Lignocellulose Based Insulation Materials a Review of 2024 International Jo

International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100844
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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids
Lignocellulose− based insulation materials: A review of sustainable and

biodegradable solutions for energy efficiency
Mohsin Raza a , Ayda Farhan b, Basim Abu-Jdayil a,*
a
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, PO BOX 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
b
Faculty of Business, Higher Colleges of Technology, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This review aims to comprehensively consolidate the knowledge and understanding of the development of
Lignocellulose thermal insulation materials for buildings using lignocellulosic waste materials. The building sector currently
Thermal insulation accounts for approximately 40 % of global energy consumption. Lignocellulosic waste materials are abundantly
Energy efficiency
available worldwide, with their effective repurposing imperative to achieve positive environmental impacts.
Thermal conductivity
Building sector
Lignocellulosic waste can be directly employed as a thermal insulator with minor modifications and binders.
These materials consistently exhibit thermal conductivities below 0.1 W/m.K, the defining criterion for effective
thermal insulation. An alternative strategy involves incorporating lignocellulosic waste as a filler or reinforce
ment agent within thermoplastics and thermosets to enhance their physicochemical attributes and render them
suitable as thermal insulators. This approach aligns with sustainability principles and enables the replacement of
30–50 % of the polymer content with renewable material, with the resultant thermal conductivity values in these
investigations also below 0.1 W/m.K. Moreover, with interest centered on the integration of lignocellulosic waste
into the modification of biodegradable polymers to produce thermal insulation materials, prospects are prom
ising for utilizing treated lignocellulose, cellulose, and their derivatives (such as nanocellulose and microcrys
talline cellulose) as economical materials for developing biodegradable insulators. This review presents a
thorough analysis and comparison of these approaches, providing researchers with insights for designing future
research methodologies and addressing existing gaps in knowledge.
1. Introduction
Abbreviations
PBAT/PLA Polybutylene adipate terephthalate/polylactic acid The current issue of 21st century related to energy consumption and
PLA Polylactic acid environmental pollution is critically important. A significant part of this
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates problem is associated with buildings, which use a considerable amount
PHB Polyhydroxybutyrate of energy and substantially contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emis
PBS Polybutylene succinate sions, negatively affecting the environment [1]. Therefore, it is impor
PET Polyethylene terephthalate tant to implement significant measures to address this issue. Special
APTES 3-aminopropyltriethoxy silane attention must be given to building design, particularly during the initial
PVC Polyvinyl chloride phase, as it greatly influences the building’s overall performance [2]. As
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate reported by the International Energy Agency (IEA), buildings contribute
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene to about 30 % of the world’s final energy consumption and 28 % of
EPS Expandable polystyrene energy-related CO2 emissions (IEA, 2019) [3]. Reducing energy con
UPR Unsaturated polyester sumption in buildings is of top importance for achieving Sustainable
Development Goal 7, which aims to provide affordable, reliable, sus
tainable and modern energy for all. In addition, this area of research is
also important in achieving Goal 11, which focuses on promoting
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Abu-Jdayil).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2024.100844
Available online 1 September 2024

2666-2027/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Raza et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100844
sustainable cities and communities by reducing environmental impacts to bio-based insulators. Zhu et al. [21] developed a konjac glucomannan
and improving the quality of life of residents [4]. (KGM) aerogel through a simple freeze-drying technique, establishing a
The use of thermal insulation materials in buildings is essential for sustainable and environmentally friendly biopolymer framework. They
reducing energy losses and maintaining an optimal indoor temperature further enhanced its mechanical strength and water resistance by inte
[5]. These benefits are particularly important as most of the world’s grating methylsilsesquioxane (MTES)-derived SiO2 into the KGM matrix,
energy production is based on fossil fuels [6]. Therefore, insulation yielding the KGM-SiO2 aerogel. This innovative material showcased
materials help to reduce energy consumption, which in turn cuts CO2 impressive attributes including high compressive strength (1.65 MPa at
emissions and supports environmental sustainability [7]. The installa 80 % strain), exceptional hydrophobicity (θ = 146◦ for water), and low
tion of insulation offers several advantages that go beyond the reduction thermal conductivity (0.032-0.039 W/m.K). Such advancements posi
of energy losses. It leads to significant cost savings on heating and tion the bio-based KGM-SiO2 aerogel as a promising option for sus
cooling bills and increases the value of the property [8]. Insulation tainable thermal insulation in building applications. Palumbo et al. [22]
improves the indoor environment by keeping the temperature constant assessed a hermal insulation composed of vegetal pith and a natural
and acts as a sound barrier to reduce noise [9]. It also helps control gum, designed to be fully compostable. They integrated boric acid,
humidity, which prevents mold growth and increases the durability of aluminium hydroxide, and ammonium polyphosphate as fire retardants,
building materials [10]. alongside montan wax, acetic acid, and lactic acid as water repellents
To truly green the insulation installation process and fully protect the and fungicides. Their findings highlighted that the inclusion of boric
environment, it’s essential to transition from petroleum-based tradi acid significantly improved fire performance, slowing combustion
tional insulation materials to biobased alternatives. This shift offers propagation. Despite severe conditions, none of the additives completely
substantial environmental advantages, notably in emissions reduction prevented mould growth; however, boric acid effectively minimized it.
and decreased landfill waste [11]. Bio-based materials, which are often Cao et al. [23] introduced an innovative method for developing envi
biodegradable, are emerging as sustainable solutions, as demonstrated ronmentally friendly, superelastic biomass aerogels devoid of
by recent advances in insulation materials [12,13]. Low thermal con cross-linkers, thus mitigating fire hazards. This process entailed estab
ductivity is crucial for building insulation, and bio-based insulation lishing highly oriented wave-shaped layer microstructures and applying
materials have shown comparable performance to their a nonflammable siloxane coating onto the aerogel surface. The resultant
petroleum-based counterparts [14]. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) and aerogel showcased a diverse range of advantageous attributes, including
extruded polystyrene (XPS) currently dominate insulation materials, but anisotropic super-elasticity, hydrophobicity, low density, and robust
their production and disposal pose sustainability challenges [15]. The flame retardancy. Furthermore, the aerogel displayed remarkable oil
production of polystyrene consumes non-renewable resources and emits absorption capabilities, absorbing oil at a rate of up to 117 times its
harmful by-products, while the foaming processes contribute to the weight, while demonstrating exceptional recyclability.
depletion of the ozone layer [16]. Disposal, usually to landfill, is due to Insulation materials must exhibit a range of desirable properties to
recycling restrictions and logistical hurdles. However, progress is being effectively fulfil their roles in building applications [24]. Exceptional
made in EPS recycling and global recycling efforts. Bio-based alterna thermal resistance, as indicated by high R-values and low U-values, is
tives are promising as they offer comparable performance while crucial for minimizing energy loss or gain. In the context of thermal
reducing environmental impact, contributing to a more sustainable insulation, R-value and U-value are critical metrics used to quantify a
future [17]. material’s insulating properties. The R-value measures thermal resis
Cintura et al. [18] presented a review on agro-industrial wastes as tance, with a higher R-value indicating better insulation by resisting
building insulation materials and concluded that these materials offer heat flow more effectively. Conversely, the U-value measures thermal
several advantages, including renewability, recyclability, biodegrad transmittance, with a lower U-value indicating better insulation by
ability, a sustainable life cycle, and low environmental impact. They allowing less heat transfer. High R-values and low U-values are desirable
concluded that such materials are produced economically at low cost, for optimal energy efficiency [25,26]. Moisture resistance is also
are non-abrasive, and contribute to healthy indoor conditions with good important because insulation should repel moisture to prevent mold
insulation properties and passive indoor environmental control due to growth and maintain its insulating properties [27]. However, mold
their low density. They suggested that work needs to be done in the growth can be significant when using organic-based insulation mate
following areas to make these materials comparable to conventional rials. To mitigate this, applying mold inhibitors or fungicidal treatments
insulators: improving water resistance, enhancing thermal stability, to organic insulation materials can help prevent mold growth. These
reducing moisture absorption, addressing swelling and dimensional treatments provide a protective barrier that inhibits the growth of mold
stability, increasing durability, and developing treatments to prevent spores [28]. Fire resistance enhances the safety of buildings by pre
biological susceptibility to mold, insects, and fire. Schulte et al. [19] venting the spread of flames and providing time for occupants to evac
conducted a comparative life cycle analysis (LCA) and life cycle costing uate during a fire incident [29]. Mechanical properties, such as
(LCC) study to evaluate four bio-based insulation materials—wood fiber, elongation at break and compressive strength, are vital for providing
hemp fiber, flax, and miscanthus− against two conventional insulations, flexibility and the ability to withstand pressure and deformation [30].
EPS and stone wool. Their findings revealed that wood fiber and mis Furthermore, sound absorption capabilities contribute to producing
canthus were the most environmentally friendly bio-based insulations. acoustically comfortable indoor environments by reducing noise pollu
In terms of costs, EPS and miscanthus emerged as the most cost-efficient tion [31]. Finally, eco-friendly attributes such as recyclability,
options. However, the market integration of miscanthus remains non-toxicity, and the use of renewable or sustainable materials are
limited. Overall, bio-based insulations outperformed EPS and stone wool increasingly valued to align with environmentally conscious building
in 11 out of 18 environmental impact categories, showcasing their po practices [32]. These comprehensive qualities ensure that insulation
tential for reducing the environmental footprint of buildings. Yang et al. materials not only enhance energy efficiency but also support overall
[20] developed environmentally friendly, low-cost, and low-energy building safety, durability, and environmental sustainability.
thermal insulation materials using sunflower straw-based xerogels. By In cases where there are approximately 42 million date palm trees
incorporating 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane and SiO2 nanoparticles, existing solely in the UAE, insulation materials derived from lignocel
the xerogels exhibit excellent thermal insulation (0.0469 W/m.K), su lulosic wastes are promising alternatives, utilizing abundant resources
perior superhydrophobicity with a water contact angle of 153.2◦ , found worldwide, particularly in the Persian Gulf and Middle East and
remarkable fire resistance, and high mechanical strength. These North Africa (MENA) region [33]. Lignocellulosic waste from agricul
enhanced properties make sunflower straw-based xerogels ideal for a tural residues and forestry by-products offers a cost-effective solution for
variety of thermal insulation applications, overcoming the issues related insulation manufacturing. Converting lignocellulosic wastes into
2
insulation materials can significantly reduce environmental impact and global production of about 1 billion tons annually, and its high carbo
minimize waste disposal [34]. Notably, lignocellulosic wastes are car hydrate content makes it an important feedstock for multiple applica
bon neutral, as they absorb CO₂ during their growth through photo tions [51]. This promising and sustainable feedstock has emerged as a
synthesis, balancing the carbon cycle [35,36]. Furthermore, using viable option in the production of value-added products and fuels.
lignocellulosic biomass reduces the need for landfilling and prevents Lignocellulose comprises three essential biopolymers: cellulose, lignin,
poor practices like burning fields, which release harmful pollutants [37]. and hemicellulose [52]. Cellulose, a linear glucose polymer, provides
Another important aspect is that when lignocellulosic biomass is structural integrity to plants, whereas lignin serves as a complex
used in thermochemical processes like combustion, pyrolysis, or gasifi phenolic polymer that imparts strength and safeguarding properties to
cation for energy purposes, it can produce emissions such as carbon plants. Hemicellulose, a heterogeneous polymer, contributes to the
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particu overall structural stability of plant cell walls [53]. By comprehending
late matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and sulphur ox the intricate composition and characteristics of these biopolymers, re
ides (SOx) [38]. Manufacturing insulation from lignocellulosic biomass searchers and industries can devise efficient methods for converting
typically avoids emissions of these gases because it involves lignocellulosic biomass into a wide array of eco-friendly materials,
low-temperature processes, does not involve combustion, and uses chemicals, and sustainable fuel alternatives, thus providing the foun
controlled chemical treatments that do not generate harmful gases [39]. dation for a transition towards a greener and more resource-efficient
Additionally, the processes often encapsulate the biomass fibers in a economy [54]. A typical lignocellulosic structure is shown in Fig. 1.
binder material, use closed systems, and employ air purification Fundamental knowledge of the constituent components of lignocel
methods to capture any potential emissions [40]. Furthermore, the fi lulosic biomass is essential to understanding their intricate structure and
bers are often used together with polymeric materials without reaching inherent resistance [56]. Lignocellulosic biomass typically consists of
their degradation temperatures, which also prevents the release of three major components—cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin—in
emissions [41].Studies indicate that this conversion process can lower varying proportions, depending on the biomass source. The relative
greenhouse gas emissions and improve resource efficiency, contributing compositions of these components exhibit significant variations [57], as
to a more sustainable circular economy by utilizing resources that would shown in Table 1. The cellulosic fraction is the predominant component
otherwise be discarded [42,43]. Fibers processing such as alkaline and of most lignocellulosic biomass materials. Cellulose possesses an
silane treatments are commonly used modify lignocellulosic biomass impressive tensile strength owing to its fibrous structure and intermo
fibers before their applications [44]. For instance, NaOH treatment was lecular hydrogen bonds, thus making it suitable for improving the me
applied to date palm fibers to reinforce phenolic resin [45]. The results chanical properties of various products [58]. Moreover, the inherent
showed that composites with treated fibers exhibited increased tensile strength of cellulose plays a vital role in imparting durability and
and flexural strength, and the treatment also significantly improved the structural integrity to construction materials [59].
tensile modulus. Nor et al. [46] investigated the effects of silane and Proximate and ultimate analyzes of lignocellulosic materials provide
hydrogen peroxide treatments on oil palm and sugarcane bagasse fibers. valuable data that can be utilized for fabricating composites and insu
They found that silane and hydrogen peroxide treatments enhanced the lation materials [73]. Proximate analysis offers valuable information on
lignocellulosic properties of thermal insulation materials. Silane-treated the composition of a material, such as moisture content, volatile matter,
fibers specifically improved the mechanical performance and interfacial fixed carbon, and ash content, and helps evaluate the combustibility and
bonding of thermal insulation boards, maximizing their structural thermal characteristics of lignocellulosic materials [74]. The ultimate
integrity. analysis determines the elemental composition, particularly the carbon,
This review paper is a remarkable advance in the field of sustainable hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen contents [75], and assists in
insulation materials by examining two main approaches that have the understanding the chemical composition and potential reactivity of the
potential to revolutionize the insulation industry. The first approach materials. By integrating the data obtained from the proximate and ul
explores the direct use of lignocellulosic waste in combination with timate analyses, researchers and engineers can customize the formula
binders, providing an innovative solution to reuse and convert waste tion of lignocellulosic composites and insulation materials to optimize
into valuable insulation materials. The second approach focuses on their thermal, mechanical, and fire-resistant properties, thus enabling
reinforcing biodegradable polymers with lignocellulosic waste, har their efficient utilization in various applications [76]. Table 2 shows the
nessing their power to improve the properties of these polymers and proximate and ultimate analyses of different lignocellulosic materials.
make them suitable for insulation purposes. In addition to providing a Kinetic analysis, particularly the activation energy (Ea), is important
comprehensive summary of the current developments in this field, this for characterizing lignocellulosic biomass. The Ea value is useful for
review goes above and beyond by identifying critical research gaps. By assessing the stability of lignocellulosic biomass and its derived prod
doing so, it serves as a guiding light for future research endeavors ucts, such as composites and insulators [86], and serves as a key
achieving several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including parameter for determining fire retardancy and degradation behavior.
Goal 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) and Goal 12 Despite the limited availability of information on Ea values for most
(Responsible Consumption and Production). lignocellulosic biomasses, researchers have conducted studies on
lignocellulosic biomass materials to estimate Ea values [87]. Table 3
2. Lignocellulose as a sustainable feedstock shows the Ea values of different lignocellulosic materials, offering
valuable insights into their degradation behaviors. Significant variations
Lignocellulose is an abundant and renewable resource readily are apparent in the Ea values of different lignocellulosic materials, even
available as waste from diverse sources such as agricultural residues, when tested under similar operating conditions. For example, the Ea
forest biomass, and dedicated energy crops [47]. According to the Food values for surface fibers from date trees ranged from 97 to 113 kJ/mol,
and Agriculture Organization (2021), the world’s forests hold around whereas date fruit pits exhibited Ea values of 170–200 kJ/mol. Similarly,
606 gigatons of living biomass and 59 gigatons of dead wood [48]. Each the Ea values of almond shells showed Ea values ranging from 49 to 56
year, the global generation of lignocellulosic biomass reaches approxi kJ/mol, while paddy husks exhibited an Ea value of 82 kJ/mol. For
mately 1.3 billion tons. Rice straw, a by-product of rice farming, con insulator production, lignocellulosic biomass materials with high Ea
tributes 370 to 520 million tons annually [49]. Sugarcane production values are preferred. A higher Ea value signifies that more energy is
results in roughly 279 million metric tons of bagasse, another significant required to initiate the thermal decomposition or combustion processes,
source of lignocellulosic biomass. Brazil is a leading producer, gener thereby reducing the likelihood of heat-related damage [33].
ating about 739.3 million metric tons per year, with India, China, and
the United States also being major producers [50]. Corn stover has a
3
Fig. 1. Fiber structure for lignocellulosic biomass [55].
resulting composite materials offer improved insulation performance

Table 1 [98]. In addition, this review explores the potential of lignocellulosic
Chemical composition of different lignocellulosic materials.
biomass for developing biodegradable bio-based aerogels. These
Lignocellulose Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Ref. non-porous materials, developed from lignocellulosic precursors, such
Date seeds 24.75 25.03 30.55 [60] as cellulose nanofibers or nanocrystals, exhibit thermal insulation
Rice husk 38 − 20 [61] properties compared to conventional insulators. Beyond technical ad
Rice husk 35 35 23 [62] vancements, the review also conducts an economic and feasibility
Cotton stalk 35.50 21.98 19.87 [63]
Olive fiber 39.4 24.2 14 [64]
analysis. It explores how these innovations can potentially drive down
Wheat bran 31.10 34.30 16.30 [65] costs while aligning with sustainable development goals. This dual focus
Napier grass 47.10 31.20 21.6 [66] on performance and economic viability underscores the transformative
Oil palm waste 59.14 12.07 25.33 [67] potential of lignocellulosic materials in shaping the future of insulation
Corn cobs 40.9 38.15 33.6 [68]
technologies.Therefore, the review consists of analyzing the following
Flax fine 28.51 15.80 18.14 [69]
Sunflower seed 24.10 28.60 29.40 [70] lignocellulose-based insulations.
Sisal 58.1 18 17 [71]
Olive husks 25 24 50 [72] ■ Binder-based insulation materials
■ Biodegradable-based insulation materials
■ Thermoplastic-based insulation materials
3. Lignocellulosic insulation materials
■ Thermoset-based insulation materials
■ Cellulosic-based insulation materials
A common method involves developing fiberboards or panels by
compressing and bonding lignocellulosic fibers, resulting in fiberboards
Reviewing binder-based, biodegradable-based, thermoplastic-based,
with desirable thermal insulation and sound-absorbing properties [96].
thermoset-based, and cellulosic-based insulation materials offers several
Another approach involves producing foam-like insulation materials
benefits. It allows for a comparative analysis of their thermal conduc
from lignocellulosic sources using methods such as chemical modifica
tivity and mechanical properties, essential for selecting materials suited
tion, enzymatic treatment, or using blowing agents to obtain lightweight
to various applications. Such analyses highlight the strengths and
and environmentally friendly foams with good thermal insulation per
weaknesses of each material type, guiding decisions on their optimal use
formance [97]. Furthermore, incorporating lignocellulosic materials
in construction and industrial settings. Additionally, these reviews
into polymer composites enhances their insulation properties while
identify recent innovations such as new materials and manufacturing
preserving their mechanical strength. By combining lignocellulosic fi
techniques that improve insulation performance while addressing
bers or particles with polymers, such as polyurethane or polystyrene, the
Table 2
Proximate and ultimate analysis of different lignocellulosic materials.
Proximate analysis
Property (%) Date tree waste Bean husk Rice husk Mango pulp Miscanthus Neem tree waste Coconut fibers Corncobs Hazelnut
[77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] shell
[85]
Fixed carbon 10.20 18.20 16.44 22.02 3.9 17.06 11 13.92 15.89
Volatile 86.70 74.0 61.80 62.78 83.9 75.79 80.9 74.39 76.19
matter
Ash content 3.10 8 20.89 3.85 2.9 2.87 8.1 2.42 0.51
Moisture 3.50 ¡ 0.89 11.35 ¡ 4.28 ¡ 9.27 7.41
Ultimate analysis (%)
Carbon 39.50 39.66 40.82 39.98 46.2 52.80 47.75 42.70 50.54
Hydrogen 5.90 5.38 5.25 6.74 3.9 4.6 5.61 6.49 7.08
Nitrogen 2.60 0.66 0.38 1.34 0.8 0.64 0.90 0.25 0.15
Sulfur 0.65 0.31 0.17 0.12 0.03 0.17 0.23 0.15 0.57
Oxygen 51.35 53.98 53.38 51.82 46 41 45.51 50.41 41.11
4
Table 3 in the UAE and the MENA region were prioritized due to the abundance
Ea values of different lignocellulosic materials. of lignocellulosic biomass in these areas.
Lignocellulosic Ea (kJ/ Modelling Conditions Ref.
biomass mol) approach 3.1. Binder-based insulation materials
Almond shells 49− 56 Coats and 25− 850 ◦ C, 10− 30 [88]
Redfern ◦
C/min, N2 at 5 ml/ Binder-based lignocellulosic insulation materials have recently
min gained significant attention owing to their straightforward
Paddy husk 82 Coats and 20− 900 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C/ [89] manufacturing processes that do not require sophisticated machinery
Redfern min, under N2
atmosphere
[99]. These insulators are easily formed by binding lignocellulosic ma
Bagasse 90 Coats and 25− 600 ◦ C, 10− 30 [90] terials, resulting in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly prod
Redfern ◦
C/min, N2 at 100 uct [100]. Moreover, their low thermal conductivities (0.045-0.055
ml/min W/m.K) make them highly desirable for various applications, including
Waste sawdust 170 Kissinger- 25− 900 ◦ C, 5− 25 [91]
building construction and thermal insulation solutions [101]. With
Akahira- ◦
C/min, N2 at 50 mL/
Sunose min increasing prioritization of sustainable and efficient materials,
Mustard stalk 135 Ozawa-Flynn- 30− 730 ◦ C, 5− 20 [92] binder-based lignocellulosic insulation materials are expected to be
Wall ◦
C/min, N2 at 200 crucial in addressing both energy conservation and ecological concerns.
mL/min With a growing body of research and data supporting their effectiveness,
Lampwick plant 135 Kissinger- 40− 700 ◦ C, 5− 15 [93]
Akahira- ◦
C/min, N2 at 25 mL/
these innovative materials have revolutionized the insulation industry
Sunose min by providing a simple yet highly effective solution to thermal manage
Carradoriella 120 Friedman 20− 900 ◦ C, 5− 40 [94] ment challenges [102].
elongata C/min, N2 at 80 mL/ Table 4 provides an overview of the studies performed to develop
◦
min
thermal insulation materials using lignocellulosic waste and binding
Mustard waste 200 Ozawa-Flynn- 23− 800 ◦ C, 10− 40 [95]
Wall ◦
C/min, N2 at 100 agents. Lignocellulose wastes, including date tree surface fibers, date
mL/min tree leaves, rice husks, bamboo fibers, jute fibers, agave, wheat straw,
eucalyptus globulus leaves, apple of Sodom fibers, and rice straw, have
been effectively utilized for developing thermal insulation materials by
sustainability concerns. They also assess environmental impacts combining them with binders such as corn starch, PBAT/PLA blends,
including carbon footprint, recyclability, and end-of-life considerations, protein-based bone glue, bi-component fibers, methylene diphenyl dii
crucial for aligning with environmental goals. Moreover, by pinpointing socyanate, and chitosan. Mohsin et al. [103] developed
research gaps, these reviews suggest future directions for enhancing high-performance green insulation from date palm surface fibers using
material properties and overcoming current challenges. This compre polyvinyl alcohol as a binder. The material demonstrated excellent
hensive understanding supports informed decision-making in policy, thermal properties with thermal conductivity of 0.038–0.051 W/m.K,
investment, and technology development, advancing towards more thermal diffusivity of 0.137–0.147 mm2/s, and a U− value of 3.8–5.1
efficient and sustainable building practices and industrial applications. W/m2.K. It exhibited thermal stability, fire retardancy, and reasonable
There are numerous studies on this topic beyond those cited in this tensile strength. Fig. 2 shows the developed DPSF/PVA insulation ma
section. The authors have attempted to include studies that are highly terials. Mohamed et al. [104] developed eco-friendly insulation mate
relevant, closely aligned with the discussed methodology, and well- rials from date palm surface fibers and pineapple leaf fibers using wood
designed experimentally. Priority was given to recent or highly cited adhesive. The composites exhibited thermal conductivities of
research that reports thermal conductivity values, density values, and 0.042–0.075 W/(m⋅K), good sound absorption (SAC > 0.5 for DPSF),
mechanical properties. Studies on composites made from lignocellulosic thermal stability up to 218 ◦ C, and low moisture content (<4 %), making
fibers and biodegradable polymers that did not report insulation prop them promising alternatives to synthetic insulation. Fig. 3 shows insu
erties were excluded from this review. Additionally, studies conducted lation samples developed at various densities. The incorporation of corn
Table 4
Lignocellulosic− based thermal insulation materials using binders.
Feedstock Binder Thermal performance Density (kg/ Mechanical strength Ref.
(W/m.K) m3)
Date tree surface fibers PVA K = 0.038 (25 ◦ C) 203 6.9− 10 MPa (Tensile) and 3.5− 5.9 MPa (Youngs [103]
Modulus)
Date palm & pineapple fibers Polyvinyl acetate resin K = 0.042–0.06 (25 C) ◦
166-329 6.47–64.16 MPa (Flexure modulus) and 0.43–1.67 [104]
MPa (Flexure stress)
Date tree leaves Starch (corn− based) K = 0.047 (25 ◦ C) 176 9− 15 MPa (Youngs Modulus) and 9− 178 kPa [109]
(Flexural strength)
Date tree leaves and wheat fibers Starch (corn-based) K = 0.05 (24.4 ◦ C) 175 0.67 MPa (Flexural modulus) and 0.22 MPa [110]
(hybrid) (Flexural stress)
Rice husk PBAT/PLA blend as binder K = 0.08 (25 C)
◦
378 11–40 MPa (Compressive strength) and [111]
0.80–2.25 MPa (Flexural strength)
Bamboo fibers Bone glue K = 0.078 (25 ◦ C) 431 1310− 3130 MPa (Modulus of elasticity) and [112]
2.7− 7.3 MPa (Bending strength)
Jute fibers Bi-component fibers K = 0.045 (10 ◦ C) 26.10 6.24− 23.47 kPa (Tensile strength) [113]
Agave and wheat straw (hybrid) Starch (corn-based) K = 0.050 (25 ◦ C) − 1.14− 44.76 MPa (Flexural modulus) and [114]
0.25− 5.37 MPa (Flexural stress)
Eucalyptus Globulus leaves Starch (corn-based) K = 0.047− 0.059 (10− 60 153 2.3 MPa (Flexural modulus) and 0.19 MPa [115]
◦
C) (Flexural stress)
Apple of Sodom fibers and date Corn starch, wood adhesive and K = 0.0423− 0.0529 199-252 ¡ [116]
tree fibers (hybrid) white cement (10− 50 ◦ C)
Rice straw Methylene diphenyl K = 0.051− 0.053 (25 ◦ C) 250 17.49 MPa (Tensile strength) [117]
diisocyanate
Sunflower stalks Chitosan K = 0.056 (25 ◦ C) 150− 200 250 MPa (Tensile modulus) [118]
5
Fig. 2. DPSF/PVA− based insulators at varying densities [103]
starch is commonly found to be effective in many studies. Composite performance of lignocellulosic-based insulation materials [106,107]. In
materials made from lignocellulosic wastes and binders exhibit lower a recent study conducted by Mohsin et al., [108] they showed that
densities (150–450 kg/m3) and thermal conductivities below 0.1 pretreating lignocellulose biomass with a natural deep eutectic solvent
W/m⋅K, making them suitable for efficient thermal insulation applica composed of choline chloride and formic acid enriched the fibers with
tions. Although their thermal performance is promising, their mechan cellulose content and reduced their hydrophilic nature. To further
ical properties are generally moderate, with varying flexural moduli and optimize binder composition researchers can explore eco-friendly
stress levels. This raises concerns about their practical applicability, binders like starches, proteins, or bio-resins, ensuring strong adhesion
especially in scenarios requiring high mechanical strength. Conse to lignocellulosic fibers. Modification of binder chemistry or molecular
quently, further research and optimization of binder composition and structure, incorporation of nano-reinforcements, and surface treatments
processing techniques are essential to improve mechanical performance. for fibers can improve mechanical strength and interfacial bonding.
Lignocellulosic-based insulators are indeed prone to absorbing Optimized processing techniques such as hot-pressing, injection
moisture if not properly treated or coated. Lignocellulose, composed of moulding, and post-curing methods help achieve uniform binder dis
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, naturally absorbs water due to the tribution and fiber alignment, enhancing overall mechanical properties.
hydrophilic nature of cellulose and hemicellulose components. This can These approaches aim to balance sustainability with improved perfor
lead to reduced insulation efficiency over time and potentially mance, critical for advancing real-world applications in thermal insu
compromise the material’s structural integrity [105]. To mitigate this lation materials.
issue, researchers often apply coatings or pretreatments to the fibers
before forming composites. Coatings can provide a barrier that reduces
3.2. Biodegradable-based insulation materials
moisture absorption, while pretreatments with natural deep eutectic
solvents or other green solvents can modify the surface chemistry of the
Biodegradable insulation materials contain natural, renewable
fibers to make them more hydrophobic or less prone to moisture uptake.
sources such as plant fibers (e.g. hemp, flax) or recycled and extracted
These approaches help in enhancing the moisture repellence and overall
cellulose from biomass wastes [119]. These materials are often
Fig. 3. Loose fibers in the wooden mold: (a) pineapple fibers and (b) date palm fibers [104]
6
combined with biodegradable binders or used to produce composites Table 5 provides an overview of studies focused on the development
with biodegradable polymers. They offer a sustainable alternative to of insulation materials using biodegradable polymers in combination
conventional insulation materials, reduce dependence on with various lignocellulosic feedstocks. Among biodegradable polymers,
non-renewable resources and minimize environmental impact PLA is the most employed material for this purpose. Abdallah et al.
throughout their life cycle. These solutions are increasingly valued for [106] investigated the potential of enhancing the compatibility between
their environmental friendliness and support of green building practices lignocellulosic fibers and polylactic acid to produce biodegradable heat
[120]. Biodegradable describes the capability of a material to naturally insulation using two silane treatments—APTES with acetone-water (SA)
decompose in the environment, usually through microbial action. This or ethanol–water (SE) solvents. The resulting composites, aimed for
breakdown results in the material converting into simpler, harmless construction use, exhibited improved mechanical properties with 20 wt.
substances such as water, carbon dioxide, and biomass [121]. Biode % composites’ tensile strength rising from 8.6 MPa to 16.5 MPa
gradability depends on environmental factors like temperature, mois (PLA-SA) and 22.4 MPa (PLA-SE). Fig. 4 shows the cylindrical samples
ture, and oxygen levels, as well as the chemical makeup of the material. prepared in this study for compression testing. Yin et al. [129] demon
Biodegradable materials help reduce waste and environmental pollution strated the fabrication of cotton liner-extracted nanocellulose and pol
compared to non-biodegradable alternatives, which persist in the envi ybutylene succinate (PBS) foams using supercritical CO2 technology.
ronment for extended periods [122]. The foams achieved extremely low thermal conductivities of
Biodegradable polymers are environmentally friendly materials that 0.021-0.027 W/m.K, linked with very low densities of approximately
can be broken down by microorganisms, helping to reduce environ 33− 39 kg/m3. This demonstrates the potential of PBS as a biodegrad
mental pollution. Commonly used biodegradable polymers, such as PLA, able polymer for developing thermal insulation materials. However,
PHA, PHB, and starch-based polymers [123], offer advantages, such as there is limited data available on the development of PBS insulators
renewable nature, lightweight properties, customizable thermal insu combined with lignocellulosic biomass in the literature. This gap pre
lation, and potential as composite materials [124], in the fabrication of sents an opportunity for future research studies to explore and expand
biodegradable composites, especially thermal insulators. Biodegradable upon this promising area. Notably, date wood waste is the most exten
polymers contribute to sustainability by reducing the dependence on sively investigated lignocellulosic feedstock, likely because of its abun
fossil fuels, promoting recycling, and offering an eco-friendly solution dant availability in the UAE and MENA region and the demand for
for thermal insulation applications while ensuring a lower environ locally sourced insulators to address the region’s hot climate and pro
mental impact than non-biodegradable materials. However, their prac mote waste utilization. The resulting insulation materials displayed
tical use as insulators may require further research and development to promising average thermal conductivities, ranging from 0.064 W/m.K to
achieve optimal mechanical performance and cost-effectiveness 0.120 W/m.K at 25 ◦ C, indicating the potential for effective thermal
compared with conventional materials [125]. insulation. Regarding mechanical properties, the materials demonstrate
Biodegradable polymers such as PLA, PHB, and PBS offer great po compressive strengths ranging from 16.5 MPa to 79 MPa and tensile
tential for a wide range of applications owing to their eco-friendly strengths from 22.36 MPa to 80 MPa. In addition, their compressive and
properties [126]. For instance, PHB shows promise in the manufacture tensile moduli varied, reaching 28 GPa. These mechanical characteris
of insulators, plastic items, mulch films, and absorbable surgical sutures tics suggest that biodegradable polymer-based insulation materials
for drug delivery, as well as in pharmaceutical and food packaging ap exhibit favorable structural integrity for practical applications.
plications. However, its practical use is hindered by its low elongation at The primary challenge with using biodegradable-based composites is
break (approximately 3 %) and tensile strength (less than 10 MPa), their limited durability and mechanical performance compared to con
limiting its application in scenarios requiring high mechanical perfor ventional materials [130]. A significant issue is their degradation rate,
mance [127]. Similarly, PBS is a competitive candidate for producing which can vary widely based on environmental conditions such as
biocomposites owing to its cost-effectiveness, ease of processing, and temperature, humidity, and microbial activity. This variability makes it
eco-friendliness. Although it exhibits elongation at break and flexibility difficult to predict the lifespan and performance of the composites in
similar to that of PET, its lower tensile strength and modulus restrict its real-world applications [131]. Moisture sensitivity is another concern,
utilization in certain applications [128]. Researchers are actively as biodegradable composites tend to absorb moisture, degrading their
working on enhancing the mechanical properties of biodegradable mechanical properties and thermal insulation capabilities over time
polymers to fully exploit their potential for various sustainable appli [132]. Ongoing research is needed to address these issues and improve
cations, including thermal insulation, where their current limitations the reliability of biodegradable composites.
pose challenges.
Table 5
Biodegradable polymers-based insulation materials using lignocellulosic waste as reinforcement.
Feedstock Biodegradable polymer Thermal performance Mechanical strength Ref.
Date wood waste (DF) Polylactic acid (PLA), 10− 40 % DF, 0.085− 0.105 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 16.5− 22.4 MPa (Tensile strength) [106]
Silanization on DF, melt extrusion 1350− 1450 kg/m3
Date wood waste (DF) Polylactic acid (PLA), 10− 40 %, Alkalinization 0.082− 0.120 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 25− 45 MPa (Compressive strength) and 28 [133]
on DF, melt extrusion 1230− 1250 kg/m3 GPa (Compressive modulus)
Date wood waste (DF) Polylactic acid (PLA), 10− 50 %, melt extrusion 0.064− 0.075 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 79− 64 MPa (Compressive strength) [134]
1187− 1220 kg/m3
Date fruit pits Polylactic acid (PLA), 10− 40 %, melt extrusion 0.0681− 0.0794 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 60− 80 MPa (Compressive strength) [135]
1225 kg/m3
Date palm fibers Polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB)-salinized fibers, 0.0901–0.106 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 18 MPa (Tensile strength) & 48.6 MPa [136]
20− 40 %, melt extrusion 1328-1333 kg/m3 (Compressive strength)
Date palm fibers Polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB)- 10− 50 %, melt 0.086 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 1298- 65 MPa (Compressive strength) [137]
extrusion 1347 kg/m3
Bamboo fibers Polylactic acid (PLA), hot pressing 0.075− 0.33 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ ¡ [138]
200− 1200 kg/m3
Flax Polylactic acid (PLA), 30− 40 %, melt extrusion ¡ 44− 53 MPa (Tensile strength) and 7.3− 8.3 [139]
GPa (Elasticity modulus)
Cotton liner/extracted Polybutylene succinate (PBS), supercritical 0.021-0.027 W/m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ 33- − [129]
nanocellulose CO2 technology 39 kg/m3
7
Fig. 4. Cylindrical samples consisted of salinized date waste and polylactic acid [106].
3.3. Thermoplastic-based insulation materials Table 6 offers valuable insights into using thermoplastics reinforced
with lignocellulosic waste for thermal insulation purposes. The primary
Thermoplastics are a versatile class of polymers owing to their thermoplastic polymer employed in these composites is EPS, known for
unique ability to undergo multiple melting and reshaping cycles without its excellent thermal insulation properties. Melt extrusion emerges as the
substantial degradation [140]. Within their diverse applications, certain predominant processing method, indicating its suitability for achieving
thermoplastics exhibit exceptional suitability as thermal insulators uniform dispersion of lignocellulosic waste within the composites. Masri
[141]. Polyethylene and PP are extensively used for electrical cable et al. [154] conducted an environmentally friendly study, developing a
insulation owing to their outstanding electrical properties [142]. PVC is wood–plastic Composite (WPC) using date palm leaflet waste and
widely used in cables, wires, and building wires for effective insulation expanded polystyrene (EPS) waste dissolved in gasoline as a matrix. The
purposes [143]. Polystyrene in its expanded form (EPS) serves as an resulting leaflets–polystyrene composite (LPC) is recyclable and
insulating material for both buildings and packaging owing to its exhibited good mechanical properties, adhesion at the fiber–matrix
remarkably low thermal conductivity [144]. Polyurethane foam has interface, and thermal insulation capabilities, highlighting its potential
emerged as the preferred choice for thermal insulation in appliances and for use in construction, both as insulation and a structural component.
buildings [145]. Polycarbonate is specifically adopted in specialized Fig. 5 shows the developed composites in this research.
applications that require elevated impact resistance and thermal prop Date palm waste is extensively utilized as a reinforcement material,
erties [146]. Nylon, with its desirable electrical properties, is used for possibly because of its abundant availability in the Gulf region. In
electrical insulation [147]. Fluoropolymers, such as PTFE and FEP, are addition to date palms, other lignocellulosic waste materials such as
particularly preferred because of their extraordinary electrical insu hemp, cellulose, and roselle fibers have also been considered for rein
lation capabilities, chemical resistance, and high-temperature endur forcement. The mechanical strengths of these composites, evaluated in
ance, rendering them invaluable in high-performance cables and wires terms of flexural strength, flexural modulus, tensile strength, and tensile
[148]. EVA is notable for its flexibility and insulation properties, with modulus, underscore their ability to withstand mechanical stresses. To
specific applications in solar equipment and electrical connectors [149]. fully realize the potential of these thermoplastic-lignocellulosic com
Additionally, ABS was selected to meet distinct insulation requirements posites as sustainable and efficient thermal insulation solutions, further
owing to its robust mechanical strength and insulating characteristics research and development are imperative to optimize their formulations
[150]. The selection of these thermoplastics for thermal insulation is and processing methods to ensure long-term stability and optimal
contingent upon several crucial factors, including temperature range, performance.
electrical properties, chemical resistance, and mechanical strength.
Moreover, some materials are combined with additives to augment their
insulating attributes and cater to specific applications [151]. 3.4. Thermoset-based insulation materials
The abundant and cost-effective nature of plastic waste has led to its
use as a source material for thermoplastic composites, offering a sec Thermoset plastics, including polyester, epoxy, and phenolic resins,
ondary application of the material and mitigating its environmental have garnered substantial interest for their application in thermal
impact [152]. Benchouia et al. [153] developed an insulation material insulation owing to their exceptional resistance to heat and adaptability
using expandable polystyrene and date leaves as fillers, followed by [166]. These materials offer many benefits over traditional alternatives,
alkaline and benzoylation treatments. Similarly, Masri et al. [154] including outstanding durability and dimensional stability, and ensure
explored the development of insulation materials using expandable enduring and dependable insulation performance under various envi
polystyrene and date leaves. Although thermoplastics are widely ronmental conditions [167]. Moreover, their remarkable resistance to
employed in insulation applications, concerns regarding their environ moisture, chemicals, and corrosive substances further extends their
mental footprint persist during production [155]. To address these applicability in demanding situations. The ability of thermoset plastics
concerns and promote sustainability, the integration of renewability and to form rigid closed-cell structures efficiently captures air, resulting in
biodegradability in thermoplastics is of paramount importance. One diminished thermal conductivity and superior insulation capabilities
promising approach involves substituting 10–50 % of the thermoplastic [168]. Furthermore, incorporating lignocellulosic biomass as a rein
content with lignocellulosic waste, thus reducing the environmental forcement in thermoset plastics is a promising strategy to further
impact of thermoplastic production and contributing to a lower material enhance thermal insulation performance. By combining lignocellulosic
density and thermal conductivity [156]. This utilization of abundant fibers into a thermoset matrix, the resultant composite demonstrated
lignocellulosic waste in thermoplastics allows the manufacture of more heightened mechanical strength, enhanced thermal stability, and, most
sustainable and eco-friendly insulation materials without compromising importantly, reduced environmental impact [169]. This approach pro
their performance, presenting a positive step towards environmental vides a cost-effective solution for delivering economical insulation ma
conservation [157]. terials without compromising overall performance. Consequently,
incorporating lignocellulosic biomass as a reinforcement holds
8
Table 6 DS− UPR composites with up to 70 vol.% natural filler through

Thermoplastic-based insulation materials using lignocellulosic waste as room-temperature thermoset curing. These composites demonstrated
reinforcement. superior thermal insulation properties (thermal conductivities of
Feedstock Thermoplastic Thermal Mechanical Ref. 0.126–0.138 W/m.K) and mechanical strength (compressive: 38.4− 88.0
polymer performance strength MPa, tensile: 9.4− 35.1 MPa) when up to 50 vol.% of UPR was replaced
Date tree Expandable 0.118 W/m.K 33− 38 MPa [153] by DS, thus indicating that adding date waste improved thermal stability
leaves polystyrene,10− 30 (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ (Flexural and glass transition temperature. This study presents a sustainable and
%, melt extrusion, 869− 970 kg/ strength) and high-performance alternative for insulation that stems from the synergy
alkaline and m3 2.93.4 GPa
between thermoset polymers and lignocellulosic waste. Polyurethane is
benzoylation treated, (Flexural
melt extrusion modulus) the predominant choice among these materials. A UPR was selected
Date tree Expandable 0.158 W/m.K 0.4− 2.8 MPa [154] owing to its advantageous characteristics, including easy handling, low
leaves polystyrene, 20− 30 (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ (Flexural water absorption, cost-effectiveness, and rapid gas-free curing. Utilizing
%, blending, EPS 900 kg/m3 stress) lignocellulosic waste to enhance material properties remains relatively
mixed with gasoline
Date tree polyethylene- ¡ 20− 25 MPa [158]
unexplored, possibly influenced by the superior attributes of PU, which
leaves terephthalate, 5− 15 (Tensile minimizes the need for further refinement [172]. However, the potential
%, melt extruded, strength) and substitution of 10–50 % of polyurethane with renewable sources is
alkaline treated 42− 50 MPa worth considering. While thermoset insulators typically possess lower
fibers (Flexural
density and good mechanical properties nonetheless, their thermal
strength)
Date tree Expandable 0.053 W/m.K 19.33− 22.66 [159] conductivity (≥0.1 W/m.K), may be considered unsuitable for high-end
surface polystyrene,10− 40 (25 ◦ C) at ρ ≈ MPa applications.
fibers %, melt extrusion 973.16 kg/m3 (Compressive The analysis underscores the fertile ground for research integrating
strength) and lignocellulosic waste and thermosets, as exemplified by the underutili
2.5− 3 MPa
zation of date seeds, date waste, waste wool, and waste tires to augment
(Tensile
strength) their physicochemical traits and sustainability, potentially making them
Date tree Thermoplastic starch ¡ ≈78.5 MPa [160] more relevant for diverse applications.
fibers (TPS) prepared from (Flexural
corn starch, 20− 70 strength), 3.41
3.5. Cellulosic-based insulation materials
%, alkaline treatment GPa (Flexural
of fibers, modulus),
compression molding Cellulose is a well-known biopolymer that saturates the Earth’s
Date tree Recycled Ternary 0.32− 0.37 W/ 22− 26 MPa [161] biosphere and is abundant in its presence within lignocellulosic waste.
leaves Polyolefin, 10− 30 %, m.K (25 ◦ C) at (Tensile These remnants of plant matter comprise a triumvirate of biopolymers
alkaline treatment of ρ ≈ 900− 950 strength) and
fibers, melt extrusion kg/m3 5.1.50 GPa
such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose [176]. Among these, cellu
(Tensile lose has emerged as a focal point of research interest, drawing attention
modulus) to its extraction from lignocellulose. However, the critical role of cel
Date palm Blend: low-density ¡ 20− 22 MPa lulose in endowing plant structures with resilience remains unclear
fiber polyethylene, high (Tensile
[177]. Its significance is reinforced by its remarkable physicochemical
density polyethylene, strength) and
polypropylene, 450− 830 MPa traits, including heightened thermal stability and mechanical robustness
const. 20 %, melt (Tensile [178]. The transmutation of cellulose extends beyond its inherent at
extrusion modulus) tributes, such as producing derivatives like nanocellulose or micro
Isoberlinia Expandable ¡ [162] crystalline cellulose through hydrolysis. The utility of cellulose and its
doka polystyrene, 15− 45
%, alkaline treated
derivatives remains a prominent research topic, particularly in the field
fibers, melt extrusion of thermal insulation materials [179]. This multifaceted application
Cellulose Expandable ¡ 40− 71 MPa [163] underscores the versatility of cellulose and its potential for advancing
polystyrene, 10− 30 (Flexural sustainable solutions for diverse applications [180]. Table 8 outlines
%, melt extrusion strength),
studies in which cellulose or its derivatives were isolated from ligno
3438− 5261
MPa (Flexural cellulosic waste. Various lignocellulosic agricultural residues, such as
modulus) date palm waste, oil palm fronds, sugarcane bagasse fibers, groundnut
Hemp fiber Polyurethane (PU), 0.033− 0.040 0.675− 1.15 [164] shells, pineapple waste, roselle fibers, sugarcane bagasse, and pomelo
5− 30 %, melt W/m.K (25 ◦ C) MPa (Tensile peel, are subjected to specific pretreatment methods involving chemicals
extrusion at ρ ≈ 36− 48 strength) and
kg/m3 9.26− 13.21
like hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium hypo
GPa (Tensile chlorite (NaClO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), acetic acid (CH3COOH),
modulus) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4), often at elevated temperatures (45− 100
Roselle Polyurethane (PU), [165] ◦
C), to break down lignin and hemicellulose components. The hydrolysis
fiber 10− 50 %, melt
step, primarily using sulfuric acid (H2SO4), is applied to convert pre
extrusion
treated materials into cellulose-based products such as cellulose nano
crystals and microcrystalline cellulose. This analysis highlights the
considerable potential for promoting the advancement of diverse approaches employed to utilize lignocellulosic waste to produce
high-performance and eco-conscious thermal insulation, providing the cellulose derivatives from lignocellulosic wastes.
foundation for groundbreaking solutions in energy-efficient and sus Cellulose and its derivatives (crystalline nanocellulose or micro
tainable building practices [170]. crystalline cellulose) extracted from lignocellulose waste play a pivotal
Table 7 provides a comparative overview of various feedstocks role as reinforcing agents within an array of polymer matrices, including
combined with thermoset polymers, focusing on their thermal perfor both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers, along with biode
mances and mechanical strengths. Abu-Jdayil et al. [171] utilized date gradable analogs. Through integration, these polymers exhibited
palm seeds (DS) as renewable fillers in UPR matrices for advanced improved mechanical robustness, durability, and dimensional stability.
thermal insulation, achieving exceptional properties by producing stable Incorporating cellulose and its derivative fibers facilitated their disper
sion and alignment within the polymer matrix, culminating in an
9
Fig. 5. Insulators developed from date leaves and EPS.
Table 7 Table 8
Thermoset-based insulation materials using lignocellulosic waste as Cellulose and its derivatives extraction from different lignocellulosic wastes.
reinforcement.
Lignocellulosic Product Pretreatment Hydrolysis Ref.
Feedstock Thermoset Thermal Mechanical Ref. waste
polymer performance strength
Date palm waste Cellulose 0.1 M HCl (100 ◦ C ¡ [181]
Date seeds Unsaturated 0.126− 0.138 38.4− 88 MPa [171] & 2 h) and 0.1 M
(DS) polyester resin W/m.K (25 ◦ C) (Compressive NaOH (100 ◦ C & 2
(UPR), methyl ethyl at ρ ≈ strength) and h)
ketone peroxide 1099− 1195 9.4− 35.1 MPa Oil palm fronds Cellulose 14 w/v% NaOH ¡ [182]
(cross− linker), kg/m3 (Tensile (160 ◦ C & 1.5 h)
0− 70 % DS, high strength) and 1:1 v/v H2O2:
viscosity mixer CH3COOH with
Date waste Epoxy resin, ¡ 15− 35 MPa [169] 1.1 % 98 % H2SO4
(DW) polyamine amine (Tensile (70 ◦ C & 2 h)
(hardener), 10− 50 strength) Sugarcane Cellulose 24 w/v% H2O2 (70 65 % H2SO4 [183]
% DW, hand mixing bagasse fibers nanocrystals ◦
O & 1 h) and 4 w/ at 50 ◦ C and
Waste Recycled polyester, 0.034− 0.035 ¡ [173] v% NaOH (70 ◦ C & 40 mins
wool nonwoven mat W/m.K (35 ◦ C) 1 h)
(WW) Groundnut shells Cellulose 1.5 w/v% NaClO at 65 wt.% [184]
Without Polyurea, sol-gel 0.13− 0.18 W/ ¡ [174] nanocrystals pH = 3− 4 using 5 H2SO4 at 45
filler processing, m.K (25 ◦ C) at ρ % CH3COOH (70 ◦
C and 75
supercritical drying ≈ 98.6 kg/m3
◦
C & 2 h) and 1 M mins
Without Polyisocyanurate 0.1− 0.129 W/ 0.13− 6.32 MPa [175] NaOH (65 ◦ C & 2
filler and Polyurethane, m.K (10 ◦ C) at ρ (Compressive h)
sol-gel processing ≈ 100− 165 strength) Pineapple waste Cellulose 5 w/v% NaOH (90 60 wt.% [185]
kg/m3 nanocrystals ◦
C & 1 h) and 16 v/ H2SO4 at 45
v% H2O2 (55 ◦ C & ◦
C for 1 h
90 min)
amplified load-bearing capacity and resistance to deformation. Roselle fibers Micro 10 w/v% NaCIO 2.5 M HCl [186]
crystalline (70− 80 ◦ C & 1 h) (85 ◦ C & 30
Furthermore, the inherent compatibility of cellulose derivatives with
cellulose and 8.0 w/v% mins)
diverse polymers permits tailored modifications that optimize the NaOH (25− 30 ◦ C
interfacial interplay between the reinforcing agent and the polymer & 30 mins)
matrix. This synergy engenders reinforcement for composite materials Sugarcane Micro 5 % HNO3 (80 ◦ C & 10 % H2O2 [187]
and endows desirable attributes, such as biodegradability and bio bagasse crystalline 2 h), 2N NaOH (80 with 0.5 mL
cellulose ◦
C & 2 h) and 10 % of conc.
compatibility—pivotal for limiting environmental consequences. With CH3COOH/NaClO H2SO4 (80 ◦ C
polymer modifications, these composites can also exhibit exceptional (80 ◦ C & 2 h) & 5 h)
thermal insulating attributes, thus broadening their horizons in contexts Pomelo peel Micro 4 w/w% NaOH + 6 w/w% HCl [188]
that necessitate adept management of heat transfer phenomena. crystalline 0.9 v/v% H2O2 (80 (90 ◦ C & 100
cellulose ◦
C & 4 h) and 80 % mins)
Table 9 provides insight into studies in which cellulose, or its de
CH3COOH− 68 %
rivatives, were used in combination with different matrices to improve HNO3 (v/v = 10:1)
the physiochemical properties. Studies have been conducted on incor (100 ◦ C & 15 mins)
porating cellulose and its derivatives, such as nanocellulose and
microcrystalline cellulose, into various polymer matrices using different
methods to enhance the mechanical properties of thermoplastics and based materials derived from lignocellulosic waste sources as effective
thermosets. Nanocellulose and microcrystalline cellulose extracted from reinforcements for polymer matrices to produce high-performance
lignocellulosic waste are used as reinforcing agents owing to their composite materials suitable for various applications such as insulators.
unique structural and mechanical properties. These studies used Using cellulose and nanocellulose aerogels derived from lignocellu
methods such as solvent casting and melt extrusion to combine cellulose losic sources is a green substitute for producing thermal insulation
materials with polymers such as polylactic acid, thermoplastic cassava materials. For various applications such as insulators, it is desirable to
starch, polybutylene succinate, polyhydroxybutyrate, and poly achieve excellent thermal insulation performance by utilizing the
propylene. Notable improvements in the mechanical properties were characteristics of nanocellulose aerogels, including their lightweight
observed, including significant increases in the tensile strength, nature, high porosity, and low thermal conductivity [200–202]. Chen
modulus, and elasticity, as well as reductions in the permeability to et al. [203] produced an aerogel for use as a thermal insulator using
various factors such as air, water vapor, and heat. On average, the tensile cellulose nanofibers (CNF). The aerogel exhibited a density of 50 kg/m3,
strength and modulus increase by approximately 50–200 % and 40–200 a porosity greater than 99 %, and a thermal conductivity of 0.16 W/m.K.
%, respectively, while other relevant properties also show substantial Clara et al. [204] produced an aerogel for use as a thermal insulator
enhancements. These findings underscore the potential of cellulose- using CNF. The aerogel exhibited a density of 230 kg/m3, a porosity
10
Table 9 greater than 99 %, and a thermal conductivity of 0.18 W/m.K. Sakai

Cellulose and its derivatives as fillers with different matrixes. et al. [205] produced an aerogel for use as a thermal insulator using
Cellulose type Methodology Matrix Properties Ref. cellulose CNF. The aerogel exhibited a density of 40 kg/m3 and a ther
mal conductivity of 0.18 W/m.K. Seantier et al. [206] developed bio
Nanocellulose Solvent Polylactic acid 53.87 % [189]
casting increase in composite aerogels by freeze-drying, incorporating bleached cellulose
tensile fibers and cellulose nanoparticles with diverse properties. SEM and AFM
strength and analyses showed morphological changes resulting from the nanoparticle
87.9 % attributes, leading to reduced pore sizes within the 3D BCF fiber
decrease in air
permeability
network. Nanoparticle characteristics affect thermal conductivity and
Nanocellulose Solvent Polylactic acid 58 % and 210 [190] mechanical strength, allowing these aerogels to join the super-insulating
casting % increase in materials category with enhanced properties and a distinctive
tensile multi-scale architecture. Gupta et al. [207] formed a freeze-dried
modulus and
nanofibrillated cellulose aerogel from pinewood, achieving a low den
strength,
respectively sity and high strength. The aerogel exhibited impressive porosity (99.4
Nanocellulose Melt Thermoplastic 55 % increase [191] %), ultralow density (8.1 kg/m3), and thermal conductivity of 0.25.5
extrusion cassava starch in tensile W/m.K at 1.00 wt.%, highlighting its effectiveness as an efficient insu
strength and lator. Cyclic compression tests showed recoverable behavior at 25 %
50− 60 %
increase in
strain and strain hardening at 75 %. Jiménez-Saelices et al. [208]
elastic investigated the influence of nanofibrillated cellulose aerogels, which
modulus are low-density bio-based materials, on the microstructure and thermal
Microcrystalline Melt spinning Polybutylene 123 % and [192] insulation under freeze-drying conditions. Different cooling rates and
cellulose succinate 233 %
temperature gradients led to varying pore distributions and shapes.
increase in
tensile Enhanced thermal insulation with a minimal thermal conductivity of
strength and 0.024 W/m.K was observed in aerogels with cellular microstructures,
modulus, underscoring the potential for customized aerogel designs. Fischer et al.
respectively [209] prepared new organic aerogels using cellulose derivatives via a
Nanocellulose Melt Polybutylene ≈50 % [193]
Sol-gel route, crosslinking cellulose acetate with non-toxic isocyanate in
extrusion succinate increase in
tensile acetone. The gelation time (15–150 min) depends on the reagent. Su
strength and percritical carbon dioxide drying yielded low-density materials (0.25 to
≈45 % 0.85 cm3/g). Nanostructured solid and nanoporous networks were
decrease in
evident (surface areas 140 to 250 m2/g, pore sizes 13 to 25 nm), with
water vapor
retention significant porous volumes (up to 3.30 cm3/g). The thermomechanical
Nanocellulose Solvent Poly- 50 % and 35 % [194] properties and correlations between the synthesis parameters and ma
casting hydroxybutyrate increase in terial properties were explored. These studies indicate that the aerogel is
Young’s highly efficient in thermal insulation due to its high porosity and rela
modulus and
tively low thermal conductivity, making it suitable insulator. Re
tensile
strength, searchers are actively developing cellulose and nanocellulose-based
respectively. insulation materials. However, a notable gap remains in the advance
Nanocellulose Melt Polypropylene 54 % increase [195] ment of lignocellulosic-based aerogels that do not require extraction of
extrusion in Young’s
cellulose or its derivatives. Overcoming this challenge could signifi
modulus and
eight-times
cantly enhance the renewability and cost-effectiveness of the insulation
increase in manufacturing process, leveraging readily available raw wastes. Future
elongation at research aims to identify solvents capable of fully dissolving lignocel
break lulosic biomass. Additionally, harnessing the inherent properties of
Nanocellulose Melt Polybutylene 55 % increase [196]
lignin, such as hydrophobicity and UV protection, could further enhance
extrusion adipate-co- in elastic
terephthalate modulus and the desirable characteristics of these insulation materials.
63 % decrease
in water 4. Feasibility and economics
vapour
permeability
Nanocellulose Solvent Amine cured 73 % increase [197]
Lignocellulosic thermal insulators offer promising and sustainable
casting epoxy resin in tensile solutions for the construction industry, providing both environmental
strength and and economic benefits. By utilizing agricultural residues and wood-
98 % increase based materials, these insulators reduce waste, lower production costs,
in modulus
and offer excellent thermal performance, making them viable options
Microcrystalline Melt High density 200 % [198]
cellulose extrusion polyethylene increase in for energy-efficient buildings. Their renewability and potential for local
tensile sourcing also enhance their economic feasibility, making them an
strength and attractive choice as energy-efficient and eco-friendly construction
420 %
materials.
increase in
Youngs
modulus 4.1. Availability
Microcrystalline Solvent Poly methyl 15 % increase [199]
cellulose casting methacrylate in tensile Lignocellulosic materials, including wood, plant fibers, and agricul
strength and
39 % increase
tural wastes such as wheat straw (approximately 354.34 million tons
in Youngs annually), rice straw (approximately 731.3 million tons annually), corn
modulus straw (approximately 128.02 million tons annually), and sugarcane
bagasse (approximately 180.73 million tons annually), are abundant
11
and renewable resources sourced sustainably, making them highly Table 11

suitable for insulation materials. This contrasts with finite resources like Lignocellulosic waste utilization markets in different countries
petroleum-based materials [210]. For example, in the United Arab Countries Utilization Ref.
Emirates alone, there are approximately 42 million date palm trees,
United States Growing interest in using agricultural residues for [214]
highlighting the availability of such materials globally. These statistics composites
underscore the potential of lignocellulosic materials in contributing to Canada Research and development in utilizing wood waste [215]
sustainable insulation solutions worldwide, leveraging their renew for insulation
ability and environmental benefits [211]. Table 10 presents an overview Sweden Utilizes wood waste for sustainable construction [216]
materials
of the annual production volumes of agricultural products that generate Germany Focus on utilizing lignocellulosic materials in various [217]
lignocellulosic wastes. sectors
Finland Research on using wood-based materials for [218]
insulation products
4.2. Processing techniques United Kingdom Interest in sustainable green construction materials [219]
from wood waste
Australia Exploration of lignocellulosic waste in sustainable [220]
Lignocellulosic insulations are fabricated using mechanical pressing applications
and do not require sophisticated machinery [109]. Mechanical processes Brazil Research on using agricultural residues for composite [221]
for converting lignocellulosic materials into insulation products are materials
India Initiatives for utilizing agricultural waste in [222]
more cost-effective than energy-intensive chemical processes, making
composite making
them attractive to manufacturers. In this review, it has been analysed China Research and development in using bamboo and [223]
that lignocellulose-based insulation materials can be manufactured wood waste
either in loose form using natural binders, resulting in lower thermal Pakistan Limited information, potential interest in sustainable [224]
conductivity values. However, challenges such as lower mechanical materials
United Arab Growing interest in sustainable construction practices [225]
strength and high hydrophilicity need to be addressed. Alternatively,
Emirates
melt extrusion of insulation materials using 10-50 % lignocellulosic Saudi Arabia Emerging interest in sustainable materials and [226]
waste with biodegradable thermoplastics or conventional thermoplas practices
tics offers moderate thermal conductivity and improved mechanical
properties. Aerogels, while exhibiting significantly lower thermal con
ductivity (≤ 0.20 W/m.K), present a challenge in being directly derived 4.4. Cost comparison
from lignocellulose without cellulose extraction. In addition, it should
be noted that manufacturing aerogels from lignocellulosic materials Lignocellulose-based insulation materials present cost benefits over
does not typically require high-temperature processing (150-200 ◦ C), traditional insulation options. These materials, sourced from plentiful
which is common in the production of composites. This characteristic and renewable resources like wood fibers, straw, and agricultural resi
can be advantageous as it may preserve the inherent properties of dues, are typically less expensive than petroleum-based alternatives
lignocellulosic components and reduce energy consumption during [236]. Their production is more cost-effective due to lower energy re
manufacturing. Given their exceptionally low thermal conductivity quirements and simpler mechanical processing methods. Installation is
(0.15-0.20 0.20 W/m.K) without need for processing at high tempera also cost-efficient, as lignocellulosic insulations generally need fewer
ture, further development of aerogels using raw lignocellulosic waste is specialized tools and less labour [237]. Furthermore, their environ
highly recommended to optimize their properties. This includes mental advantages, including a reduced carbon footprint and lower
enhancing mechanical strength, reducing hydrophilicity, and exploring disposal costs, can lead to financial incentives and subsidies, thereby
methods to directly utilize lignocellulose without the need for cellulose lowering initial costs [238]. Luksta et al. [239] provided valuable in
extraction. These efforts could lead to more efficient and sustainable sights into the cost analysis of lignocellulose-based insulation materials
insulation materials with enhanced performance characteristics. compared with conventional insulation materials (Table 13).
Plant-based insulation materials, offer competitive thermal performance
and potentially lower costs compared to inorganic and synthetic
4.3. Market demand
Increasing focus on sustainability and eco-friendliness has resulted in Table 12

growing market demand for lignocellulose-based insulation materials. Commercial activities related to bio-based insulation materials
Builders and homeowners seeking environmentally friendly options may Company Brief Link to
prefer these materials [212]. The United Nations Sustainability Goals Website
also call for waste utilization to promote a circular economy [213]. Thermo-Kool Offers insulation made from recycled cotton [227]
Table 11 provides an overview of initiatives undertaken by countries to and denim
utilize lignocellulosic waste for developing biodegradable composites. Roxul Makes insulation from volcanic stone and [228]
recycled materials
Bio-based lignocellulosic insulators are also in practice, offering sus
Kenaf core Provides insulation panels made from the [229]
tainable alternatives for thermal insulation. Table 12 provides infor building kenaf plant
mation on some of these commercial activities, highlighting the market Agri fiber Manufactures insulation from agricultural [230]
presence and application of these eco-friendly materials. waste products like wheat straw and rice hulls
Biobased Offers spray foam insulation made from soy- [231]
insulation based materials
Table 10 Ecological Distributes a range of natural insulation [232]
Worldwide production volumes of some agricultural products [18] building options including hemp, wood fibre, and cork
systems
Crop Production (£ 105 Crop Production (£ 105
Greensulate Produces insulation from agricultural [233]
tonnes) tonnes)
byproducts like rice hulls and sunflower seeds
Sugarcane 19500 Sunflower 560 Greenfiber One of the largest manufacturers of cellulose [234]
Wheat 7600 Olives 200 fiber insulation in North America
Maize 11600 Coconut 625 Bonded logic Makes insulation from recycled denim and [235]
Hemp 1.74 Rice 5051 cotton materials
12
insulation materials. Their significantly lower embodied energy and Table 14

carbon make them a more sustainable option. While synthetic insu Environmental benefits of Lignocellulosic-Based Insulators [19,242–244].
lations may offer slightly better thermal properties, the environmental No. Environmental benefits Comment
benefits and cost-effectiveness of plant-based materials present a
1 Reduced carbon footprint Lignocellulosic materials inherently contribute
compelling case for their use in sustainable building practices. to a lower carbon footprint, especially when
sourced sustainably
2 Minimal impact on Sustainable sourcing of lignocellulosic
4.5. Environmental benefits
ecosystems materials minimizes adverse effects on
ecosystems, aligning with environmentally
Lignocellulosic materials offer inherent environmental benefits such conscious practices
as a reduced carbon footprint and minimal impact on ecosystems when 3 Carbon neutrality Lignocellulosic wastes are considered carbon
sustainably sourced. These benefits align with the goals of eco-conscious neutral, absorbing carbon during growth
through photosynthesis. When utilized in
consumers and green-building practices [240]. Lignocellulosic wastes insulators, they effectively sequester carbon,
are considered carbon neutral because they absorb carbon during their contributing to a reduction in greenhouse gas
growth in the process of photosynthesis. However, in case of making emissions
insulators hold carbon during their lifetime application [241]. Table 14 4 Alignment with green The environmental benefits of lignocellulosic-
building practices based insulators resonate with the goals of
further discusses the environmental benefits of lignocellulose-based
green building practices and eco-conscious
insulators. consumers
5 Sustainable lifecycle: Lignocellulosic insulators contribute to a
sustainable lifecycle, promoting the efficient
4.6. Regulatory and incentive factors
use of renewable resources and minimizing
environmental impact
Many governments offer incentives and subsidies for using sustain
able building materials, making lignocellulosic insulation more finan
cially attractive to builders and contractors [245]. and holds the potential to become a significant production hub for
The UAE’s updated long-term national energy strategy, extended lignocellulosic insulators on a large scale. Shifting research efforts from
until 2030, articulates ambitious objectives for balancing the escalating laboratory to industry within this region presents a unique opportunity
energy demand with a commitment to sustainable practices for future to implement these innovative insulators effectively. Capitalizing on the
generations. The plan includes targets such as achieving net-zero emis region’s industrial capacity and commitment to sustainability offers the
sions from the water and energy sectors by 2050, eliminating the role of potential to move beyond experimental phases and bring lignocellulosic
clean coal in the energy mix, and significantly enhancing energy con insulation products into mainstream construction practices. This tran
sumption efficiency by 42–45 % relative to 2019. Additionally, the sition from research to large-scale industry implementation would align
strategy aims to triple the proportion of renewable energy, increase the with the region’s ambitions for sustainable development and position
clean energy capacity, and integrate clean energy into 32 % of the total the GCC as a pioneering force in adopting eco-friendly construction
energy mix by 2030. Regulatory and incentive factors are expected to materials, fostering a positive impact on both local and global con
play a crucial role, with a focus on financial savings, attracting in struction landscapes [249].
vestments (aiming for AED 150–200 billion by 2030), and fostering job
creation, including 50,000 new green jobs by 2030 [246–248]. 4.8. Lifecycle analysis
Furthermore, leveraging lignocellulosic date palm waste as a renewable
source for developing insulation materials could align with sustainable Lignocellulosic materials often perform well in full-lifecycle analyses
energy goals, emphasizing the importance of innovative and because of their renewable sourcing and reduced environmental impact,
environment-friendly solutions within the regulatory framework. thus making them an excellent choice for those prioritizing sustain
ability throughout their product lifecycle [250].
4.7. Scale of production Operato et al. [251] performed the cradle-to-gate life cycle assess
ment (LCA) examined thermal insulators made from polylactic acid
Lignocellulose-based insulation materials can be produced at various blended with 10–40 % natural fibers sourced from pine waste. The study
scales, ranging from small-scale operations to large manufacturing fa analyzed the environmental impacts across five key stages for making
cilities. This area of production should now be the focus of research and bio-pellets: raw material acquisition, transportation, fiber processing,
lignocellulosic insulators should be produced on a large scale. Much melt compounding, and granulation. The LCA revealed that these green
research has been conducted at the laboratory scale to highlight the composites substantially outperformed pure PLA, with up to 48 %
potential of utilizing lignocellulose to develop insulators. greenhouse gas emissions and 32 % primary energy demand reduction
The GCC region serves as a guide for the current construction hub in the 40 % fiber content composites. In addition, the fiber-enhanced
properties facilitated material savings, achieving an 8 % weight reduc
Table 13 tion in the stiffness-constrained designs with 30 %.
Lignocellulose-based insulation materials vs conventional insulation materials
[239]. 5. Future perspective and conclusion
Insulation Thermal Density Cost Embodied
material conductivity (W/ (kg/m3) (USD/ carbon This review provides a comprehensive exploration of thermal insu
m.K) m3) (kg CO2/kg) lation materials developed using lignocellulosic waste for buildings.
Hemp fibers 0.040-0.125 25-100 15-20 0.14 Given that the building sector consumes about 40 % of global energy,
Flax fibers 0.032-0.1 20-100 ≈15 20 finding efficient energy-saving solutions is crucial. Utilizing widely
Rice husk 0.05-0.09 125-165 4-6 ≈0.5
available lignocellulosic waste materials presents a promising approach
Wood waste 0.04-0.055 45-300 ≈30 ≈0.122
EPS 0.02-0.04 20-55 8.5-20 6.5-8 to addressing this challenge with positive environmental implications.
Rock wool 0.03-0.045 50-220 10-20 1.06 One approach involves combining lignocellulosic waste with binding
XPS 0.031-0.038 30-40 ≈20 ≈8 agents without the need for complex machinery or extensive modifica
Glass wool 0.031-0.055 15-110 ≈12 1.25 tion. Insulators produced using this methodology have demonstrated
Polyurethane 0.02-0.03 25-150 6
thermal conductivity values ranging from 0.038 to 0.80 W/m.K, which
≈25
13
fall within a range considered optimal for insulation materials. How Acknowledgments
ever, these materials often suffer from weak mechanical strength and
high-water absorption, limiting their practical applications and high All the authors are thankful to the Department of Chemical and Pe
lighting a need for future research in this area. Another strategy is to troleum Engineering at the United Arab Emirates University, United
incorporate lignocellulosic waste as fillers or reinforcement agents in Arab Emirates.
thermoplastic materials to enhance their physicochemical properties as
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International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100844

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Thermofluids

Lignocellulose− based insulation materials: A review of sustainable and

Available online 1 September 2024

Fig. 1. Fiber structure for lignocellulosic biomass [55].

resulting composite materials offer improved insulation performance

Fig. 2. DPSF/PVA− based insulators at varying densities [103]

Table 6 DS− UPR composites with up to 70 vol.% natural filler through

Fig. 5. Insulators developed from date leaves and EPS.

Table 9 greater than 99 %, and a thermal conductivity of 0.18 W/m.K. Sakai

and renewable resources sourced sustainably, making them highly Table 11

Increasing focus on sustainability and eco-friendliness has resulted in Table 12

insulation materials. Their significantly lower embodied energy and Table 14

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