MRCET CAMPUS

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION - UGC, GOVT.OF INDI A)
Affiliated to JNTUH; Approved by AICTE, NBA-Tier 1 & NAAC with A-GRADE I ISO 9001:2015
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally, Komaplly, Secunderabad - 500100, Telangana State, India

LABORATORY MA
LECTURE NOTES

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2021-22 (R20)
 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND
SCIENCES BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

I Year B. Tech I Sem – CSE/AIML/IOT/CS/DS/IT L T P C
3 0 0 3

(R20A0201) BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Objectives:
1. To understand the basic concepts of electrical circuits & networks and their analysis which is the
foundation for all the subjects in the electrical engineering discipline.
2. To emphasize on the basic elements in electrical circuits and analyze Circuits using Network
Theorems.
3. To analyze Single-Phase AC Circuits.
4. To illustrate Single-Phase Transformers and DC Machines.
5. To get overview of basic electrical installations and calculations for energy consumption.

UNIT –I:
Introduction to Electrical Circuits: Concept of Circuit and Network, Types of elements, R-L-C Parameters,
Independent and Dependent sources, Source transformation and Kirchhoff’s Laws
UNIT –II:
Network Analysis: Network Reduction Techniques- Series and parallel connections of resistive networks,
Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks, Mesh Analysis, and Nodal Analysis,
Network Theorems: Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and Superposition theorem and Illustrative
Problems.
UNIT-III:
Single Phase A.C. Circuits: Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor for sinusoidal wave
form, Complex and Polar forms of representation. Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits. Concept of
Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance, Admittance, Concept of Power Factor, Real, Reactive and Complex
power, Illustrative Problems.
UNIT –IV:
Electrical Machines (elementary treatment only):
Single phase transformers: principle of operation, constructional features and emf equation.
DC. Generator: principle of operation, constructional features, emf equation. DC Motor: principle of
operation, Back emf, torque equation.
UNIT –V:
Electrical Installations:
Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, Types of Wires and Cables, Earthing.
Elementary calculations for energy consumption and battery backup.

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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Engineering Circuit Analysis - William Hayt, Jack E. Kemmerly, S M Durbin, Mc Graw Hill Companies.
2. Electric Circuits - A. Chakraborty, Dhanipat Rai & Sons.
3. Electrical Machines – P.S. Bimbra, Khanna Publishers.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Network analysis by M.E Van Valkenburg, PHI learning publications.
2. Network analysis - N.C Jagan and C. Lakhminarayana, BS publications.
3. Electrical Circuits by A. Sudhakar, Shyammohan and S Palli, Mc Graw Hill Companies.
4. Electrical Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D. P. Kothari, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishers.
Outcomes:
At the end of the course students, would be able to
1. Apply the basic RLC circuit elements and its concepts to networks and circuits.
2. Analyze the circuits by applying network theorems to solve them to find various electrical parameters.
3. Illustrate the single-phase AC circuits along with the concept of impedance parameters and power.
4. Understand the Constructional Details and Principle of Operation of DC Machines and Transformers
5. Understand the basic LT Switch gear and calculations for energy consumption.

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PREFACE

Engineering institutions have been modernizing and updating their curriculum to keep pace
with the continuously developing technological trends so as to meet the correspondingly changing educational
demands of the industry. As the years passed by, multi-disciplinary education system also has become more
and more relevant in the present global industrial development. Thus, just as Computer Systems &
Applications, Basic Electrical Engineering also has become an integral part of all the industrial and
engineering sectors be it infrastructure, power generation, minor & major Industries, Industrial Safety or
process industries where automation has become an inherent part. Accordingly, several universities have been
bringing in a significant change in their graduate programs of engineering starting from the first year to meet
the needs of these important industrial sectors to enhance the employability of their graduates. Thus, at college
entry level itself Basic Electrical Engineering has become the first Multidisciplinary core engineering subject
for almost all the other core engineering branches like Civil, Mechanical, Production engineering, Industrial
Engineering, Aeronautical, Instrumentation, Control Systems and Computer Engineering. As a further
impetus, since for understanding of this subject a practical knowledge is equally important, a laboratory course
is also added in the curriculum. The chapters are so chosen that the student comprehends all the important
theoretical concepts with good practical insight.
This handbook of Digital notes for Basic Electrical Engineering is brought out in a simple
and lucid manner highlighting the important underlying concepts & objectives along with sequential steps to
understand the subject.

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INDEX
SNO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
UNIT –I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Concept of Circuit and Network 7-8

Types of elements 9-12

R-L-C Parameters 13-16

Independent and Dependent sources 17-19

Source transformation Technique 20-21

Kirchhoff’s Laws 21-26

UNIT –II NETWORK ANALYSIS

Network Reduction Techniques 27-28

Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks 28-32

Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for 32-38

Resistive Networks
Mesh Analysis 39-41

Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem 42-45

Norton’s Theorem 45-48

Superposition Theorem 48-50

UNIT-III SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor 51-57
for sinusoidal wave form.
Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits. 58-64

Concept of Power Factor, Real, Reactive and Complex 65-66

power
Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance, 66-67
Admittance.
UNIT –IV ELECTRICAL MACHINES

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Dc Generator: Principle of operation 68-72

Constructional features 72-75

EMF equation 76-77

DC Motor: Principle of operation 77-82

Torque equation 82-83

Back emf 83-84

Single phase transformer: Constructional features 85-86

Principle of operation 86-88

EMF equation 89-91

UNIT –V ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Types of Wires and Cables 92-95

Earthing 95-98

Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU) 99-101

MCB, ELCB 102-107

Elementary calculations for energy consumption and 107-110

battery backup

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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

 Concept of Circuit and Network

 Types of elements
 R-L-C Parameters
 Independent and Dependent sources
 Source transformation Technique
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Simple Problems

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric
networks. In this introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the
types of network elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −

 Electric Circuit
 Electric Network
 Current
 Voltage
 Power
So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further. Let’s start
with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks" but
the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
 t is the time and its unit is second.

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As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured in
terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal,
whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained
due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
 Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a
pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can
be written as

Where,
 W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
 t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters. Following
are the types of Network elements −
 Active Elements and Passive Elements

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 Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements

 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
 Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements
Active Elements and Passive Elements
We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
 Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit. Sometimes,
they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the capability of
both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
 Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb power.
That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to
obey the property of linearity.
 Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
 Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and
current. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction
of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same impedance in
either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.
The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.

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In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and current (I).

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. That means the current (–I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we will get
the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect to terminals
A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.
We discussed the types of network elements in the previous chapter. Now, let us identify the nature of
network elements from the V-I characteristics given in the following examples.
Example 1
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line passing through the
origin. Hence, it is linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants.

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 In the first quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) are positive. So, the ratios of voltage
(V) and current (I) gives positive impedance values.
 Similarly, in the third quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) have negative values.
So, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values.
Since, the given V-I characteristics offer positive impedance values, the network element is a Passive
element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
For every point (I, V) on the characteristics, there exists a corresponding point (-I, -V) on the given
characteristics. Hence, the network element is a Bilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Linear, Passive, and Bilateral
element.
Example 2
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line only between the points
(-3A, -3V) and (5A, 5V). Beyond these points, the V-I characteristics are not following the linear relation.
Hence, it is a Non-linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants. In these two quadrants,
the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values. Hence, the network element is
a Passive element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
Consider the point (5A, 5V) on the characteristics. The corresponding point (-5A, -3V) exists on the given
characteristics instead of (-5A, -5V). Hence, the network element is a Unilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Non-linear, Passive,
and Unilateral element. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Lumped and Distributed Elements
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Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions takes
place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds of
miles.
R-L-C Parameters
Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to the
applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

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So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned
in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Ψ is the total magnetic flux
 L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

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From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If positive
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage is applied
across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have
linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
 C is the capacitance of a capacitor.

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Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as

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So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.
Types of Sources
Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify these
sources into the following two categories −

 Independent Sources
 Dependent Sources
Independent Sources
As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and
these are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the following
two categories −

 Independent Voltage Sources

 Independent Current Sources
Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to the
source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an independent ideal
voltage source is zero Ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.
Independent Current Sources
An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of the
voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the
following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to the
source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent ideal
current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through the
internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.
Dependent Sources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled sources.
Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories −

 Dependent Voltage Sources

 Dependent Current Sources
Dependent Voltage Sources
A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals. The amount of this
voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further
classified into the following two categories −

 Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

 Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ inside a diamond shape. The magnitude
of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
A dependent current source produces a current. The amount of this current is dependent on
some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following
two categories −

 Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

 Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)

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Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape. The magnitude of the
current source can be represented outside the diamond shape. We can observe these dependent or controlled
sources in equivalent models of transistors.
Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We
can transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network problems.
The technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique.
Following are the two possible source transformations −

 Practical voltage source into a practical current source

 Practical current source into a practical voltage source
Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). This can be converted
into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a
resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.

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Practical current source consists of a current source (I S) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be converted
into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a
resistor (RS).
The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as

In this chapter, we will discuss in detail about the passive elements such as Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor.
Let us start with Resistors.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node is
equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are
connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
 Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.

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 M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.

The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal
to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.

 In the above figure, the branch currents I 1, I2 and I3 areentering at node P. So, consider negative signs
for these three currents.
 In the above figure, the branch currents I 4 and I5 areleaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand side
represents the sum of leaving currents.
In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it enters
a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign when it
enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or
mesh is equal to zero.
A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
doesn’t contain any other loops inside it.
Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

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Where,
 Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
 N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help of the
following example.
Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The voltage
drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.

In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-hand
side represents the sum of voltage drops. In this example, we considered only one voltage source. That’s why
the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the left side contains
sum of voltage sources.
In this tutorial, we consider the sign of each element’s voltage as the polarity of the second terminal that is
present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the polarity
of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.

 Current Division Principle

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 Voltage Division Principle

Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows
through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the
resistors R1 andR2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be

From equations of I1 and I2, we can generalize that the current flowing through any passive element can be
found by using the following formula.

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This is known as current division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in parallel and only one current enters the node.
Where,
 IN is the current flowing through the passive element of N th branch.
 IS is the input current, which enters the node.
 Z1, Z2, …,ZN are the impedances of 1st branch, 2ndbranch, …, Nth branch respectively.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across that
entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The current
flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1 and
V2 respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be

 Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

 Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

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From equations of V1 and V2, we can generalize that the voltage across any passive element can be found by
using the following formula.

This is known as voltage division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in series and only one voltage available across the entire combination.
Where,
 VN is the voltage across Nth passive element.
 VS is the input voltage, which is present across the entire combination of series passive elements.
 Z1,Z2, …,Z3 are the impedances of 1st passive element, 2nd passive element, …, Nth passive element
respectively.

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UNIT-II
NETWORK ANALYSIS

 Network Reduction Techniques

 Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks
 Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks
 Mesh Analysis
 Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem
 Norton’s Theorem
 Superposition Theorem
 Problems

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Network Reduction Techniques:

There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and Mesh
analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of series type
or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element. Hence, this circuit is
called as an equivalent circuit.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.

 Series Equivalent Circuit

 Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through all
these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these elements
are connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

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That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent resistor.
The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those multiple resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be maintained
across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2, and R3. All these elements
are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this principal
node (P) is

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The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of reciprocal of each
resistance of all those multiple resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

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Example Problems:

1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)
Solution:

To get Req we combine

resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance
is


Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors are
in series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series. Hence,
the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

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Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms

Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks:

Delta to Star Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed an example problem related equivalent resistance. There,
we calculated the equivalent resistance between the terminals A & B of the given electrical network easily.
Because, in every step, we got the combination of resistors that are connected in either series form or parallel
form.

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However, in some situations, it is difficult to simplify the network by following the previous approach. For
example, the resistors connected in either delta (δ) form or star form. In such situations, we have
to convert the network of one form to the other in order to simplify it further by using series combination or
parallel combination. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Delta to Star Conversion.

Delta Network
Consider the following delta network as shown in the following figure.

The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of delta network, when the
third terminal is kept open.

Star Network
The following figure shows the equivalent star network corresponding to the above delta
network.

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The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of star network, when the
third terminal is kept open.

Star Network Resistances in terms of Delta Network Resistances

We will get the following equations by equating the right-hand side terms of the above
equations for which the left-hand side terms are same.

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By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of star network from the resistances of delta network.
In this way, we can convert a delta network into a star network.

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Star to Delta Transformation

In the previous chapter, we discussed about the conversion of delta network into an equivalent
star network. Now, let us discuss about the conversion of star network into an equivalent delta network. This
conversion is called as Star to Delta Conversion.
In the previous chapter, we got the resistances of star network from delta network as

Delta Network Resistances in terms of Star Network Resistances

Let us manipulate the above equations in order to get the resistances of delta network in terms
of resistances of star network.
 Multiply each set of two equations and then add.

By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of delta network from the resistances of star network.
In this way, we can convert star network into delta network.

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Example problems:

1) Convert the Delta network in Fig.(a) to an equivalent star network

Solution:

2) Convert the star network in fig(a) to delta network

Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where

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3) Determine the total current I in the given circuit.

Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as
shown in given figure.

R1 = R12 R31 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 10 x 25 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 5 ohms

R2 = R23 R12 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 15 x 10 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 3 ohms
R3 = R31 R23 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 25 x 15 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 7.5 ohms

The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.

The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms
Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms
Hence the total current through the battery,
I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A

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Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits
that have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis is
also called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only
one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference)
of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
 Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
 Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first
and then Ohm’s law.
 Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

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Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.
Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh
current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh
currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given circuit.
When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as greater than
all other mesh currents of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

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The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand side
terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is84 V.

Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the
electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of
meshes is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is equal
to the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

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Network Theorems:
Introduction:
Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element
response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as
network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us
see some important theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving Network problems
having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be reduced to simple
equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis many a times the current
through a branch is required to be found when it’s value is changed with all other element values
remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the branch current using the conventional mesh
and node analysis methods is quite awkward and time consuming. But with the simple equivalent
circuits (with one active source and one element) obtained using these two theorems the calculations
become very simple. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.
Thevenin’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series
with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking
into the terminals(with concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance R Th while all
sources are replaced by their internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and
current source is open circuit.

(a) (b)

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Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with
the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Thevenin's
equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .

Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say
a & b after removing the concerned branch/element
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional network
mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network
contains dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals
with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage
sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or) load
resistance across the load terminals (A&B) as shown in below fig.

Fig.(a)
Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL resistor as shown
in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as shown
in the fig. (1)

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 Fig.(1)
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now
we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors
as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA
x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ
resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e.
12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB
terminals.
So, VTH = 12V

Fig (2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)

Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (R TH)We have
Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure
(3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω
resistor. i.e.:

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8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Fig(4)
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor. This is the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.

VTH

Fig (5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Norton’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel
with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across the load
terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking through the
open circuited load terminals.

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 (a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with
the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Norton
equivalent circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .
Main steps to find out IN and RN:
 The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked
as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
 Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two terminals are
found out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are same as
what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
 Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc
b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned
terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e.
ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
 Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across the
load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig

Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the figure
(a) below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.

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 Fig(a)
Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short the
1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the
Norton Current (IN).

Fig(2)
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total Resistance
of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
IT = V / RT
IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(3)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in fig.(4)
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 Fig(4)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN) We have Reduced
the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig(4), We can
see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω

Fig(5)
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig
(6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the terminals
A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]

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IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)
IL = 1.5A IL = 1. 5A
Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of
the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their
ideal internal resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The
total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages
in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their
ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage
source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is
given by :

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 Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage
source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I 2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in
fig.(a).Then we get :
𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A.

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 UNIT-III
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

 Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor for sinusoidal wave form.
 Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits.
 Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance, Admittance.
 Concept of Power Factor, Real, Reactive and Complex power.
 Illustrative Problems.

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RMS VALUE:
 The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an
alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit
or resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the
alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time.
 The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through in a heating
element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
 In short,
 The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then
both AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same circuit
for a specific time period.

For a sinusoidal wave ,

or
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM
 Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave. For
example, when a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produces specific amount
of heat (Fig 2 – a). When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as shown in
(fig 2 – b). By adjusting the value of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat generated before
in AC voltage source in fig a. It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage
source producing the same amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.
 In more clear words, the domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This
voltage level shows the effective value of (110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home
wall socket is capable to provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V
DC Voltage.
 Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits always
showing the RMS values (of current and voltage).
 For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM
 Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.
 We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =
Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

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  While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

The Square root of this value is:

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):

Now,

Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707
Average Value:
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through
rectifiers, then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating current
sine wave.

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 Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage
If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC current through
rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM
The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that
Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred by
that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current
in first half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In other
words, There are same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows in the
opposite direction, so the average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason that’s
why we don’t use average value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted into DC
through a rectifier, It can be used for electrochemical works.

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 Fig 5- Average Value of Current
In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the
positive values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero
crossing.)
We know that the standard equation of alternating current is
i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

 Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im

 Average value of current on sine wave = IAV
 Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
 The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ
 Angle of half cycle = π radians
 Angle of full cycle = 2π radians

(a) Average value of complete cycle:

Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
(b) Average value of current over a half cycle

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Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)
IAV = 0.637 VM
Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle
VAV = 0.637 VM

What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum value
of alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half cycle in a
sinusoidal wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM.
Equations of Peak Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS
VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P
VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV
In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks)
with respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

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 Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

Peak to Peak Value:

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its expressed
as IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage are as follow:
VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS = 2.828 x VRMS
VP-P =2 x VP
VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV
In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from positive peak to
the negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or maximum value as shown in
fig 8 above.

Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

For a sinusoidal alternating current:

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Form Factor:
The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is

known as Form Factor.

Other Terms Related To AC Circuits

Waveform
 The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some variable
(such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.

Cycle
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage and current)
is known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.

Period
 The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one cycle is
called its time period “T”.
 It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
period is second.
 Mathematically;
T = 1/f
Frequency
 Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has the
unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
 The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
 It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
 Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T

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Amplitude
 The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current
is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.
 Alternation
 One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span is 180°
degree.

Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

Introduction to Single Phase AC Circuit:

 In a dc circuit the relationship between the applied voltage V and current flowing through the
circuit I is a simple one and is given by the expression I = V/R but in an a c circuit this simple
relationship does not hold good. Variations in current and applied voltage set up magnetic and
electrostatic effects respectively and these must be taken into account with the resistance of the
circuit while determining the quantitative relations between current and applied voltage.
 With comparatively low-voltage, heavy- current circuits magnetic effects may be very large,
but electrostatic effects are usually negligible. On the other hand with high-voltage circuits
electrostatic effects may be of appreciable magnitude, and magnetic effects are also present.
 Here it has been discussed how the magnetic effects due to variations in current do and
electrostatic effects due to variations in the applied voltage affect the relationship between the
applied voltage and current.

Purely Resistive Circuit:

 A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small that at
normal frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance. Ordinary filament
lamps, water resistances etc., are the examples of non-inductive resistances. If the circuit is
purely non-inductive, no reactance emf (i.e., self- induced or back emf) is set up and whole of
the applied voltage is utilized in overcoming the ohmic resistance of the circuit.
 Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a
sinusoidal voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.

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As already said, when the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is set up,
therefore, applied voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of i R only:

And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident that in
a pure resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as shown by
wave and phasor diagrams in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c) respectively.

Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values
of applied voltage and current.

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Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From the
power curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) it is evident that power consumed in a
pure resistive circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are
always either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the
voltage source constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

Purely Inductive Circuit:

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Practically
pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small resistance. However, a coil
of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance arid is known as a
choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf,
is induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant
applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.

From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2 as shown in
Fig. 4.2 (b) by wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.

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Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL i.e., XL =
ωL
If L is in henry and co is in radians per second then X L will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax Imax/2 sin 2 ωt
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a
sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive
circuit power absorbed is zero.

Physically the above fact can be explained as below:

During the second quarter of a cycle the current and the magnetic flux of the coil increases and the
coil draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field (the power drawn is positive
and the energy drawn by the coil from the supply source is represented by the area between the curve
p and the time axis). The energy stored in the magnetic field during build up is given as W max = 1/2 L
I2max.
In the next quarter the current decreases. The emf of self-induction will, however, tends to oppose its
decrease. The coil acts as a generator of electrical energy, returning the stored energy in the magnetic
field to the supply source (now the power drawn by the coil is negative and the curve p lies below the
time axis).
The chain of events repeats itself during the next half cycles. Thus, a proportion of power is
continually exchanged between the field and the inductive circuit and the power consumed by a
purely inductive coil is zero.

Purely Capacitive Circuit:

When a dc voltage is impressed across the plates of a perfect condenser, it will become charged to
full voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will flow only during the period of “build
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up” and will cease to flow as soon as the capacitor has attained the steady voltage of the source. This
implies that for a direct current, a capacitor is a break in the circuit or an infinitely high resistance.
In Fig. 4.4 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied
voltage increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is
maximum in the beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied
voltage, so there is a phase difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the first
quarter-cycle the current flows in the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is
positive.
In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its
charge, and current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges into
the circuit. Thus, the current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a maximum
value when the applied voltage is zero.

The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the
difference that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current
changes.
In other words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. As illustrated in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead of the
voltage, so the current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite of the
inductance current-voltage relationship.
Let an alternating voltage represented by v = Vmax sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of capacitance
C farads.

The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:

q = C Vmax sin ωt

Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may
be obtained by differentiating the above equation:

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From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through
capacitance, it is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 4.4 (b)
and (c) by wave and phasor diagrams respectively.

Capacitive Reactance:

1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC i.e.,
XC = 1/ω C
If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:

Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero. The same is shown graphically in Fig. 4.4
(b). The energy taken from the supply circuit is stored in the capacitor during the first quarter- cycle
and returned during the next.

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the
expression:

This can be realized when it is recalled that no heat is produced and no work is done while current is
flowing through a capacitor. As a matter of fact, in commercial capacitors, there is a slight energy loss
in the dielectric in addition to a minute I 2 R loss due to flow of current over the plates having definite
ohmic resistance.
The power curve is a sine wave of double the supply frequency. Although it raises the power factor
from zero to 0.002 or even a little more, but for ordinary purposes the power factor is taken to be zero.
Obviously the phase angle due to dielectric and ohmic losses decreases slightly.

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Resistance — Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit:
Consider an ac circuit consisting of resistance of R ohms and capacitance of C farads connected in
series, as shown in Fig. 4.18 (a).
Let the supply frequency be of fHz and current flowing through the circuit be of I amperes (rms value).
Voltage drop across resistance, VR = I R in phase with the current.
Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC lagging behind I by π/2 radians or 90°, as shown in Fig.
4.18 (b).

The applied voltage, being equal to phasor sum of VR and VC, is given in magnitude by-

The applied voltage lags behind the current by an angle ɸ:

If instantaneous voltage is represented by:

v = Vmax sin ω t

Then instantaneous current will be expressed as:

i = Imax sin (ω t + ɸ)

And power consumed by the circuit is given by:

P = VI cos ɸ

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Voltage triangle and impedance triangle Fig. 4.19 are shown in Figs. 4.19 (a) and 4.19 (b)
respectively.

6. Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor:

The product of rms values of current and voltage, VI is called the apparent power and is measured in
volt-amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).
The true power in an ac circuit is obtained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor
and is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).
The product of apparent power, VI and the sine of the angle between voltage and current, sin ɸ is
called the reactive power. This is also known as wattless power and is expressed in reactive volt-
amperes or kilo-volt amperes reactive (kVA R).

The above relations can easily be followed by referring to the power diagram shown in Fig. 4.7 (a).

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Power factor may be defined as:
(i) Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current,
(ii) The ratio of the resistance to impedance, or
(iii) The ratio of true power to apparent power.
The power factor can never be greater than unity. The power factor is expressed either as fraction or
as a percentage. It is usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical value
of power factor to signify whether the current lags behind or leads the voltage.

CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE:

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhere electric or
magnetic fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a voltage
drop is produced that is 90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically symbolized
by the letter “X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow,
including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. When
alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere
between 0o and 90o out of phase with the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form

Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a real part,

Conductance (G) and imaginary part, Susceptance (B).

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 (it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive susceptance)

Susceptance (symbolized B) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current (AC)
passes through a capacitance or inductance

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 UNIT-IV
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Dc Generator
 Principle of Operation
 Constructional Features
 EMF Equation
Dc Motor
 Principle of Operation
 Back EMF
 Torque Equation
Single Phase Transformer
 Principle of Operation
 Constructional Features
 EMF Equation
 Simple Problems

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DC GENERATOR
Principle of DC Generator
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator.
Whatever may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An
AC generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these
generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts
magnetic lines of force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced
emf depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This
emf will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

1. a magnetic field
2. conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

Now we will go through working principle of DC generator. As, the working principle of ac generator
is not in scope of our discussion in this section.

Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between
two opposite poles of magnet.

Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal

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position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the
loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current
can be determined by Fleming’s right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger
and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the direction
of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S -
pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor. Now if we
apply this right-hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from
point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper
side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position).
At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field.
Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop

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comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal
position as shown in the figure beside.

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here and according to Fleming’s right hand rule, at this position current flows
from B to A and on other side from D to C.Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every
time the side AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front
of N pole, the current flows from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole
the current flows from C to D and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.

If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes
in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the
reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it flows
in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of principle
of DC generator.

Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring are
made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from each other.
The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip
ring segments.

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Working Principle of DC Generator

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in
contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in
the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed which
results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance
again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the
figure. This current is unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and b
from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the
lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
Construction of DC Generator
During explaining working principle of DC Generator, we have used a single loop DC
generator. But now we will discuss about practical construction of DC Generator.
A DC generator has the following parts

1. Yoke
2. Pole of generator

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 3. Field winding
4. Armature of DC generator
5. Brushes of generator and Commentator
6. Bearing
Yoke of DC Generator
Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves two purposes,

1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than steel. But
for large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned, lighter cast steel or
rolled steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator. Normally larger yokes are formed by
rounding a rectangular steel slab and the edges are welded together at the bottom. Then feet, terminal
box and hangers are welded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
Let's first discuss about pole core of DC generator. There are mainly two types of construction
available.
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of a solid single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of annealed steel which are
riveted together. The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01". The pole core is
fixed to the inner periphery of the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke and into the pole body.
Since the poles project inwards they are called salient poles. The pole shoes are so typically shaped,
that, they spread out the magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Due to their larger cross-section they hold the pole coil at its position.
Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils are wound around the pole core. These are a simple coil of
insulated copper wire or strip, which placed on the pole which placed between yoke and pole shoes
as shown.
Armature Core
The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low
reluctance path for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator
provides direct current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature. That is why,
cylindrical or drum shaped armature core is build up of circular laminated sheet. In every circular

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lamination, slots are either die - cut or punched on the outer periphery and the key way is located on
the inner periphery as shown. Air ducts are also punched of cut on each lamination for circulation of
air through the core for providing better cooling. Up to diameter of 40", the circular stampings are cut
out in one piece of lamination sheet. But above 40", diameter, number of suitable sections of a circle
is cut. A complete circle of lamination is formed by four or six or even eight such segment.
Armature Winding

Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of
flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors of
the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined
with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature conductors placed
in it and secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges. Two types of armature windings are
used – Lap winding and Wave winding.
Commutator
The commentator plays a vital role in DC generator. It collects current from armature
and sends it to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts
it to direct current and then send it to external load. It is cylindrical structured and is build up of wedge-
shaped segments of high conductivity, hard drawn or drop forged copper. Each segment is insulated
from the shaft by means of insulated commutator segment shown below. Each commentator segment
is connected with corresponding armature conductor through segment riser or lug.
Brushes
The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function
of these carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes
are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder or brush box. As shown in figure, the brush face
is placed on the commutator segment which is attached to the brush holder.
Bearing

For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller bearing is used. The
bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
Armature winding
Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two methods, lap
winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is merely due to the end connections and

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commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to
know the following terminologies -

1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if there are 36
conductors and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil measured in terms
of armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between the second
conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil. OR it is the distance between two
coil sides that are connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called
as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between the beginning of
one coil and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant pitch of the coil.

Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex,
and this multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths.

Lap Winding and Wave Winding

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the
two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. The winding may be progressive
or retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The
opposite way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.

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In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies
an almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all
the coils which carry e.m.f in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram shows
a part of simplex wave winding.

Basis For Comparison Lap Winding Wave Winding

Definition The coil is lap back to the The coil of the winding form
succeeding coil. the wave shape.
Connection The end of the armature coil is The end of the armature coil is
connected to an adjacent segment on connected to commutator
the commutators. segments some distance apart.
Parallel Path The numbers of parallel path are The number of parallel paths
equal to the total of number poles. is equal to two.
Other Name Parallel Winding or Multiple Two-circuit or Series
Winding Winding.
EMF Less More
Number of Brushes Equal to the number of parallel Two
paths.
Types Simplex and Duplex lap winding. Progressive and
Retrogressive wave winding
Efficiency Less High
Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil

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 Winding Cost High (because more conductor is Low
required)
Uses In low voltage, high current In high voltage, low current
machines. machines.

EMF Equation of a DC Generator

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,
P = number of field poles
Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)

Now,
 Average emf generated per conductor is given by dΦ/dt (Volts) ... eq. 1
 Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),
 Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60
 Therefore, time for one revolution = dt = 60/N (Seconds)
 From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = dΦ/dt = PΦN/60 (Volts) …..(eq. 2)

Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors are
connected in series per parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to the
generated emf across any parallel path.
Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A
For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P
For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120

DC MOTOR
Working or Operating Principle of DC Motor
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts electrical energy (direct current
system) into mechanical energy. It is of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally

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important for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been
discussed in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of DC motor we need to first
look into its constructional feature.
The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected to
the supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed in between north
south poles of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.

As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due
to electromagnetic effect of the magnet. Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC
motor its important that we have a clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the
direction of force acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.

If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current
carrying conductor. Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of our left hand perpendicular to each other, in such a way that the middle finger is along the

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direction of current in the conductor, and index finger is along the direction of magnetic field i.e. north
to south pole, then thumb indicates the direction of created mechanical force. For clear understanding
the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram
below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the influence
of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is
given by:-

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 From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the
direction of current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence
the force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right
hand side of the armature conductor to be -I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction with
respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

Therefore, we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the armature
turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of the
armature conductor.
Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α (alpha) with its
initial position.
The torque produced is given by,

Where, α (alpha) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the
initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.
The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the torque at
all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α (alpha). To explain the
variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise analysis.

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Step 1:
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle α = 0.

Since, α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum
given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into rotation.

Step 2:
Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the armature and its
reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90 o from its
initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of torque.
The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than 0o.

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Step 3:
In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor is
exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90 o, and as a result the term cosα = 0.
The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does not
come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of DC motor has been engineered in
such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null torque.
Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual position of the armature and the
initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.
Torque Equation of DC Motor
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors
carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus each conductor
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experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its center.
Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts rotating. The term torque
as best explained by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause
a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of a force
that produces or changes a rotational motion.
The equation of torque is given by,

The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very important
parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to understand the torque equation of DC
motor for establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor, and its
voltage equation.

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Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf produced
and Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the voltage equation is
given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC motor we multiply both
sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Now Ia2.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective mechanical
power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles,
φ is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the DC motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

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The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and subtracting the
mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore,

\This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only flux
φ and armature current Ia.

The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

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Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only flux
φ and armature current Ia.

TRANSFORMER

Introduction
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always
work at the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device.
It is commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can change the magnitude
of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This useful property of transformer is
mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct currents i.e.,
electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers
have no moving parts, rugged and durable in construction, thus requiring very little attention. They
also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%.

Single Phase Transformer

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 A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists
of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core as shown
in Fig 1. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one
connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose
magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2
is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2.
Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Constructional Details

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are placed
on the core, and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called

(a) Core type

(b) Shell type.

Core-type and Shell-type Construction

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric cylindrical
coils placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as the high- voltage
(HV) winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The LV winding is placed

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next to the core for economy in insulation cost. Figure 2.1(a) shows the cross- section of the
arrangement. In the shell type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound over the
central limb of a three-limb core as shown in Figure 2.1(b). The HV and LV windings are split into a
number of sections, and the sections are interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the HV and LV
windings are placed alternately.

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This helps in
reducing the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in construction of the transformer. The steel
used for core is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low
hysteresis loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel.
Conductor material used for windings is mostly copper. However, for small distribution transformer
aluminum is also sometimes used. The conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using
various insulating materials depending upon the voltage.
Insulating Oil
In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed in insulating oil. The
insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation from moisture and transfers the heat
produced in core and windings to the atmosphere.
The transformer oil should possess the following qualities:
(a)High dielectric strength,
(b)Low viscosity and high purity,
(c)High flash point, and
(d)Free from sludge.
Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Tank and Conservator

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The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating oil. In large transformers
small expansion tank is also connected with main tank is known as conservator. Conservator provides
space when insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is provided with tubes on the
outside, to permits circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some additional devices like breather and
Buchholz relay are connected with main tank. Buchholz relay is placed between main tank and
conservator. It protect the transformer under extreme heating of transformer winding. Breather protects
the insulating oil from moisture when the cool transformer sucks air inside. The silica gel filled breather
absorbs moisture when air enters the tank. Some other necessary parts are connected with main tank
like, Bushings, Cable Boxes, Temperature gauge, Oil gauge, Tapings, etc.
Principle of Operation
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is set up in the core.
This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and E2 is
termed as secondary e.m.f.

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1(or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.
If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to
flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another
with a change in voltage level.
The following points may be noted carefully
(a)The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(b)There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.

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(c)The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(d)There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(e)The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a)core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary power.
In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in Fig.2.3.
The sinusoidal flux ϕ produced by the primary can be represented as:
ϕ=ϕm sinωt
When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it is circulating alternating current,
producing an alternating flux ϕ.

ϕ - Flux
ϕm - maximum value of flux ,
N1 - Number of primary turns ,
N2 - Number of secondary turns
f - Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 - R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f ,E2 - R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is –

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The flux increases from zero value to maximum value ϕm in 1/4f of the time period that is in 1/4f
seconds.
The change of flux that takes place in 1/4f seconds = ϕm - 0 = ϕm webers
Voltage Ratio

Voltage transformation ratio is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
e.m.f induced in the primary winding.
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is known as voltage transformation
ratio

1. If N2>N1 i.e. K>1 we get E2>E1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.
2. If N2< N1 i.e. K<1 we get E2< E2 then the transformer is called step down transformer.
3. If N2= N1 i.e. K=1 we get E2= E2 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
Transformer.

Current Ratio

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 Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I1) to the current
flowing through the secondary winding (I2). In an ideal transformer -
Apparent input power = Apparent output power.
V1I1 = V2I2

Volt-Ampere Rating
i)The transformer rating is specified as the products of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii)On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally expressed in
KVA (Kilo Volts Amperes rating)

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 UNIT –V
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

 Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)

 MCB, ELCB.
 Types of Wires and Cables.
 Earthing.
 Elementary calculations for energy consumption and battery backup.

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Wire and cable:
The use of Conductors and their insulation is regulated by Indian Electricity (IE) regulation
and Indian Standard (IS) Code of Practice. Wires and cables are the most common forms of
conductors. They carry electric current through all types of circuits and systems. A conductor is a
wire or cable or any other form of mental, suitable for carrying current from generating station the
point where it is used.
Difference Between Wire and Cable:
According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), wire and cable can be defined as follows:
Bare Conductors: They have no covering. The best example is overhead transmission and
distribution lines.
Wire: If bare conductors are provided with Insulation, then it is known as a wire. The insulation
separates the conductor electrically from other conductors.
Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a
protecting cover. The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity
efficiently, cheaply, and safely. This should neither be so small that it has a large internal voltage
drop nor be too large so that it costs too much. Its insulation should be such that it prevents leakage
of current in unwanted direction to minimize risk of fire and shock.
The cable essentially consists of three parts :
(i) Conductor or core- the metal wire, or strand of wires, carrying the current
(II) insulation of dielectric- a covering of insulating material to avoid leakage of current from
the conductor and
(iii) protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damage
Basically, there is no difference between a cable and a wire. It is a relative term. The term cable is
used for all heavy section insulated conductors, whereas a wire means a thin (i.e., smaller) section
insulated conductor used for carrying current from one point to another point.
Classifications of Wire / Cables:
The wires/ cables used for domestic or industrial wiring are classified into different groups as follows
:
(i) According to the conductor material used
(a) Copper conductor cables
(b) Aluminum conductor cable
(ii) According to number of cores

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 (a) Singles core cable (SCC)
(b) Double core or twin core cables (DCC)
(c) Three core cables
(d) four core cables
(e) Two core with earth continuity conductor cables
(iii) According to type of insulation
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) insulated wires/cables
(b) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cable tyre sheathed (CTS) cables
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
(b) Lead sheathed cables
(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cords and cables
(g) XLPE cables
(IV) According to the voltage at which they are manufactured
(a) Low tension (LT) cables – up to 1000V
(b) High tension (HT) cables – up to 11kV
(c) Super tension (ST) cables – from 22-33kV
(d) Extra high tension (EHT) cables – from 33-66kV
(e) Extra super voltage cables – beyond 132 kV
Specifications of Cables:
Cables are specified by providing
(i) Size of the cable in metric system (e.g., 19/2.24, 7/1.70, 7/2.24, 7/2.50 etc) giving the
Number of strands used and diameter of each strand, or giving the area of cross- section
of conductor used.
(ii) Type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminium)
(iii) Number of cores that cable consists of e.g. single core, twin core, three core, four core
etc.
(iv) Voltage grade (240/415V or 650/1100V grade)
(v) Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation, shielding, armouring, bedding
etc.
A few specifications of a cable are given below:
(i) 7/20, VIR, aluminum conductor, twin core,650/1100 grade.

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 in this case, the numerator 7 indicates the number of stands in cable and denominator 20
represents the gauge number of each strand. The cable has two cores made with
Aluminum, With VIR insulation and is used for 650/1100 voltage
(ii) 19/1.12, aluminium conductor,3 ½ core, 1100V, PVC cable, PVC sheathed.
in this case, the cable consists of 19 strands, each strand has a diameter of 1.12mm. The
conductor is made with aluminium, insulation is made with PVC, is covered with PVC
sheathing, and is used for 1100Vsupply system.
Earthing of Grounding:
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current carrying part) of electrical equipment
or some electrical part of the system (e.g., neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of
the secondary of a transformer, etc.) to the earth (i.e., soil) is called grounding or Earthing. The
potential of the earth is to be considered zero for all practical purposes. Earthing is to connect any
electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire, making it to attain earth’s potential,
This ensures safe discharge of electrical energy due to failure of the insulation line coming in contact
with the casing, etc. Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to zero i.e., to the
earth’s potential, thus ptotecting the operating personnel against electrical shock.
The earth resistance is affected by the following factors :
(a) Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode
(b) Temperature and moisture content of the soil
(c) Depth of the pit
(d) Quantity of the charcoal used
Necessity of Earthing:
The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows :
(1) To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.
(2) To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load condition.
(3) To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
(4) Protection of the equipments.
(5) Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines
against lighting.
Methods of Earthing:
The various methods of earthing in common use are
(i) Plate earthing

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(ii) Pipe earthing
(iii) Rod earthing
(iv) Strip or wire earthing
(i) Plate earthing:
In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm ×3.18 or GI plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35 is
used for earthing. The plate is buried into the ground not less than 3m from the ground level. The
earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm as shown in figure
(12.4). In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth’s electrode resistance value below a
maximum of 5Ω. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.
A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance

(ii) Pipe earthing:

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2m
(depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75cm in
a permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15
cm ) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal. The efficiency of the earthing
system is improved by pouring water through the funnel periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient

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cross-sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cm below) from the 19mm
diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in
figure (12.5).

When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage currents due
to larger surface area is in contact with the soil for given electrode size. This system also enables
easy maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground levels.
(iii) Rod earthing:
It is the same method as pipe earthing, A copper rod of 12.5cm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in)
diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2
ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer. The length of
embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

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(iv) Strip or wire earthing:
In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section not less than 25mm × 1.6mm (1 in ×
0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trench of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section
of 25mm × 4mm (1in × 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than
6.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would
give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m. The electrodes shall be
as widely distributed as possible in a single straight or circular trench radiating from a point. This
type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and excavation work is difficult.
Selection of Earthing:
The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such as type of soil, type of
installation, etc.. The following table helps in selecting a type of earthing for a particular application

S.No Type of Earthing Application

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01 Plate earthing Large installations such as transmission towers, all sub-
stations generating stations
02 Pipe earthing  For domestic installations such as heaters, coolers,
refrigerators, geysers, electric iron, etc.
 For 11kV/400V distribution transformers
 For induction motors rating upto 100HP
 For conduit pipe in a wall, all wall brackets

03 Rod earthing In areas where the soil is loose or sandy

04 Strip of wire earthing In rocky ares

Earth Resistance:
The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the neutral of any electrical system,
which is earthed, is maintained almost at the earth potential. The earth resistance for copper wire is
1Ω and that of GI wire less than 3Ω. The typical value of the earth resistance at large power stations
is 0.5Ω , major sub-stations is 1Ω, small sub-stations is 2 Ω and in all other cases 5 Ω.
The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors
Condition of soil.
ii. Moisture content of soil.
iii. Temperature of soil.
iv. Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.
v. Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.
vi. Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.
Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire:
Neutral Wire :
(i) In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral wire.
(ii) IT acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load is not balanced.
(iii) IN domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts as return path for the line
current.
Earth Wire :
(i) Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the earth and metallic body of the

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 equipment
(ii) It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metallic body to the earth.
Fuse:
The electrical equipment are designed to carry a particular rated value of current under normal
conditions. Under abnormal conditions such as short circuits, overload, or any fault; the current rises
above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire hazard. Fuses come into
operation under fault conditions.
A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows
through it and thus breaks the circuits. Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the
full load current. If the current increases beyond this designed value due to any of the reasons
mentioned above, the fuse melts, isolating the power supply from the load.
(a) Desirable characteristics of a Fuse Element:
The material used foe fuse wires must have the following characteristics:
i. Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
ii. High conductivity e.g., copper.
iii. Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.
iv. Low cost e.g., tin, copper.
(b) Materials:
Material used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use of copper or iron is dangerous,
though tinned copper may be used.
(c) Types of Fuses:
Fuses are classified into following types
(i) Re-wireable or kit-Kat fuse and
(ii) High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse
Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse:
Re-wireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted. These fuses are
simple in construction, cheap and available up to a current rating of 200A.They are erratic in
operation and their performance deteriorates with time. An image of re-wireable fuse is as shown in
figure (12.7)

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High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse:
Figure (12.8) shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure
(12.9) shown the essential parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse. It consists of a heat resisting
ceramic body having metal end-caps to which a silver current-carrying element is welded. The space
within the body surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling powder. The filling
material may be chalk, plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and
cooling medium. Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating
Under normal loading conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point.
When a fault occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current
reaches its first peak. The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted silver element. The
chemical reaction between the silver vapors and the filling powder results in the formation of a high
resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.

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Circuit Breaker:
Electrical circuits breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically
for the controlling and protection of electrical power system, respectively. The modern power
system deals with a huge power network and huge numbers of associated electrical equipment.
During shirt circuits fault or any other type of electrical fault, this equipment, as well as the power
network, suffer a high stress of fault current, which in turn damage the equipment and networks
permanently. For saving this equipment and the power networks, the fault current should be cleared
from the system as quickly as possible. Again, after the cleared, the system must come to its normal
working condition as soon is possible for supplying reliable quality power to the receiving ends. The
circuits breaker is the special device all the required switching operations during current carrying
condition.
A circuits breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under
normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and
unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control

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whenever desired. When a fault occurs in any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker get
energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuits.
The main types of circuits breakers are
i. Miniature circuits breakers (MCB)
ii. Earth leakage circuits breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCCB)
iii. Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)
iv. Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)
v. Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)
vi. SF6 Circuits Breaker

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

Minimum circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical circuit from
over currents. Over currents in an electrical circuit may results from short circuits overload, or faulty
design. An MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected. An MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the
circuits once a fault is detected. In simple terms, MCB is a switch which automatically turns off
when the current flowing through it passes the maximum allowable limit. Generally, MCB is
designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults (over heating).
Working Principle:
There are two contact - one is fixed and the other is moveable. When the current exceeds the
predefined limit, a solenoid forces the moveable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed
contact) and the MCB turns off, thereby stopping the current from flowing in the circuits.
Operation:
An image of MCB is shown in figure (12.10) and internal parts of an MCB are shown in figure
(12.11). It mainly consists of one bi- metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on-off lever.
Electric current carrying path of a MCB is as follows - first left hand side power terminal-then
bimetallic strip - then current coil - then moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly
right hand side power terminal, and all are arranged in series.

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if circuits is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip becomes over heated and deformed. This
deformation of bi-metallic strip causes displacement of latch point. The moving contact of the MCB
is so arranged by means of spring, with this latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes
releases of spring and makes the moving contact to move for opening the MCB. The current coil or
trip coil placed in such a manner that during SC faults, the MMF of that coil causes its plunger to hit

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the same latch point and force the latch to be displaced. Hence, the MCB will open in the same
manner. Again when operating lever of the MCB is operated by hand, that means when we make the
MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result moving contact separated
from fixed contact in same manner. So, whatever may be the operating mechanism, i.e., may be due
to deformation of bi-metallic strip or may be due to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due to
manual operation - actually the same latch point is displaced and the deformed spring is released,
which is ultimately responsible for movement of the moving contact. When the moving contacts is
separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This are then goes up thorough the
arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we switch on the MCB, we
actually reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and make the MCB ready for
another switch off or trip operation.
These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole, and four pole versions with neutral
poles, if required. The normal current ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a symmetrical short
circuit rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a voltage level of 230/440v. MCBs are generally designed
to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises. In case of temperature rise or over
heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 min. For the MCB to trip.
Advantages:
i. MCBs are replacing the re-wireable switch i.e., fuse units for low power domestic and industrial
applications.
ii. The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting capacity (say 3kA), Etc. Are overcome with
high SC breaking capacity of 10kA.
iii. MCB is combination of all three functions in a wiring system like switching, overload and short
circuits protection. Overload protection can be obtained by using bi-metallic strips whereas shorts
circuits protection can be obtained by using solenoid
Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB):
None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc. Can protect the human life against electric
shocks or avoid fire due to leakage current. The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase
in voltage. It also depends upon the duration of impressed voltage and drops with increase in time.
As per IS code, a contact potential of 65V is within tolerable limit of human body for 10 seconds,
whereas 250V can be withstood by human body for 100 milliseconds. The actual effect of current
thorough human body varies from person to person with reference to magnitude and duration. The
body resistance at 10V is assessed to be 19 kΩ for 1 second and 8kΩ for 15 min. At 240V, 3 to 3.6

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kΩ for dry skin and 1-1.2 kΩ for wet skin.
An Earth Leakage Circuits Breakers (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to
earth from an installation and cut the power. There are two types of ELCBs:
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)
(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB):
Voltage –ELCB is a voltage operated circuits breaker. The device will
function when the current passes thorough the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB contains relay coil and one
end of the coil is connected to metallic load body and the other end is connected to ground wire as
shown in figure (12.12). If the voltage of the equipment body rises (by touching phase to metal part
or insulation failure of equipment), which could cause the difference between earth and load body
voltage and the danger of electric shock will occur. This voltage difference will produce an electric
current from the load metallic body and phase through the loop to the Earth. When voltage on the
equipment metallic body rises to danger level i.e., which exceed to 50V, the flowing current through
relay loop could move the relay contact by disconnecting the supply current avoid from any danger
electric shock. The ELCB detects fault currents from line to the earth (ground) wire within the
installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sensing coil, it will switch off
the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage –sensing ELCB does not sense fault
current from line to any other earthed body.

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(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB):
Current –ELCB is a current operated circuits breaker which is a commonly used ELCB. Current-
ELCB consists of a 3- winding transformer, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary
winding as shown in figure (12.13). Neutral and line wires act as the two primary windings. A wire
wound coil is the secondary winding. The current thorough the secondary winding is zero at the
balanced condition. In the balanced condition, the flux due to current through the phase wire will be
neutralized by the current through the neutral wire, since the current which flows from the phase will
be returned back to the neutral. When a fault occurs, a small current will flow to the ground also.
This makes an unbalanced between line and neutral currents and creates an unbalanced magnetic
field. This induces a current through the secondary winding, which is connected to the sensing
circuits. This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping system and trips the contact.

Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Appliance:

It is essentially important to take precautions when we are working with electricity and using
electrical appliances. Here, some of the basic precautions are mentioned for safe usage of electrical
appliance :
(i) Follow the manufacturer’s instructions :
Always read the manufacturer’s instructions carefully before using a new appliance.
(ii) Replace or repair damaged power cords :
Exposed wiring is a danger that cannot be ignored. If you see the protective coating on a wire is
stripped away, be sure to replace it or cover it with electrical tape as soon as possible.

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(iii) Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water:
Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electrical current. Keep all
electrical appliance away from water such as sinks, bathtubs, pools or overhead vents that may drip.
(iv) use insulated tools while working:
Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves, goggles, protective clothes and shoes with insulated
soles while working on any branch circuits or any other electrical circuits. Use only tools and
equipment with non-conducting handles when working on electrical devices. Never use metallic
pencils or rulers or wear rings or metal watchbands when working with electrical equipment as they
cause a strong electric shock.|

(v) Don’t overload your outlets:

Every outlet in your home is designed to deliver a certain amount of electricity; by plugging too
many devices into it at once, you could cause a small explosion or a fire. If you have a lot of things to
plug in, use a power strip that can safely accommodate your needs.
(vi) Shut-off the power supply:
Always make sure that the power source should be shut-off before performing any work related to
electricity. For example; inspecting, installing, maintaining or repairing.
(vii) Avoid extension cords as much as possible:
Running extension cords through the house can trip up residence; this can cause injury and damage
to the wire or outlet if it causes the cord to be ripped out of the wall. If you find yourself using
extension cords very often, consider having an electrician install new outlets throughout your home.
(viii) When to repair:
Everyone want to have the safe electrical environment. Equipment producing “tingle” sound should
be disconnected and reported promptly for repair.
(ix) Avoid the usage of flammable liquids:
Never use highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment. Never touch another person’s
equipment or electrical control devices unless instructed to do so.
(x) Use electric tester:
Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a tester.
When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an
electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer metallic

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covering of the service panel any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with
your work.
(xi) In case of electric shock:
If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment, cord
person. Disconnect the power source from the circuits breaker or pull out the plug using a leather
belt. By enclosing all electric conductors and contacts can save people from getting the electric
shock. Use three-pin plugs, which have earth wire connection which prevents electrical shock.
(xii) Display danger board :
Danger board should be displayed at the work place. We should not allow any unauthorized person
to enter in the working place and we should not put any new equipment into the service without
necessary testing by the concern authority.
(xiii) Usage of proper ladder:
Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your home.
An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a
bamboo, wooden or a fiberglass ladder instead.
(xiv) Usage of circuits breaker or fuse:
Always use a circuits breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuits breakers and fuses
are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire a condition of short circuits or over
current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential. Normally for
protection against short circuits a fuse rated of 150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the
case of a circuit with 10 amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse will against direct short circuits a 9.5
amperes fuse will blow out.
(xv) Use ceiling on live wire :
Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric board or service panel as you
could end up short circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the
copper ends of the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.
(xvi) Precaution during soldering:
Always take care while soldering your circuits boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself away from
the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily
cause burns.
(xvii) Things to remember:
The circuits is bad, electricity appliances are not working well, and lights are fluctuating. It means

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you need an electrical inspection or repair. In this case, either you’ll call an electrician or do it
yourself. So if you are trying to repair, always remember that your hands are well dry, you have
essential tools, rubber gloves & shoe are good, As all these acts as an insulator. Do not wear loose
clothing or tied near electrical equipment.
(xviii)Keep heaters away from bedclothes, clothing and curtains to avoid risk fire. Be extra careful
when using electrical appliances attached to power outlets near kitchen or bathroom sinks, tubs,
swimming pools, and other wet areas. Don’t cover an electric heater with clothing or other items.

Energy Consumption Calculation:

Energy and power are closely related. Electrical energy can be measured only when electrical power
is known. So first we understand the electrical power. Electrical power it the amount of electrical
current that results from a certain amount of voltage or we can say that power is the rate which
energy is delivered. It is measured in watts. Mathematically it is written as
Power = Voltage × Current
The measurement of electrical energy is completely dependent on power which is measured in watt,
kilowatts, megawatts, gigawatts, and time which is measured in an hour. Joule is the smallest unit of
energy. But for some bigger calculation, some better unit it required. So, the unit used for electrical
energy is watt-hour.
Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time, and it measured in joules. It is defined
as “1 joule of energy is equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 second”. I.e.,
Energy = Power × Time
1 Joule = 1 watt × 1 second
Watts are the basic unit of power in which electrical power is measured or we can say that rate at
which electrical current is being used at a particular moment.
Watt-hour is the standard unit used for measurement of energy, describing the amount of watts used
over a time. It shows how fast the power is consumed in the period of time.
Energy in watt hours = Power in watts × Time in hours
Kilowatt-hour is simply a bigger unit of energy when large appliance drawn power in kilowatts. It
can be described as one kilowatt hour is the amount of energy drawn by the 1000 watts appliance
when used for an hour.
Where, One kilowatt = 1000 watts
Energy in kilowatt hours = Power in kilowatts × Time in hours

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The electrical supply companies take electric energy charges from their consumer per kilowatt hour
unit basis.
This kilowatt hour is board of trade (BOT) unit.
Illustration for Energy Consumption:
A consumer uses a 10 kW geezer, a 6 kW electric furnace and five 100 W bulbs for 15 hours. How
many units (kWh) of electrical energy have been used?
Explanation : Given that
Load – 1 = 10 kW geezer
Load – 2 = 6 kW electric furnace
Load – 3 = 500 watt (five 100 watt bulbs)
Total load = 10kW + 6kW + 0.5kW = 16.5kW
Time taken = 155 hours
Energy consumed = Power in kW × Time in hours
= 16.5 × 15 = 247.5 kWh
For above electrical energy consumption, the tariff can be calculated as follows :
1 unit = 1kWh
So, the total energy consumption = 247.5 units
If the cost per unit is 2.5, then the total cost of energy consumption
̇=247.5 × 2.5 = 618.75/-

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