relation-
ship with the teacher, or in a small group of three or
four, the student is put on the spot when he is asked a
question that calls upon him to think or reason. Most
people tend to freeze--or at least to become anxious--
when asked questions that require to think. To be
singled out can only intensify the student's anxiety.
The large group enables him to feel less exposed, less
vulnerable. The sensitive teacher can help an insecure
student relax in a large group: He can supportively
"ignore" him for a few minutes by turning his attention
to other· students giving him the time he needs to
unfreeze and think through a question, a procedure that
would obviously be impossible in a one-to-one or small
group situation, since ignoring the student under those
circumstances, however benign it might be, would be
obvious to the point of seeming accusatory.

2. Students more likely to perform.

By the same token, the group situation, by providing

the student with a sense of anonymity, tends to destroy
in him any lingering passivity. Students can be asked
to respond in chorus and to use hand symbols and gestures
in large groups. Such requests would seem foolish in
a small group or the one-to-one relationship, merely

*There is no acceptable convention for dealing with the

third person singular. In these notes, we occasionally
use the awkward "he or she," but generally arbitrarily
choose one gender or the other.

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 causing the student to feel embarrassed. Moreover,
there are ways in which the skillful teacher can draw
out a truly reluctant student in a group situation
that would be impossible if she were alone with him.
(See Chapter 5)

3. Student's self-concept enhanced.

When she responds in a group situation, the student's

self-concept is much more likely to be enhanced than
when she responds individually to the teacher. First
of all, the group situation makes it possible for the
teacher to use .subtle, indirect methods of involving
the student in the learning process. Once involved,
the student feels better about herself, and her self-
concept inevitably is enhanced as a result.

Second, students are far more eager for peer approval

than for teacher approval. The skillful teacher who
provides students with an exciting group learning
experience, one in which becoming involved is ''the
thing to do," creates in the reluctant learner a need
to participate in order to seek peer approval. Once he
knows he has earned peer approval by performing well,
his self-concept has been even further enhanced and he
is motivated to perform even better.

4. Group discussions are more productive.

The richness of a discussion among students in a large

group is far more productive than what is ever possible
in a small group or between the teacher and one student,
simply because there are more people contributing their
ideas. When students discuss particularly difficult
subjects, such as mathematics, a group can often solve
together a problem that no single one of them could

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 solve alone. Such a shared experience of success by a )

group adds a dimension to learning impossible to

duplicate in the small group or one-to-one setting.

5. Students like group learning.

Watch students in a well-taught group learning situation.

They learn and interact with zest and enthusiasm
impossible to duplicate in an individualized setting.
Students like to compete with their peers; they become
truly involved in the content of the discussion and
will often spend time outside of class "researching'' a
particular point in order to contribute to a later
discussion.

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 CHAPTER 2

GENERAL SOCRATIC STRATEGIES

Effective Questioning Techniques

Good questions are at the heart of the discovery method.

Carefully sequenced sets of questions enable students to under-
stand extremely sophiiticated material. The most successful
discovery teachers only ask questions and rarely or never make
declaratory statements in class about anything more serious
than the weather.

Questions allow the instructor to gain immediate feedback

from the students and, thus, to pace the introduction of new
material appropriately. Students become active rather than
passive participants in the learning process. They are focused
on the topic at hand and begin to develop a framework for problem
solving on their own.

The following suggestions will help you design question

sequences that stimulate true discovery and critical thinking in
a group setting.

1. Write out your seguence of questions in preparation

for the class. This will help you find some of the
areas of difficulty. You can then write a sub-routine
of questions that will help ease the over the
difficult spots. A useful exercise is to consider
what questions you would need to ask if you, yourself,
were learning the topic.

2. Keep a log. Because discovery teaching moves with the

response of the class, it is imperative to keep a record
of the day•s lesson. Many instructors have a student
take notes. Others spend a few minutes annotating the
day's plan after class and use that as a springboard
for planning the next day•s lesson.

-8-
 ,·
3. Vary the difficulty of questions. In order to keep
students of different abilities constantly involved in
the you must ask a mixture of hard and easy
questions. Challenging questions keep the faster
students interested, while routine questions give the
slower students a chance to respond and build confidence.

Examples:

Problem Routine Questions Challenging Questions

1 1
2 + 4 =? Who can find an equivalent Who can find two
1
fraction for 2 that we can different fractions
1 . 1
add to 4 ? wh ose sum l.S
2 .
?

3 2
What•s 42 1
+ 4? (Is 6 + 8 a legitimate
answer?)
Who can draw a picture to
illustrate this problem?
1 1 3
=2 + 4 =4 What•s the next question? What problem would we
solve to find s 10 ?
= 21 + 41 + 81 =87 What problem do I have to Find a formula for sn.
solve to find s 4? (All
the steps to computing
1 1 1
2+4+8)
Who can predict s 5?

3. Vary the guestion pace. A varied pace helps avoid

monotony and maintains student interest. Pace will
also depend on the degree difficulty of the question
being asked.

Alternate fast-paced series of straightforward questions

with slower conceptual discussions. Most discovery
classes begin and end
- -· .
with
.
a quick pace. Fast-paced
questions are also useful when reviewing, building up

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 to a generalization through examples, or practicing an
idea the class has just verbalized. Have the class
chorus their answers when you really want to move fast.
Using quick consecutive chorus responses is a very
effective device for focusing a class. Appropriate
times for a more relaxed pace include: when the class
is discovering a key concept, when students are attempting
to articulate thoughts, when they are checking a result
on their papers, and when a student is teaching.

5. Vary the mode of response. This again will avoid monotony

while involving more students. In addition to calling
on an individual, you can: ask the whole class to say
an answer, ask a particular group of students to say it,
have the students write the answer on their papers, or
have them use their hands to express an answer or to
signal agreement or disagreement with someone else's
answer. In order to avoid confusion and called out
answers, it is advisable to make it clear to the class,
when you ask the question, how you want them to respond.

A typical pattern is to ask four or five similar

questions in a row. Call on individuals for the first
two. Then have the whole class answer a question in
chorus. Finally, have each student work a problem on
paper. You might also have a student work the problem
on the board. Ask about half your questions so that
they are answered by the whole class together in some
way, and the other half of your questions so that they
can be answered by individuals. Make sure that each
member of your class has a chance to answer several
questions each day.

(See also Chapter 4 on Feedback and Involvement)

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6. Ask a variety of questions on the same concept. Asking
a variety of questions on the same concept gives more
students a chance to participate, reinforces skills,
and may give students new insights and understanding.
Often students who didn't understand a concept the first
time find it makes sense when presented from a different
angle.

7. Set up patterns. Patterns help the class move smoothly

from simple to more complex examples. Patterns can
also be used to provide a challenge (discovering the
pattern) to students who already understand the concept.
Less complex patterns can be used to provide questions
(predicting the next problem) that less advanced
students can answer successfully. Since patterns can
sometimes be misleading, it is wise not to always be
predictable. (For a more thorough description of
patterns, see Chapter 3.)

Examples:

cl2 + 1>
2 • 12 =?, (l2 + l
2
+ 1
2
+ 1) .
2 •
1 =?,

1 1 1 1 1 1 .1
+ I + + + + • I = ?,. .. i j + = ?'

1
3 +
1
9 =
?
• T
1
3 +n =
1
., .
?

1
2 + 3 =
1
.,
?
1
3 +
4 = .,
1 ?
1
4 +
1
5 = ? ...
= ?. , . . .
1 1 1
X 4
2 X 6 = ?. ' -x 8
2 = ?
• I

21 = ?. ' 22 = ?. , 23 = ?. ' . . .
Note that most of the sequences just given admit of
generalizations:

1.):_
2 •
1
-
2
= n,
1
3 + 3 ·n = 3n
1 n+1, 1 1 2n+1 1
n + n+1 = n(n+1)' 2
X 2n = n.
i =1
In teaching such patterns, it is often a good idea to
arrive eventually at the general form, provided it can

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 be done, which it usually can, without undue strain.
1 1
• ht as k II3
Hence one m1g + = ?. II or--more d 1• ff 1cu
• lt --
who can generalize this?

B. Use parallel problems for contrast.

1 1 1 1
2 + 3 = ? versus 2 X
3 = ?

10 X
1
2 = ? versus 10 .
- 21 = ?

1 .. 1 1 1
-
1o 10 = ? versus
10 - TO = ?

5 + ? = 0 versus 5 X ? = 1

These kinds of problems are also helpful in reviewing

and consolidating. For instance, one might start out
the class by writing the following sentences on the
board:

1 1 1 1 1
2 + 3 = 5 2 X
3 =5

1 .
- 21 =
10 X
2 = 5 10 1

1 .1 5 1 1 1
1o -. 1o = 6 10 - TO = 6

5 + 0 = 0 5 X 20 = 1

Then the class is asked to permute the solutions so as

to make all sentences true.

9. Be specific. Unless you want to generate an open

discussion, make your questions specific. A question
that can be answered quickly frees you to move on to

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 the next question. Specific questions also avoid
correct answers that slow you down or lead in a
different direction from what you had planned.

Examples:

.7 X .05 = .035 If you want to review the relationship

of fractions and decimals, ask "How
can we check this answer using
fractions?", not "Why is this the
right answer?"

(2 X 3) + (2 X 4) = ? If you are trying to teach the

distributive law, ask for an answer
that uses the numbers in the problem.

10. Leave some questions open until the next class or even
longer. It creates an intellectual challenge which
students may think about on their own. It also gives
you a chance to present more tools or a different
approach for solving the problem so that more students
will grasp it. When the class eventually solves the
problem, there is a greater sense of accomplishment--
"This problem was so hard it took us three days to
solve it."

Many instructors have students keep a page of

Problems,. in their notebooks. These are frequently
questions like 3 - 5= [] that arise during class and
will be covered later in the year. Special recognition
should be given to students who solve problems from the
list or who bring them to the class's attention when it
is ready to solve them.

11. Don't push for results the class isn't ready for.
If the students are forced to a conclusion they don't
quite understand, they lose confidence and are likely
Vto forget what you've taught. It is preferable to
return to the subject at the next lesson, perhaps
approaching it from a different direction.

-13-.
 The same principle holds true for verbalizations and
generalizations. When a new concept is introduced,
students frequently discover how to solve problems
without being able to articulate how they got their
answers. Forcing them to verbalize prematurely may
lead to confusion. If only a few members of the
class can provide an explanation or generalization,
the rest of the class tends to rely on rote memoriza-
tion of their classmate's rules, rather than their own
conceptual understanding.

12. When a student asks a guestion, don't answer it

yourself. Ask for another student to volunteer to
answer it, or ask a sequence of questions that will
lead the class to answer the question. Praise students
who ask questions to encourage more questions.

13. Don't kid yourself. Making a declarative statement

and following it with the question, "Right?" is not
using the discovery method. Such questions are really
lectures in disguise, since the students will give
the obvious answer, "Yes," without understanding the
concept at all.

Review

Review is a key factor in successful discovery teaching.

Review doesn't have to be done at the beginning of the lesson,
although frequently the instructor who begins a class where it
left off at the last lesson finds the students getting bogged
down in material they previously handled easily. A brief
conceptual review should be part of each class. This reinforces
the concepts and allows the students to build on them later.
It also provides a success experience for the students. Review
enables new students, absentees, and slower students to catch
up to the rest of the class, and more advanced students to gain

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new insights and deeper conceptual understand-ing. Review )
provides a springboard for new material.

In doing review, the overall strategy is to disguise it

---------'·--
and keep it fast paced and surprising. In general, review
----
-·-- ,-..,-- - ----·
questions should be skew-directional, the next question in the
sequence being unpredictable. Occasionally, however, predict-
ability itself can be a virtue. A question which you can then
11
use with the class is, What do you think I'm going to ask
next?" And, of course, the spiral method should be employed
regularly--asking questions on the same material but at a
different level.

Review should focus both on conceptual understanding and

fast-paced drill. During the course of a two-week period, the
entire year's work should be touched on to enable the students
to maintain the mastery of a considerable body of mathematics.
This gives them a sense of intellectual strength and increases
their willingness to risk the unknown. On the average, 20%-60%
of any lesson will be review.

There are a number of ways of making the review portion

of the lesson as interesting as the discovery of new concepts.
Some suggestions follow:

1. Cover familiar ground rapidly. For example, you might

lead up to a generalization with only one or two
examples, or ask a series of rapid oral questions.

2. Approach a review concept from a new direction.

Examples:
Approach 2° =1 via division 2° =

or by the pattern 23 =
22 2
21
20
=
= 4' .
.
2
2
=
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 Review the addition of fractiops using a number line.

(
0
!! t
I
1

3. Try to ask more provocative questions that lead the

students deeper into the mathematical concepts.

Examples:

Inverses - What are the similarities between

2 + 6 =0 and x 6 =6, ?

Decimals - If 23296 7 728 = 32, what•s 23.296 3.2?

(Have students do the second problem in
their heads to reinforce the rule for placing
the decimal point when multiplying decimals.)

Open sentences - Who can make up an open sentence that

has 2 in its truth set?

Who can make up an open sentence that has

an empty truth set?

4. Choose new material that presupposes previous concepts

so that review is an essential part of the lesson.

Example: Review the additive law of exponents

(an x bm = a(n+m))and multiplicative
inverses (a x 1a = 1 for a # 0)
1
in showing that 2- = /)
/

5. Embed review material in new concepts.

Example:

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 6. Introduce new notation or terminology.

Example: In reviewing multiplication of fractions,

introduce the words "multiplicative inverse"
11
and reciprocal."

Change the notation for exponentiation from

3
2E3 = 2 x 2 x 2 to the standard 2 = 8.
Introduce the words "base" and 11
exponent."

7. Have students make up review questions. Be specific

about the directions, such as: "Who can make up a
problem using two to the zero power? 11 so that the
review will keep the focus you want.

8. Put on the board a number of. mathematical statements

containing errors. Ignore the students' disagreement
until you've finished writing. Feign disbelief in
your mistakes, reluctantly admitting the existence
of further errors only after the class corrects you.

9. Mid-lesson reviews can provide challenge and variety

if you "mistakenly" or deliberately erase all or part
... / of the board and then ask the class to help you put
it up again. This is useful when you want to use
previous results but need to display them differently.

10. As you are winding up a lesson, have students make up

review questions for you to use the next day. Place
students in charge of remembering particular results.
An interesting variation is to ask the students to scan
the whole blackboard and suggest which sentences can
/
be erased and which should be kept for tomorrow, or
which best capsulize what the day covered.

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 11. Use worksheets, letting students ask each other for
help or refer to their notebooks.

12. Occasionally inject a review question into the middle

of a lesson as a change of pace.

13. Use any of the various techniques listed elsewhere

which increase student involvement and participation.

Vocabulary

In discovery teaching, vocabulary is introduced in context.

3
Examples: 1) 2 = 2 X 2 X 2 =8
24 = "What if I change the
exponent to 4?"
11
2) Who can give me a division sentence that
undoes 4x8 = 32? Who can give me a
division sentence equivalent to 4 x 8 = 32? 11

Answer: 32 · 4 =8
32 8 =4
New words are written on the board either off to one side
or linked to an appropriate example.

Example: (;"\----exponent
8

Students should keep a vocabulary page in their notebooks

and should be reminded to hew word.s as they are
encountered. The list should occasionally include nonmathematical
words unfamiliar to the class that arise during the course of a
lesson.

Vocabulary should be part of the ongoing review. The

instructor should ask questions using the vocabulary to verify
student understanding. Students might also be asked to provide
or circle on the board an illustration of the word being

-18-
 ...
reviewed. Key vocabulary words should be written on the board
frequently, and students might be asked to read or spell the
more difficult ones.

Boardwork

A clear, well-arranged board can facilitate the smooth

flow of mathematical discovery. A useful planning device is
\/. to take a page and sketch exactly how you imagine the board
will look at the end of the lesson. This helps to organize
the space so that important hints and prerequisites will be
left up and ideas don't run into each other haphazardly.

For example, the chart 24 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 16

23 = 2 X 2 X 2 = 8
22 = 2 X 2 = 4
21
= 2
leads to the obvious question, 11
What's 20? ..

A useful technique for focusing students on important

intermediate results is to enlist their help in deciding what
can be erased and what should be saved. You might ask the class
to read certain important results on the board while you
write them off to one side to make space for new work.

Another helpful technique is "circling" for emphasis or

focus.
Examples:
a) 2 + 2 + 5 = 0 "Who can draw a closed curve
around the part that adds up
to zero?"

b) (2E3)E4

2E(3 + 3 + 3 + 3) =
Who can read the part of the
sentence in the closed curve?"

-19-
C) 2E3 = 2 X 2 X 2 "Who can circle the base? 11

5
IThe summationlfrom i=1 up to
i:1 5 of (D , etc.

(._.. ••.!

-20-
 CHAPTER 3

MATHEMATICS DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURES

The goal in discovery teaching is for students to feel

that the mathematics they learn belongs to them. They under-
stand it. They developed its rules and formulas. They can
explain it to someone else. They are confident about their
ability to extend their knowledge.

The basic process to accomplish this goal begins with

problems the students understand or can solve readily, and
builds more and more complex concepts upon them. The trick is
to structure the sequence of questions so that the mathematical
concept being taught unfolds as the students answer them.
There are several recurring question patterns or structures
which we have found useful in leading students to mathematical
discoveries with conceptual understanding. They also help
develop the students' critical thinking skill and provide them
with a framework for solving problems on their own.

Gradual Escalation to a Generalization

Generalizations are central to mathematics and to the

development of mathematical concepts in discovery classes.
Students can discover many general mathematical principles or
laws by investigating a number of particular examples.
Variables can then be used to write a formula which expresses
a true statement for all members of a given set. For example,
the statement "zero times any number is zero" becomes
11
't/eJ., 0 X ol = 0. 11

The most basic method for at a generalization

and understanding its power is usually referred to as "erase
and replace." A description of the process, along with an
example, follows:

-21-
(a) Begin with several particular 3 + 51 = 0
examples the class can solve. 5 + 6 = 0

(b) Change t:he term you want to

generalize--"If I change the
17 +A= o
5 to a 1 7 1 what else has to change?
(Note that there will be several
correct ansers. Acknowledge each and
continue until you get 17 + 17 = 0.)

(c) Continue to change the same term until

the class realizes that any number can
be used to make a true statement.

"Who can give me another number

to put in this sentence?"

"Can I make a true sentence using 117?"

"Can I use a large number?"

"Can I use a small number? 11

11
Can I use a fraction?"

"How long can we go on putting

different numbers here?

"How many numbers can we use?"

(d) Use variables to stand for arbitrary r + -'t = o

numbers. (Students seem to enjoy
using Greek letters to stand for
universal variables.)
(Note: Technically, there should be a
quantifier, "for every number li' 11
written " 't11r 11 • It is frequently
omitted, which rarely causes confusion.)

-22-
 (e) Check by substituting particular values.

"Will I get a true sentence if I

substitute a number for 't' ? 11

"Who knows what a substitute is? 11

"What would it mean to substitute a

number for ra ?"

"Who has a number to substitute for ?" Let 2J' = 10

"Who can read the sentence substituting

1 0 for 7J' ?" 10 + 10 = 0

"Is the sentence true when we

substitute 10

Another way to introduce a generalization is by doing

several examples which illustrate the principle. Then ask a
similar question involving variables, e.g.:

2 + D = 0I 7 + D = 0, 17+ D = 0, ot + D =0
Note that this approach does not lead to an understanding of
what CX represents. However, it is an efficient method for
arriving at generalizations once the class understands what
they are. To reinforce the concept, it is important to ask
review questions such as "What does oc stand for?", and "Will
I get a true sentence if I substitute numbers for oc? 11

Generalizations are often a good way to help demystify

mathematical symbolism and encourage students to try problems,
whether they think they know how to do them or not.

Examples: j '(x) + D =0
]
0
5 2
X dx + 1 5x dx =D
0
2

Introduce the words "generalization" and 11

generalize 11 in
context at some point by asking, "How would a mathematician

-23-
show that we can use any number; how would she generalize this
statement?" As the students become more familiar with the
process, you can leave out more and more steps, giving only a
few examples or saying, simply, "Who can generalize this
statement?"

Be careful, however, about pushing the class to arrive at

a generalization through a mechanical process before they
thoroughly understand the concept. A class which has not seen
enough examples may be perfectly willing to accept (a x b) +
(ax c) =a+ (b x c) or an+ am= a(n+m).

When you have one or more generalizations on the board,

you can demonstrate their power by asking the class to tell
you what to erase so that you only keep the statements which
tell you the most information or which summarize the day•s
lesson.

Here are several more examples of generalizations.

(a) The Distributive Law a x (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c)

1
(b) k X k = 1 for k 1: 0.
(Note that the question of whether k X k1 = 1 for all
numbers k leads to an interesting discussion about
multiplication by 0. )

(C) ()l X 1 = Ol
(d) an x am = a(n+m)

It is important for students to realize that not all

statements and patterns lead to generalizations. This can
be shown by examples such as:
3 3
(a) 2 + 2 = 2 4 but 3 3 + 3 3 I 3 4
4
but 3 :1 4 3 •

-24-
 Another useful activity is for students to make conjec-
tures about possible generalizations and attempt to verify or
disprove them. For example, a class which has studied the
distributive law OL x (" + "'( ) = ( Ol x ) + ( x t ) might
conjecture that OL + ( (d x Y ) = ( Ol + p ) x ( ot + 'l{ ) •

An excellent exercise is to present several true statements

and ask which ones can be generalized and how.

Example: 5 + 0 =5 2 + 3 =3 + 2 24 = 42
1 1 5
5 + 3 = 8 (2 X 3) + 2 = 2 X 4 2 + 3 =6

Equivalent Sentences

Replacing a mathematical expression by an equivalent one

is often an invaluable aid to solving a problem, understanding
a new concept, or arriving at a generalization.

2
1
+
1
4 = ? becomes 42 + 41 = ?

2 + 5 = ? becomes 2 + 2 + 3 = ?

4
23 X 2 = ? becomes (2 X 2 X 2) X (2 X 2 X 2 X 2) =?

(2 x 3) + (2 x 4) = 2 x 7 is easier to generalize in the

form (2 x 3) + (2 x 4) = 2 x (3 + 4).

The following process helps the students discover the

concept of equivalent mathematical sentences in a comfortable
situation:

Begin with an open sentence at an appropriate level for

the class, like
18+0=32.
Quickly give the class additional problems like

-25-
 (6 + 12) + [ ] = 32 (9 X 2) + = 32 D
(3 X 6) +D =32 (6 + 6 + 6) + [ ] = 32
(36 7 2) + [ ] = 32 x 36) + [ ] = 32, etc.

Tease the students about being stuck on "14" since they

keep giving the same number to different problems. The class
will quickly tell you that the sentences are all the same.
Introduce the terminology "another name for 18," "another way
of writing 18," and "an equivalent expression for 18."
Reinforce the concept by having the students make up additional
equivalent sentences or repeat the process with another problem.

We have found vertical arrows to be useful to indicate

equivalent expressions.

Examples: + l = D
2 1 3
4 + 4 =4
7
(2 X 2 X 2) X (2 X 2 X 2 X 2) = 2

t J t4
23 X 2 =
D
5 + 8 =
5 + 5+3 = D
Don't allow arrows to outlive their usefulness and become
a fetish to the point where a problem is "wrong" in the students•
minds if it doesn't have all the arrows. Arrows for operational
and relational symbols can be omitted, although they are helpful,
at first, in focusing on the renaming process.

-26-
 The many steps involved in writing an equivalent sentence
provide opportunities to involve students with a wide range of
skills in the solution of the same problem. Questions such as
"How can I rewrite the 8 using a 5?", "What do I bring down
for+?", "Where did this: come from?", etc., often involve
the least active participants in the class.

Frequently an open sentence is equivalent to (asks the

same question as, checks, has the same truth set as) another
sentence which is easier to solve, e.g.:

(a) 25 X 2y = 20 (:::cz:::) 5 + y = 0

(b) 9L3 = 0 < = > 3E0= 9

(c) 10 - 6 = 6. <=> 6 + 6. = 10
5 - 2 =V<=> -2 +V= 5

1
(d) 4 .
!.
=0<=> 2 xQ= 4

Use of Generalizations to Extend Definitions (Use it in a

senten_ce)
Frequently in mathematics, one is confronted with the
problem of defining operations on new sets of numbers or
. extending definitions to new numbers.

Examples: (a) 21 x 31 = ?

(b) What's a sensible definition of 2°?

(c) 2 x 3 = ?

A common approach in discovery classes is to make up a

"true" sentence containing the unknown expression and then see
what it "acts like." For the above cases, the sentences
might be

-27-
 1 1
(a) 2 X ) X 3 X 2 = 1
'-...._.,/ "'-"'

"'
D X 6 = 1

2° X 23 2(0+3)
(b) =
t
D X 8 = 8

3) - 3 + 3)
(c) 2 X 3) + ( 2 = 2 X (

t0
D + 6 =
Note that each sentence is true because we assume a
property derived for positive integers is also valid for the
integers·and rationals. In the first example, we assume the
commutative and associative properties for multiplication;
in the second, the formula for multiplying exponential terms;
and in the third, the distributive law. These assumptions
generally will be tacit at first, although through language
such as "If this sentence is true, what does that tell us
about 2 x -3", the class can gradually appreciate the process
by which mathematicians extend definitions to larger number
systems.

Patterns

Patterns appear frequently in mathematics. They often

suggest a conclusion or make results derived through some other
method seem more plausible. Patterns are helpful for rein-
forcing and reviewing previously learned concepts. Since
patterns can be misleading, care should be taken to verify
results obtained via patterns with another approach and to
introduce the students ·to some misleading patterns.

-28-
Examples:
(a) Reinforce 2EO = 1 by looking at:

2E3 = 8}. 2
2E3 =
2E2

2E1
=
=
)7 2
2E2

2E1
=
=
2

2EO =
): 2
2EO =

(b) Derive multiplication of negative numbers using the

distributive law. Reinforce via

3 X 4 = 12
3 X 3 = 9
3 X 2 = 6
3 X 1 = 3
3 X 0 = 0
3 X 1 = 3
3 X 2 = 6

(c) Use the for exponents to establish

1 - 1
2E-1 = 2 and 2E 2 = 4· Extend to 2E-3 etc., via

2E4 = 16
2E3 = 8
2E2 =
2E1 =
2EO =
2E - 1 =
2E - 2 =
2E - 3 =

2E - 4 =

-29-
 (d) Some misleading patterns:

22
(i ) = 2 X 2

21 = 2 X 1
20 ? 2 X 0

(ii) 3 is prime, 5 is prime, 7 is prime, 9 is prime?

(iii) 6E2 = 36
5E2 = 25
4E2 = 16?

(e) A challenging pattern:

1 2 + 1 + 41 = 43, prime 42 + 4 + 41 = 61 ' prime

22 + 2 + 41 = 47, prime 52 + 5 + 41 = 71 1 prime

32 + 3 + 41 2
= 53, prime Is n + n + 41 1 prime for
all n?

Equality; Transitivity

To many students, "=" is a command which says 11

do the
problem" or "find the answer." Thus they may be uncomfortable
in accepting such statements as 6=4+2 or 2x2x2=2E3. They may
also have difficulty drawing conclusions from a long chain of
equalities. This section discusses things the specialist can
do to clarify the meaning of "=" to students.

A useful exercise in helping students understand what

equals means is to write on the board:

2 + 4 3 X 2 and ask what could be placed

between the two expressions to make
a true sentence. Once a student
suggests equals and the class agrees, have the students think
of other expressions besides 3 x 2 that are equal to 2 + 4.

-30-
Now, again ask what "=" means. Probably students will suggest:
the same as, or, means the same number. This understanding of
equality will be useful when you work with equivalent sentences.

Drawing conclusions from a chain of equalities often does

not come naturally to students. They are perfectly comfortable
writing a chain of equalities like 2 x 6 = 12 + 3 = 4 x 9 = 36
7 6 = 6 x 3 = 18 without recognizing it is logically absurd.

To clarify meaning of a sentence with more than one equal

sign in it, you might want to discuss transitivity in general:

(a) If 0 has the same number of candy bars as has,

and has the same number of candy bars as Q !las;
does D have more or fewer candy bars thanQ?

(b) If John is the same age as Joe, and Joe is the same
age as Stan, what is true about Joe and Stan?

= =
(c)
1f-t 3 Xi 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 .and 3 + 6 + 9 + 12
4
30,

what is the numerical value ?

i=l
How did you know?

(d) If c=J = = then what symbol can

I put between D and 0 ? Check by filling in the

shapes with numbers or expressions.

(e) If a = b and b = c and c = d and d = e, what can you

say about a and e?

Once you have done many problems and examples, you might
want to develop a standard expression for drawing conclusions,
such as "the conclusion of the chain of equalities is . . • "
(COTCOE)

-31-
 The generalization (aEb) Ec = aE (b x c) is an example of
a concept that results from considering a chain of equalities.
In trying to develop this concept, you might consider:
{2E3) E4 = (2E3) x (2E3) X (2E3) X (2E3) = 2E (3+3+3+3) = 2E
(3 x 4); you wish the class to draw the conclusion (2E3) E4 =
2E (3 x 4). Some suggestions for leading the class to this
result are:

(a) Who can find another name for (2E3) E4 that uses the
least chalk?
(b) Who can find a cyame for (2E3) E4 that uses only a
2, 3, and 4 once as in the problem?
(c) Who can point to something on the board that's equal
to (2E3) E4? Keep having students do this until you
get the 2E (3 x 4) form.
(d) the first and last parts of the sentence in
a simple closed curve, and have the class read what
is in the curve.

3+3+3+3

(e) Rearrange the problem with the help of vertical

arrows. Have the students read the arrows as equals.
Finally ask:
11
What symbol is missing? 11

(2E3) E4 2E (3x4)
If\
(2E3)x(2E3)!(2E3)x(2E3) = 2E (3+3+3+3)

(f) Discuss transitivity in general (see above).

-32-
Embedding the Material in a Conceptual Framework

One of the most frequently used strategies in discovery

teaching is to embed elementary material in a more advanced,
conceptual framework. Students become motivated to understand
topics, which seem to have little inherent interest1 when these
topics are essential to the solution of conceptual mathematical
problems. Several examples involving fractions and decimals
are described below.

To a mathematician, fractions and decimals are each ways

of looking at the rational numbers, but each leads to different
insights. It so happens that decimals are really a kind of
infinite series, that is, each decimal is so many tenths, plus
so many hundredths, plus so many thousandths, plus etc. Most
decimals we run into terminate, such as in .25 or .456, but
sometimes they do not, as in .2222222222222, with an unending
string of 2's, and since decimals such as this last one are
adding up an infinite number of terms, doesn't it sensible
that they should increase bound? In fact 2.3 is bigger
than 2.22222222222 (with an infinite number of twos). Everybody
knows this, but how many can explain why? From the point of
view of a discovery teacher, this can be fruitful territory.

Let's examine this example more closely. First it is

essential that we as teachers fully understand the concept we
are trying to get across, and then it is necessary that we
trace the process we went through to arrive at our conclusions,
so that we can devise a sequence of questions. So why is
2.2222222222222 less than 2.3? Well, 2.3 = 2.30. Why? Because
2 = 2 We can carry this further, however, and see
that 2.3 = 2.300000000000, with as many zeros as we want, and
now it is easier to see why 2.3000000000000 is greater than
2.2222222222222, and hence why 2.3 is greater than
2.222222222222222. But that still leaves us with the fact

-33-
 2
2 2
that you can add up a series like 2 + 10
+ 100 + 1000 +etc.,
and that you will be bounded from above by something as small
as 2.3.

A simpler but related problem begins by looking at what

1 1 1
happens when you add 2 + 4 + 8 + • • • : Do you reach any sort
of a limit? Have the students try some examples to find out.
They will see a pattern, and you will arrive at the conclusion
that you get closer and closer to 1. Now try it fort+ t +
+ • • • You will find that the answer gets closer and closer
1
to
2. Now see if the students can see a "pattern in the
patterns," that is, for a given series, can they predict the
answer.

Discussions such as these will,help students to see why

they can add zeros behind the decimal point and will provide
practice in adding fractions, and this is, after all, one of
your practical goals. The point here is that, in the course
of their discussions about conceptual matters, students will
be continually calling upon the basic arithmetic facts you want
them to learn. In this way, they begin to master the facts,
but they tend not to experience the drudgery.

Another problem which motivates the study of fractions is

the "infinite pie" idea. What happens if. you keep cutting a
pie in half? Do you every run out of pie, even if you keep
cutting forever? You might come to a point in your discussion
when students are talking about atoms, and they may realize
that they need to consult an encyclopedia after class. This
"is physics, not math, but they are motivated, and they will
know they have been discussing something that is not trivial.

-34-
 CHAPTER 4

FEEDBACK AND INVOLVEMENT

This chapter contains a number of techniques for getting

feedback from a class and for increasing the level of student
participation in the lesson. Both are essential to effective
discovery teaching. In order to ask appropriate questions,
you need to know the class level of understanding. In order to
gain from the discovery process and give you feedback, students
need to be involved in the lesson. Frequently, the same
technique accomplishes both feedback and involvement, hence we
have included both in this chapter.

Circulating

Circulating the class is an important way of getting

feedback from the students. It also is useful for involving
students and giving the teacher a chance to make individual
contact with them.

At least four times in the class period, the students

should be asked to answer a question or work a problem on their
papers. Be sure that each student writes something, even if
it is only a question mark. Allow the students to signal you
by raising their hands when they are finished. Circulate
rapidly, making some contact with each student. In general,
do not comment on whether the answer is right or wrong, or
provide individual tutoring. (You do not want to single out
students with the wrong answer, or spend so much time you lose
the class's attention.)

It is not necessary to read every answer each time. You

might check only two rows and then make a prediction about the
percentage of the class that will have the answer correct.

-35-
 Circulating gives you accurate feedback on student under-
standing, helping you gauge when to move on to a more advanced
topic. If most of the students were correct, then the answer
can be put on the board and the class can move on. If not, you
might want to have the class investigate the different ideas
about the problem by offering all answers, correct or incorrect.

Circulating makes all of the students active participants,

often exposing misunderstandings you and the class were unaware
of. It also gives you an opportunity to involve students who
understand the concepts but are unsure of themselves or are
reluctant to respond. Such students can be reinforced by
asking them to put their "absolutely correct" answer on the
chalkboard. One way to be certain to remember is to leave the
chalk with them when you circulate.

Circulation as it is described here is a technique for

gaining accurate feedback from the entire class without
disrupting the flow of the discovery lesson. Questions should
be relatively straightforward ones that can be answered with a
simple number or phrase, or should be problems that can be
solved quickly. More complex problems or sequences of practice
problems should be saved for a 11
seatwork 11 period during which
you and students who have completed their work might offer
assistance, or students might work together in small groups.

Polling

When a student gives an answer, quickly ask for a show of

hands--"How rnany.of you would have said that?", or "How many
agree with Jane?" Although the feedback will not be as accurate
as from circulating, as some students will go along with the
majority, this is rarely a serious problem. You can get a
good sense of how many students actually have the answer by
how rapidly the hands go up. Because you get the response
quickly, there is time to ask similar questions. Often a

-36-
student who merely copies his neighbor begins to focus on the t··
problem and soon begins answering questions spontaneously.

Another variation of the polling technique is to put

several answers on the board and have the students vote on
them.

You might also rapidly get answers from a number of

students. Again, students who are unsure of themselves may
jump on the backwagon and gain confidence as they are recognized
for having the right answer.

Finger and Hand Signals

Finger and hand signals enable the teacher to get a rapid

reading of the class, and they allow many students to partici-
pate at once.

Do not be overly concerned about the problem of copying

when answers are shown in fingers. You can get a good sense
of how well the class is understanding by noticing how quickly -
and confidently they respond. If truly accurate feedback is
desired, the students can be asked to close their eyes or write
their answers on paper. On other occasions, when fingers are
used to obtain mass participation, slower students can partici-
pate along with the rest of the class. They are more likely
to focus on the problem and catch up to the rest of the class.
Be careful about putting a student on the spot by asking him
to explain an answer he has on his fingers. Volunteering to
show an answer is quite different from volunteering to give an
explanation.

Examples of signals often used follow:

(a) Numerical values can be shown on the fingers.

-37-
 (b) Other mathematical symbols such as operational or
relational symbols can be shown on the fingers or
drawn in the air.

Note: Younger students genuinely enjoy showing

answers with their hands. Older students tend to
think of it as childish, so it should be used
sparingly. It can, however, be inserted occasion-
ally in a lighter moment or as a change of pace.

(c) Signals for agreement and disagreement should be

developed. Younger students like waving their arms
back and forth for disagreement and pumping both
fists for agreement. With older students, head nods
and shakes are often the best signals. You can ask
the students to indicate whether they agree or
disagree every time a question is answered.

Chorus Response

Often, during a lesson, ask the students to tell you

their answer together, or to read in chorus something from
the board. This creates a break in the normally quiet
question-answer pattern. It focuses attention and brings back
daydreamers. Reading provides an opportunity for students who
don't yet understand the mathematics to participate. Chorus
response allows the entire class to move rapidly through a
sequence of leading to a conclusion.

In order to avoid chaos and called out answers when you

don't want them, it is helpful to cue the class when you want
11
a whole group response. "Class, what is • • • , 11
When I count
to three, everyone tell me . . • ,"and "When I drop my hand,
everyone with his hand up tell me • . • " are ways of achieving
this. When you want to return to a different mode of response,
begin your question with a direction such as "Raise hand
if you know . • • " or "Write on your pap.ers • • . • "

-38-
 Some situations in which chorus responses are appropriate
and effective are:

(a) Emphasizing a concept or generalization that has

just become clear.
(b) Focusing on a problem that has just been put up on
the board.
(c) Learning new words or symbols.
(d) In response to short, fast-paced questions, such as
simple computations, gradual escalation to a general-
ization, or review questions.
(e) To refocus the class after an interruption.
(f) To involve nonparticipants.
(g) To summarize the day's work. At the end of the class,
have students read the most important words and
concepts on the board, while the class makes sure
their notes are in order.

Rapid Oral Questions

A round of rapid-fire, oral response questions provides a

change of pace, while many students get a turn to respond in
a short period of time. The questions should be easy, or
follow a pattern, so everyone will feel capable of answering.
Some of the best times to use a rapid series of oral questions
are when reviewing, when building up to a generalization, or
when doing a routine calculation as part of a larger problem.

Examples: What's 21 of 8? 21 of 16? 21 of 32? etc.

In 9,876,543.21, what place is the 4 in?

The 5? The 8? The 2? etc.

Counting, Naming, and Predicting Hands

Counting the number of hands raised or mentioning the

names of students with raised hands often increases the number

-39-
of students who participate. An auctioneering style: ·"Ten people
have it," 11
This whole row, .. etc., or naming students: .,John has
it," Sue's got an idea," etc. are both effective for this purpose.
Students want the recognition you are giving, and the time you
spend talking about hands gives them extra time to think.

To avoid putting an insecure student on the spot, it's best

to call on one of the first hands or the entire class for the
actual answer. The same student, however, might be called on
to second another student's answer. Once they are focused on
the problem and participating in some way, reluctant students
frequently are eager to answer the next question.

A variation of these techniques is for you or one of the

students to predict the number of students who will be able to
answer the question. You might challenge them: "I bet only
ten people will be able to solve this."

Counting and predicting provide an excellent opportunity

to review percents: "What percent of this row has their hands
11
up?"; If 75% of the class gets the problem, how many students
will that be?"

Chain Answering

Chain answering is an effective way to involve as many

students in answering a question as there are steps in the
problem. "Cheryl, would you start us off?" "That's good, I
know you can do the rest. Call on someone with a· raised hand
to do some more." Each time you a student, she quickly
calls on another student.

A variation has students come to the board and hand the

chalk to the next student when their turn is finished.

-40-
 Examples of situations where chain answers are effective
are:

(a) Reading a complex generalization such as

(etxp) + (O(X = QlX Cfi + lr)
(b) Substituting numerical values in a mathematical
formula such as a 0 x am = a(n+m)

(c) Building a table such as.powers of 2.

(d) Providing the next term or problem in a sequence

1 1
such as
1
3+ 6
1
= ?, 3 + 9 = ?, 31 + T2
1
=? etc.

(e) Working each step of a multi-step problem such as

5 X 1 X 3 X 2 X l X .1

1 X
\i
1
-r
X 1 X 1( = ?

1 X 7'C:?

1( = ?

Deliberate Errors

Successful discovery teachers make deliberate errors at

judicious points in the lesson. Deliberate errors serve to
increase student participation, to reinforce mathematical
understanding, and to build student confidence. They force
students to evaluate each response critically and not to rely
on the teacher or other students. Students delight in catching
the teacher in a mistake. At the same time, the teacher•s
error removes the stigma of being wrong, and thus makes students
more willing to venture an answer. Explaining their disagree-
ment helps students to demonstrate and articulate their
understanding.

The simplest errors are clerical, such as transposing two

numbers, miscopying a problem, or misspelling a word. They

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serve primarily to focus the class and keep them alert. Sparing
use of this technique, coupled with a warning that there may
be some mistakes in your boardwork, avoids the danger of seeming
patronizing.

A second category of errors involves literal interpretation

of student answers.

Example: 23 = 2 X 2 X 2
25 = ? Student response: "You add two
more 2's. "
You write 25 = 2 X 2 X 2 + 2 + 2.

When the students are secure in their understanding of a

concept, errors of this type help them to communicate their
knowledge better.

The final category of errors are conceptual ones, often

focusing on the same types of errors the students tend to make.
These errors generate enthusiasm, debate, and discussion, but
most important of all, reinforce understanding.

Examples:

False Statement Devious Defense

23 X 24 = 212 The "x" tells you to multiply.

2° =0 2E3 = 2 x 2 x 2, but 2EO =

And nothing is zero.

2 + 1 = 1 (The best arguments

for false statements are often
those originally presented by
the students in their innocence.)

5 + 5 =5 Negative numbers do not exist.

1 + 1 = 2 and 2 + 4 = 6. And
that has to be the way to work
the problem, because how do
you work

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Attention and Focus

Student attention is bound to wander. This happens for

many reasons: noise distractions, intercom interruptions,
people going in or out, earlier incidents. Besides these non-
SEED reasons, students who are experiencing some difficulty with
11
the mathematics will tend to drop out" from class participation.
A student who hasn•t heard or wasn't listening for whatever
reason will not be raising his hand. It is OFTEN necessary
first to catch student attention, before you pose your question.

Each technique described below is useful for either the

whole class or for individuals. Variety is essential. Any
participation techniques, especially chorus responding, also
help students focus and pay attention since they involve the
students in a response. Other techniques whet the students•
appetite and motivate their interest through elements of
suspense, challenge and contradictions.

1. ARE YOU READY? CAN YOU SEE THIS?

Before you ask the math question, ask the class or certain
students: "Are you ready? 11 ; "Who is ready for a hard problem? 11 ;
11
"Who thinks they will be able to do the next problem?"; Do you
think you are ready to make a quantum leap to the generalization?";
"Do I have everybody's attention--no, someone is looking out
the window."

Specify some mode of response to your question: a specific

way for them to show you they are. "Raise your hand; say 'Yes,•
if you are ready. 11 If not many students respond, repeat your
instruction till you get a stronger (faster, more unanimous)
response.

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2. VOICE EMPHASIS

Any CHANGE in your voice will gather attention. When it

is especially desirable to emphasize an important part of a
student's idea or of the question, either suddenly or gradually
talk more rapidly or talk very de-lib-er-ate-ly; speak much
louder or softer; speak with a higher or lower pitch. Stating
your question with pauses stimulates anticipation, attention
and excited responses: "What is • • • the numerical value • • •
of 4E2?"

3. CHALLENGE

Challenging is a form of teasing. Properly timed and with

the proper tone, a challenge will energize the students and
increase the focus they give to the upcoming problem. Choose
problems you believe students can do. With too hard a problem
or the wrong tone, students may be discouraged from trying
the problem.

Comment before you give the problem: "This one may be too
hard."; "I'll catch you on this one."; "This is tricky, only
the most alert will get it."; "Last time I gave this problem,
no one got it."; "You need to switch into a higher mental gear.";
"In fact this is a star problem."; "This is a no ha'nd problem."

When students are secure about their answer, you might

challenge them by claiming the answer is wrong and forcing them
to defend it.

Obvious contradictions and "double talk" are also effective

for revitalizing a class. Tell the students to forget something,
then ask them to tell you what they were supposed to forget.
"Don't anybody listen to what Cheryl just said because she is
absolutely right! 11 "This is so important, I'm going to erase
this before anyone has a chance to write it down."

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4. CUED RESPONSES

Occasionally ask the class to do something on a certain

predetermined signal. If you stall before giving the cue, the
time that passes before the cue or signal is given builds up
the class's anticipation towards making the agreed upon response:
almost invariably you will have 100% participation at
the cue. Some examples of cues include: "When I turn around ·"
• I

"When I lower the chalk (or the eraser) from over my head;"
"When the chalk touches the blackboard;" "When I count to three;"
"When I close the door;" "When Tanya raises her hand." You can
use this as a daily technique so long as the cue is a different
signal each time you use it. Younger students enjoy your
trying to catch them on a false cue, such as touching the board
11
with a finger instead of the chalk, counting 1, 2, 4," skipping
over "3," or lowering the hand without the chalk.

With younger students, a very powerful technique to refocus

their attention after a major disruption has occurred is a
series of fast directions which appear to have no point until
the end, when you are pointing to the problem that you wish to
ask a question about. It goes like this: "Look out the window,
OK, now look at the door, now look at the clock, read this word
on the board, read this sentence, read this problem."

5. POINT TO AN ANSWER

This involves every student, focuses their attention on

some particular mathematics, and usually wakes up any day-
dreamers, who can then pick up from their classmates what is
going on. Ask the students to point, from their seats, to: a
sentence on the board that we could use in solving this problem;
a place where 3 goes in this sentence; the chart that shows the
answer. Tease a student by going back to a student's desk to
take a sighting along his/her finger, then follow it to some
spot on the board.

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6. BOX OR CIRCLE
Box, circle or draw an arrow ---> to make the problem or
question currently under investigation stand out. The visual
reference will help a non-attender pick up where the class is.
Box all important problems which emphasize the conclusions the
class arrived at in that lesson. Let students come to the board
to circle a hint, or circle what told them to use "X" for the
factors.

7. READ

Write a problem, ask someone to read it while everyone

else is thinking about it. Sometimes ask the whole class to
read a problem as you write it on the board.

To get a class to scan the blackboard for helpful informa-

tion, make an elaborate show of erasing any clues or hints on
the board, telling the students you don•t want to give away
the answer. You intend, of course, to help them focus on a clue.
You might erase something close to the clue or erase the hint
itself. Vary this by circling clues, covering them up, saying
11
Don't look for any hints 11 (they will then study the board,
whether there are any hints or not). On a very difficult
problem, you might want to reverse this technique by erasing
everything except the clue: "I'm going to erase all of the
irrelevant information."

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 CHAPTER 5

BUILDING STUDENT CONFIDENCE

A major goal of discovery teaching is to build students'

confidence in their ability to think critically and to learn
mathematics successfully. This is particularly true in general
mathematics classes, where the students often have nine or ten
years of school experience convincing them that the opposite
is true. You want them to be involved in the lessons, building
the mathematics themselves. You want them to experience success
and to regard what they have accomplished as having value.

An instructor who applies the principles of the preceding

chapters is well on the way to achieving this goal. There will
be numerous conceptual mathematics questions which students can
answer successfully. Frequent review will help the students
maintain mastery of an ever-increasing body of mathematics.
Feedback and involvement techniques will provide ample oppor-
tunities for the class as a whole to participate.

The manner in which you treat student responses will

influence their willingness to answer future questions. This
chapter presents ways to respond to student answers, and
that will establish an atmosphere of intellectual
support and respect in which students feel free to participate
and are rewarded for it. Coupled with the question and feedback
techniques discussed previously, they create a classroom in
which students learn mathematics with a sense of accomplishment
and achievement.

Success Reinforcement. Generally, if a student responds

with a correct answer, he or she will be rewarded by you or the
class. It's hard not to show your pleasure (although it often
heightens the student's experience of success if you act non-

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committal and ask the class its opinion). Some ways of rein-
forcing and creating success experiences are outlined below:

1) Use names. Identify ideas and formulas by the names

of students who developed them. "Who could do this
problem using John's system?"; "Let's use Sue's method
for finding the LCM, 11 etc.

2) Student agreement. After a response from a student, ask

the class if they agree. A roomful of raised hands
is definitely reinforcing.

3) Acknowledge other Mention the names of

students who have their hands raised when someone else
is called on to answer, or who are showing agreement
or disagreement. "Mary has the answer; 11 "John has it
too." "Joe agrees with Jane;" "How many got 3/4? 11 etc.
Eye contact or a smile can also let a·student know
that you know that she knows the answer.

4) Students to the board. Ask students to show their

work on the board. This technique is especially
reinforcing when you call on a normally shy or non-
participating student whose correct answer you have
just seen while circulating. If several students come
to the board at the same time or in rapid succession,
have them put their names by their work.

5) I know you know. When you sure a student under-

stands a concept, interrupt his explanation with
"Good, I know you understand this." Then invite him
to call on another student to finish the explanation.
A variation allows you to bypass a student who is
threatening to monopolize the class. "I know you know
the answer, Jane; I want to see what Jerry thinks;"
11
or John, call on someone else you think knows the answer."

-48-
6) Experts. Designate students, who have caught on to a
concept, as experts for the day. Have them check the
correctness of other students' answers, or help you
circulate. These students can also be involved as
peer teachers or tutors.

7) Star problems. Label occasional challenging questions

which are within the grasp of the class as "star
problems." Put a star on the board, and next to it
put the names of students who solve the problem.

Many instructors also give similar recognition for

students who ask good questions.

8) Advanced material. Praising students lavishly for

trivial work is patronizing and they recognize it.
If you embed remedial work in advanced material, you
can give students a real ego boost.

Examples: 2-1 X 2 -2 = 2-3 "Normally students don't

study this until
1 1 1
X = 8 algebra. II
2 4

3
Li=1 2-i = 1 + 1 + 1 = 7
2 4 8 8 "I didn't study

+
4 2
+ - +
1
=
7
this until I
was in college. "
8 8 8 8

9) Who has it now? Give students a chance to indicate

their progress in learning an idea, particularly after
they have met with initial frustration. Ask: "Who has
the answer now ("Who sees how to do this?") who
didn't have it before?"

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 10) Reward questions. Mathematical research proceeds
when mathematicians ask themselves questions. A
student in a discovery class who asks a good mathe-
matical question should be praised. Students should
be encouraged to ask themselves if alternate approaches
can be used for solving a problem, or what happens
if the problem is changed. Occasionally, the volume
of good questions threatens to slow down the pace of
the class because too much time is spent investigating
tangents. In this case, ask the students to write
their questions on paper and hand them in. The few
minutes that it takes to write a response can be
richly rewarded in the ensuing mathematical corres-
pondence that will develop.

Student errors. The manner in which a student's incorrect

answers are handled will influence his willingness to respond
to future questions. Try to avoid telling a student directly
that he's wrong, or putting him on the spot.

Some suggestions for handling incorrect answers follow:

1) Deliberate errors. If you make frequent deliberate

errors, there will be no stigma attached to being
wrong. Students will disagree with you or each other
matter-of-factly.

2) Allow revisions or call on someone. Put incorrect

answers on the board with a straight face. Let the
class disagree politely. Allow the student to revise
her answer or to call on another student who she thinks
knows the answer. After you've gotten the correct
answer, return to the student and ask if she under-
stands now.

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3) Explore consequences. Often technically incorrect
answers contain good thinking and mathematical
creativity. Students often find that by slightly
changing the question or one of the assumptions
(axioms) of the problem, they can more easily answer
the question. Research mathematicians are rewarded
for this kind of thinking. Students are usually told
they are wrong and made to feel foolish.

Good discovery teachers turn technically incorrect

answers into a positive learning experience. If
the student has changed the question, such as + !=
ask "What problem did Sue solve? or .,What was Sue
thinking of?" Sue gets credit for having solved a
problem correctly and the class benefits from focusing
on the contrast between Sue's problem and the original
problem. If the student has changed the axiom
system, say 2E3 = 23, you might give the system his
name, and ask the class to do some more problems in
"Carl's system." In both cases, the student's response
has provoked a fruitful class discussion, and he will
be more willing to offer an idea in the future.·

If you can see the reasoning behind the student's

answer, you might want to present the argument to the
class and let them disagree with you, rather than the
student. For example, if a student tells you 2x2x2=6,
you might argue that "2 times 2 is 4 plus 2 more is 6. 11

4) Partial answers. If a student has worked some steps

of a multistep problem correctly, be sure he gets
credit for it. Focus on the correct parts: "How many
agree with this step?" and have the class redo only
the part that needs correction.

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 Encouraging insecure students. In addition to the group
techniques for encouraging student participation, there are a
number of techniques for building confidence in shy or insecure
students. These are particularly helpful at the crucial moment
when a student you have called on starts to falter in a response
or explanation. There are several techniques for helping him
out of a potentially embarrassing spot without his losing face.
Some suggestions follow:
1) Techniques for handling errors. (See above section.)

2) Hints. Often a student who is hesitating needs only

a hint to continue the answer. Have him or her call on
someone to give a hint.

3) Rephrase the guestion. Restate the question so that

the answer is more apparent, or ask a subquestion, or
ask for a student volunteer to do so. For example,

Question: "What's the factor form of 2E3?"

Restatement: "How many times do I use 2 as a factor
in 2E3? 11

Question:

Subquestion: "Can you shade in t of this circle?"

4) Call on someone to work with you. Have the student

call on another student to work with him. This is
particularly effective when a student gets stuck at
the board.

5) Can you tell anything about it? Encourage the student

to make some contribution or estimate toward solving
the problem. "Can you tell me something about part
of it?" "Is it bigger than 10?" "Is it negative?"

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6) Call on someone. If the student still doesn't want
to try the problem, have her call on someone else.

7) Come back with success. Try to come back to the

student during the same class period with a positive
experience. Call on him for a question he can answer
successfully. Acknowledge his hand when it is raised.
Give him a special responsibility, like recording an
important result for the next day. Use any of the
techniques for involving non-participants listed
elsewhere.

8) Preteach. Work with insecure students for a few

minutes outside of class. Teach them something the
class doesn't know, such as a new Greek letter or the
next step in a problem the class is working on. When
the opportunity arises in class, they have a chance
to star.

9) Encourage questions. Frequently praise students who

ask questions when they don't understand something.
Point out that asking for help when you don't under-
stand is an important step in learning. Often if the
student basically understands, asking him another
question will enable him to clear up his own confusion.
Asking how many other students have the same question
often relieves the of not knowing.

Student interactions.
1) Listening to each other. It is important to make
certain that students listen to each other and do not
rely on you to determine the correctness of an answer.
The signals for agreement and disagreement discussed
earlier facilitate this. You can also encourage it

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 by insisting that students speak so that they can be
heard. Do not repeat inaudible answers, but say
something like "Joe, did you hear Jane•s answer? 11 ;
11
Sue, repeat your answer so John can hear it. 11 ; or
11
Who can repeat what Bill said? 11

2) Mathematical debates. Many people recall taking classes

in the humanities in which they were encouraged to
debate and discuss ideas with their fellow students,
but they do not realize that it is possible to have
the same experience in a math or science class, because
11
in mathematics and the sciences everything is so
exact. 11
This is emphatically not the case, however,
for in mathematics and the sciences there is much that
is ambiguous. The classic example in the Project SEED
curriculum concerns the notion that any number raised
to the zeroth power is one. It turns out that this
11
is a highly ambiguous "fact, and that it can provide
much fruitful debate. Just as in a discussion of
philosophy or theology, students must carefully weigh
the merits of various points of law. They must call
upon their powers of persuasion and reasoning to sway
other students towards their point of view. In a
good debate everyone is participating in some way,
from the vocal students who are doing much of the
talking, to the quiet students who are being exhorted
to take sides.

A good discovery teacher must be adept at keeping a

debate lively and focused. Sometimes· it is necessary
for the teacher to introduce material into the dis-
cussion that will either clear up intellectual logjams,
or rattle the foundations of student arguments. All
the while, the teacher is trying to orchestrate the
discussion so that students will arrive at a lucid
understanding of the concepts.

-54-
Once teachers who use the discovery style have seen
the benefits to be derived from debates, they will be
on the lookout for likely topics. "Mini-debates" are
possible on just about any subject, such as which way
to move the decimal point when converting decimals
into percents, or whether you need a common denominator
when you multiply fractions, or whether there is such
a thing as a square root that is not irrational, but
not a whole ·number either. By being constantly called
upon to debate and discuss, students will begin to
realize that .mathematics is not an obstacle course
filled with facts that must be memorized by rote, but
rather a subject that is fascinating in its form and
structure.

-55-
 APPENDIX

Checklist of Discovery Techniques

I. General Socratic Strategies

A. Effective Questioning Techniques.

1. Write out question sequence.

2. Keep a log
3. Vary difficulty
4. Vary pace
5. Vary response
6. Many questions on same concept
7. Patterns
8. Parallel problems
9. Be specific
10. Open questions
11. Don't push results
12. Students answer students
13. Don't disguise statements

B. Review.

1. Rapid summary
2. New directions
3. Provocative questions
4. Foundation for new material
5. Embed in new material
6. New notation or terminology
7. Student questions
8. Deliberate errors
9. Mid-lesson reviews
10. Plan at end of class
11. Worksheets
12. Change of pace
13. Involvement techniques

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 c. Vocabulary.

1. Introduce in context
2. Write words on board
3. Vocabulary page

D. Boardwork.
1. Organize space
2. Erase all but important results
3. Circle for focus

II. Mathematics Development Structures

A. Gradual Escalation to a Generalization

B. Equivalent Sentences - Vertical arrows
C. Use generalizations to extend definitions (Use it
in a sentence)
D. Patterns
E. Equality, transitivity
F. Embed in conceptual framework

III. Feedback and Involvement

A. Circulating
B. Polling
c. Finger and Hand Signals
D. Chorus Response
E. Rapid Oral Questions
F. Counting, Naming, Predicting Hands
G. Chain Answering
H. Deliberate Errors
I. Attention and Focus
1. Are you ready?
2. Change voice
3. Challenge
4. Cued responses

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 5. Point to an answer
6. Box or circle
7. Read

IV. Building Student Confidence

.A. Success Reinforcement.

1• Use names
2. Student agreement
3. Acknowledging other students
4. Students to the board
5. I know you know
6. Experts
7. Star problems
8. Advanced material
9. Who has it now?
1 0. Reward questions

B. Student Errors.

1. Deliberate errors
2. Allow revision/Call on someone
3. Explore consequences
4. Partial answers

C. Encouraging Insecure Students.

1• Handle errors positively

2. Hints
3. Rephrase questions
4. Call on someone to work with you
5. Can you tell anything?
6. Call on someone
7. Come back with success
a. Pre teach
9. Encourage questions

-58-
D. Student Interactions.
1. Listening to each other
2. Mathematical Debates

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