Soil Laboratories: Deal with the basic and applied

investigations. Soil testing for various earth and rockfill

dams, foundations of power houses, transmission
towers and other water resource structures have been
carried out in the laboratories e.g. Matatilla, Ramganga,
Sirsi, Jirgo, Meja, Moosakhand, Obra, Tehri, Kishau and
other dams. Pore pressures and settlement on earth
dams have also been measured. The geotechnical
investigations have also been carried out for Bharat
Heavy Electrical, Hardwar, IDPL, Rishikesh, Dalla
Cement Factory, Mirzapur and Pile foundations of
Harduaganj Thermal Power House. The field
performance of earth dams has also been studied at a
number of dam sites.
The laboratories are well equipped for carrying out the
various routine laboratory and field tests. It possesses drilling
and sampling apparatus, cone penetrometer, vane shear
apparatus, vibrating table, universal triaxial shear machine,
auto-level consolidometer etc. al technical committees of
Water Resources Development Council (WRDC), BIS, Manak
Bhawan, New Delhi, Departments of Civil Engineering, Water
Resources Development and Management (WRD&M), and
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre (AHEC), Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee, Central Board of Irrigation and Power,
New Delhi, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Central
Building Research Institute, Roorkee, State Engineers
Academy, Kalagarh, etc. in its research activities. The tests
are conducted with relevant Indian Standard specifications.
1.1 Laboratory Test

 Bearing Capacity of foundation soil by plate load test &

Standard Penetration Test.
 Permeability test determining seepage losses in soil.
 Laboratory Tests for Soil classification, Shear parameter,
Compaction, Consolidation etc.
1.2 Soil Classification

The United States Department of

Agriculture defines twelve major soil
texture classifications ( sand, loamy sand,
sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt,
sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay
loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay). Soil
textures are classified by the fractions of
sand, silt, and clay in a soil.
Classifications are typically named for the
primary constituent particle size or a
combination of the most abundant
particles sizes (e.g. sandy clay, silty clay).
Loams are soils having roughly equal
proportions of sand, silt, and/or clay in a
soil sample.
Texture affects many soil properties, such as
infiltration, structure, porosity, water holding
capacity, and chemistry.
The soil texture triangle is based on grain size,
that is the distribution of sand, silt, and clay in a
soil. The texture triangle is shown in the adjacent
image. The relationship to hydrologic soil group,
which is used in stormwater applications, is
illustrated in this image.
1.3 Atterberg,s Test

INTRODUCTION

The Atterberg limit refers to the liquid limit and

plastic limit of soil. These two limits are used
internationally for soil identification,
classification, and strength correlations. When clay
minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil
can be remolded in the presence of some moisture
without crumbling. This cohesiveness is caused by
the adsorbed water surrounding the clay particles.
At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more
like a solid; at a very high moisture content, the
soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence on an
arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content,
the behavior of soil can be divided into the four
basic states shown in Figure 5-1: solid, semisolid,
plastic, and liquid.
 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is:
 To determine the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), and the
plasticity index (PI) of fine-grained cohesive soils.

EQUIPMENT

 Balance
 Casagrande’s liquid limit device
 Grooving tool
 Mixing dishes
 Spatula
 Oven
 Texas Department of Transportation’s (TxDOT’s) recommended
plastic limit rolling device

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D4318: Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic

Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils

TEX-105-E: Determining plastic limit of soils

 METHOD

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

 Determine the mass of each of the three moisture cans (W1).

 Calibrate the drop of the cup, using the end of the grooving tool not meant for cutting, so
that there is consistency in the height of the drop.
 Put about 250 g of air-dried soil through a # 40 sieve into an evaporating dish and with a
plastic squeeze bottle, add enough water to form a uniform paste.

Place the soil in the Casagrande’s cup and use a spatula to smooth the surface so that the
maximum depth is about 8mm.
 Using the grooving tool, cut a groove at the center line of the soil cup.

Figure 5.4: Cutting a groove at the middle of the soil paste with a standard
grooving tool
 Crank the device at a rate of 2 revolutions per second until there is a clear
visible closure of 1/2” or 12.7 mm in the soil pat placed in the cup. Count the
number of blows (N) that caused the closure. (Make the paste so that N begins
with a value higher than 35.)

Figure 5.5: The groove at the middle of the soil sample before the
application of the blows
 Figure 5.6: The groove at the middle of the soil sample
after the application of the blows
 If N= 15 to 40, collect the sample from the closed part
of the cup using a spatula and determine the water
content weighing the can + moist soil (W2). If the soil is
too dry, N will be higher and will reduce as water is
added.
 Do not add soil to the sample to make it dry. Instead,
expose the mix to a fan or dry it by continuously mixing
it with the spatula.
 Perform a minimum of three trials with values of N-15
to 40, cleaning the cap after each trial.
 Determine the corresponding w% after 24 hours (W3)
and plot the N vs w%, which is called the “flow curve”.
1.4 Moisture Content
Determination of Moisture Content in Soil
Soils normally contain a finite amount of water, which can be expressed as the “soil moisture
content.” This moisture exists within the pore spaces in between soil aggregates (inter-aggregate
pore space) and within soil aggregates (intra-aggregate pore space) (Figure 1). Normally this
pore space is occupied by air and/or water. If all the pores are occupied by air, the soil is
completely dry. If all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated.

Figure 1. Pore space in soil.

Principles

In outdoor natural environments, water is added to soil via rainfall or deliberate irrigation of
plants. In either case, soil moisture increases as more pores become filled with water at the
expense of air. If all the pores become filled with water, excess water will now leach
downward (Figure 2) through continuous soil pores, until the rain or irrigation ceases.
Leaching will continue until the water films within the pores are held by the surface tension
of soil colloids against the force of gravity. Such a situation is referred to as the soil being at
“field capacity” with respect to soil moisture. A soil at field capacity has pores partially filled
with air, surrounded by soil moisture films. Normally a soil at field capacity is optimal for
plant growth and aerobic soil microorganisms, since both air and water are available. In
contrast, a saturated soil will create waterlogged anaerobic conditions that can kill plants and
suppress aerobic soil microbes, while stimulating anaerobic microbes.
Figure 2. Nutrients leaching in soil.

Consider a sample of moist soil within a container such as a beaker. The weight of the moist
soil consists of the weight of the dry soil particles plus the weight of the water within the soil.
If more water is added to the soil, the wet weight of the soil increases. The dry weight of the
soil particles within the sample is fixed i.e., one weight which is the dry weight. In contrast,
there are an infinite number of wet weights, depending upon how much water is added to the
soil. Because of this, when doing lab experiments with soil, the moisture content of the soil is
normally expressed on a dry weight basis, because the dry weight is constant over time,
whereas the moist or wet weight can change over time. When expressing the results of an
experiment such as the nutrient content of a soil, use of the dry weight basis provides
standardization of the final result.
Procedure
1. Weigh both of the aluminum dishes.
2. Aliquot approximately 50 g of moist soil into each
aluminum dish and reweigh the dishes. Hence, the moist
weight of the soil sample is now known.
3. Dry the soil overnight at 105 °C in the oven.
4. Remove the dishes from the oven and allow them to cool.
5. Reweigh the dishes plus the oven dry soil. Now the weight
of the dry soil is known.

Calculate the moisture content of the soil by subtracting the weight of

the dry soil from the weight of the moist soil, and then dividing by the
weight of the dry soil.

Although the measurement is simple, it is important to determine soil

moisture content in order to better understand soil characteristics.
Results

Calculate the soil moisture content for each of the replicate samples using the

following equation:

% moisture content (MC) =

(dry wt. basis)

Example Calculations:

M = 102 g

D = 90 g

∴ % MC =

MC = 13.3%

With the addition of 5 g of water, new M = 107 and D still equals 90

∴ % MC =

New MC = 18.9%
1.5 What is a soil compaction
test?
Soil compaction happens when soil particles
are pressed together, reducing pore space
between them. Heavily compacted
soils contain few large pores, less total pore
volume, and a greater density.

In the construction of high-load structures such as dams,

paved roadways, and construction projects that rely on
the stability of embankments, soil compaction is used to
increase soil strength.

Loose soil can be compacted using mechanical

equipment to remove air voids, thereby densifying the
soil and increasing its dry unit weight.

There are various benefits to soil compaction, including

prevention of soil settlement and frost damage,
increased ground stability, reduced hydraulic
conductivity and mitigating undesirable settlement of
structures, such as paved roads, foundations and piping.

A soil compaction test measures the density of the soil.

This data then informs the design of foundations.
Field Tests for Soil Compaction Density
Soil compaction tests are performed on-site and are necessary
to determine if the compaction density is being reached.

There are several types of field tests, each with advantages

and disadvantages. A popular soil compaction test method is a
dynamic cone penetration (DCP test) test.

In DCP testing, the pushing force is applied by manually

dropping a single or dual mass weight (called the hammer)
from a fixed height onto the push cone unit. The resulting
downward movement is then measured. The basic DCP
equipment is hand-portable and may be limited to test depths of
3-4 feet: this makes it a good choice for shallow testing
applications such as roadbed construction and maintenance.

Since DCP is essentially hand-powered, it is low-cost and more

portable. A traditional DCP test can be time-consuming and
leaves room for human error. Vertek’s Smart DCP Kit uses a
smartphone app and a laser rangefinder to automatically count
blows and measure, record, and plot depth.

From the smartphone, this data can be easily graphed in the

field and transferred to a computer or client for reporting and
analysis.

Automatic data collection saves time, increases accuracy, and

means that the test can be efficiently completed by one person.
Check out our video below to see how much more efficient
the Vertek Smart DCP Kit makes DCP testing.
 1.6 CONSOLIDATION TEST

INTRODUCTION
Soil consolidation refers to the process by which the
volume of a partially or fully saturated soil decreases
due to an applied stress. When a load is applied to a low
permeability soil, it is initially carried by the water that
exists in the porous saturated soil and result in a rapid
increase of pore water pressure. This excess pore water
pressure is dissipated as water drains away from the
soil’s voids and the pressure is transferred to the soil
skeleton, which is gradually compressed, resulting in
settlements. The consolidation procedure lasts until the
excess pore water pressure is dissipated.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The consolidation properties determined from the
consolidation test are used to estimate the magnitude
and rate of both primary and secondary consolidation
settlement of a structure or an earth fill.
Estimates of this type are of key importance in the
design of engineered structures and the evaluation of
their performance.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is
 To determine the consolidation parameters of soil for
estimating the magnitude of settlement.
 EQUIPMENT

 Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water

reservoir, and load plate)
 Dial gauge (0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial)
 Sample trimming device
 Glass plate,
 Metal straight edge
 Clock
 Moisture can
 Filter paper

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D2435: Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional

Consolidation Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading

METHOD

 Weigh the empty consolidation ring with the glass plate.

 Measure the height (h) of the ring and its inside diameter (d).
 Extrude the soil sample from the sampler, generally thin-
walled Shelby tube. Determine the initial moisture content
and the specific gravity of the soil.

Figure 12.1: Weight of the ring

 Cut an approximate a three-inch long sample. Place the sample on the consolidation ring and
cut the sides of the sample to be approximately the same as the outside diameter of the ring.
Rotate the ring and pare off the excess soil with the cutting tool so that the sample is reduced
to the same inside diameter of the ring. It is important to keep the cutting tool in the correct
horizontal position during this process.

Figure 12.2: Weight of the ring + sample

 As the trimming progresses, press the sample gently into the ring and continue until the
sample protrudes a short distance through the bottom of the ring. Be careful throughout the
trimming process to ensure that there is no void space between the sample and the ring.
 Turn the ring over carefully and remove the portion of the soil protruding above the ring.
Using the metal straight edge, cut the soil surface flush with the surface of the ring. Remove
the final portion with extreme care.
 Place the previously weighed Saran-wrap-covered glass plate on the freshly cut surface, turn
the ring over again, and carefully cut the other end in a similar manner.

Figure 12.3: Specimen assembly

 Weigh the specimen plus ring plus glass plate.
 Carefully remove the ring with the specimen from the Saran-wrapped glass plate and peel the
Saran wrap from the specimen surface. Center the porous stones that have been soaking, on
the top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen. Place the filter papers between the porous
stones and the soil specimen, pressing very lightly to ensure that the stones adhere to the
 sample. Lower the assembly carefully into the base of the water reservoir. Fill the water
reservoir with water until the specimen is completely covered and saturated.

Figure 12.4: Pouring distilled water

 Being careful to prevent movement of the ring and porous stones, place the load plate in the
center of the upper porous stone and adjust the loading device.
 Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading.
 Set the pressure gauge dial (based on calibration curve) to result in an applied pressure of 0.5
tsf.
 Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times given on the data sheet.
 The process needs to be repeated for different pre-selected pressures, which generally include
loading pressures of 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, and 16.0 tsf and unloading pressures of 8.0, 4.0, 2.0,
1.0 and 0.5 tsf.
 At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading and time, release
the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device and remove the specimen. Quickly
but carefully blot the surfaces dry with paper toweling. (The specimen will tend to absorb
water after the load is released.)
 Figure 12.5: Consolidation device
 Place the specimen and ring on the glass plate and, weigh them together.
 Weigh a large empty moisture can and lid.
 Carefully remove the specimen from the consolidation ring, being sure not to lose too much
soil, and place the specimen in the previously weighed moisture can. Place the moisture can
containing the specimen in the oven and let it dry for 12 to 18 hours.
 Weigh the dry specimen in the moisture can.
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
 Weight of the ring = 156.8 g
 Inside diameter of the ring = 2.5 in (6.35 cm)
 Height of specimen, Hi = 1 in (2.54 cm)
 Area of specimen, A = 31.67 cm2
 Mass of specimen + ring = 312.1 g
 Initial moisture content of specimen, wi (%) = 28.9%
 Specific gravity of solids, Gs = 2.67
 Final moisture content of specimen (after test), wf= 27.3%
 Weight of solids (before test) =155.3 g
 Water content (before test) = 28.9%
 Weight of dry specimen = 120.5 g
 Specific gravity of soil, Gs= 2.72
 Height of solids, Hs = Ms/(A × Gs× ρw) =120.5/(31.67×2.72×1)=
1.40 cm (0.55 in)
 Change in height of specimen after test, H =0.24 cm
 (H for all pressures – see t vs Dial Reading plots)
 Height of specimen after test, Hf = Hi – H = 2.54-0.24 = 2.3 cm
 Void ratio before test, e0 = (Hi-Hs)/Hs = (2.54-1.4)/1.4 = 0.816
 Void ratio after test, ef = (Hf-Hs)/Hs = (2.3-1.4)/1.4 = 0.645
 The sample calculation depicts only one time-settlement graph
(for 400 kPa), but it needs to be drawn for each pressure
increments. From these graphs, t50 can be determined which is
useful for determining the coefficient of consolidation (cv)
values.
 SOIL USED
 Soil : Light Grey Clay
 BH No: 05
 Depth: 7 ft
 SPECIMEN CONDITIONS
 Specific gravity, Gs =2.72
 Vol. of solids = 2.7035 in3
 Ht. of Solid (2H0) = 0.5507 in
 Ht. of Void (Hv) = 0.4493 in
 Initial void ratio (e0) =0.8157
 Tare weight = 8.50 lbs.
 Deformation Dial Constant = 0.0001 inch/div.
 EQUIPMENT USED
 Height of ring= 1 in.
 Dia. Of ring = 2.5 in.
 Area of sample= 4.9087 in2
 Wt. of ring= 156.8 gm
 Wt. of ring+soil (before test)= 312.10 gm
 Wt. of soil (before test)= 155.3 gm
 Water Content (before test)= 28.9%
 Wt. of dry specimen= 120.50 gm
 1.7 Shear Strength Test

A) DIRECT SHEAR STRENGTH TEST

INTRODUCTION
Shear strength is defined as the maximum resistance that a material can
withstand when subjected to shearing, and the direct shear test is an
experimental procedure that is used to determine the shear strength of soil
materials. It is one of the simplest, most common, quickest, and inexpensive
tests implemented to derive the strength of a soil. It can be carried out on
undisturbed or remolded samples and is often used when a quick and rough
estimate is needed. It cannot, however, provide the actual scenario of the shear
strength of a soil sample because the failure plane is forced to occur at the
predetermined joint in the shear box, which may not be the weakest plate.
Consequently, triaxial tests, rather than direct shear tests, are often performed
for important projects where the accurate estimation of shear strength
parameters is important.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Estimation of shear strength is needed for engineering situations such as
assessing the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity of
foundations, and determining the earth pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining
wall.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is

 To estimate the angle of friction and cohesion of soils

EQUIPMENT

 Direct shear device

 Load and deformation dial gauges
 Calipers
 Balance

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D3080: Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions.
 METHOD

 Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan.

 Measure the diameter and height of the shear box. Compute 15% of the diameter in
millimeters.
 Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device, then place a porous
stone and a filter paper in the shear box.
Figure 9.1: Shear box apparatus
 Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top.

Figure 9.2: Shear box assembly in the direct shear device

 Figure 9.3: Placing filter paper

 Remove the large alignment screws from the shear box. Using the gap screws, open the gap
between the shear box halves to approximately 0.025 in., and then back out the gap screws.

Figure 9.4: Pouring sand

 Weigh the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.
 Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three gauges (horizontal
displacement gage, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage) to zero.

Figure 9.5: Direct shear

device
 Set the vertical load (or pressure) to a predetermined value, and then close the bleeder valve
and apply the load to the soil specimen by raising the toggle switch.
 Start the motor at the selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at a selected constant rate,
and take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage, and shear load gage
readings. Record the readings on the data sheet. (Note: Record the vertical displacement gage
readings, if needed.)
 Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the horizontal
displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.
 B) UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STENGTH TEST

INTRODUCTION
The unconfined compression test is the most popular method of soil shear
testing because it is one of the fastest and least expensive methods of measuring
shear strength. It is used primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from
thin-walled sampling tubes. The test is not applicable to cohesionless or coarse-
grained soils.
The unconfined compression test is strain-controlled, and when the soil sample
is loaded rapidly, the pore pressures (water within the soil) undergo changes
that do not have enough time to dissipate. Hence it is representative of soils in
construction sites where the rate of construction is very fast and the pore waters
do not have time to dissipate.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The test is used in all geotechnical engineering designs (e.g., design and stability analysis of
foundations, retaining walls, slopes, and embankments) to obtain a rough estimate of the soil
strength and determine the viable construction techniques.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is

 To determine the unconfined compressive strength (qu) of the soil

EQUIPMENT

 Unconfined compression testing machine (triaxial machine)

 Specimen preparation equipment
 Sample extruder
 Balance

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D2166: Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil
 METHOD

 Remolded specimens are prepared in the laboratory and are dependent upon the Proctor data
pertaining to the required molding water content.
 If testing undisturbed specimens retrieved from the ground by various sampling techniques,
trim the samples into regular triaxial specimen dimensions (2.8 inch x 5.6 inch)
 C) TRIAXIAL TEST

INTRODUCTION
The triaxial shear test is the most versatile of all of the methods for testing the
shear strength of soil and finding its cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction
(φ). It can measure the total, as well as the effective stress parameters, and
can be conducted on any type of soil. Drainage conditions can be controlled,
and pore water pressure and volume changes can be measured accurately. The
failure plane is not forced in this test, and the stress distribution of the failure
plane is fairly uniform. Specimens can fail on any weak plane or can simply
bulge.

The three primary triaxial tests conducted in the laboratory each allow the soil
response for differing engineering applications to be observed. These are:

 Unconsolidated undrained test (UU)

 Consolidated undrained test (CU)
 Consolidated drained test (CD)

The unconsolidated undrained (UU) test is the simplest and fastest. The soil
specimens are loaded, and only the total stresses are controlled and recorded.
This allows determination of the undrained shear strength, cu, which is suitable
for assessing the soil stability in the short-term (e.g., during or directly
following a construction project). The test is generally performed on cohesive
soil specimens; however, remolded sand samples can also be tested. The
consolidated drained (CD) test describes the long-term loading response, and
provides the strength parameters determined under effective stress control
(i.e. φ and c’). It can take a significant time to complete when using cohesive
soil, because the shear rate must be slow enough to allow negligible pore
water pressure changes. Finally, the consolidated undrained (CU) test is the
most common triaxial procedure, as it allows strength parameters to be
determined based on the effective stresses (i.e., φ’ and c’) while permitting a
faster rate of shearing than the CD test. This is achieved by recording the
excess pore pressure change that occurs within the specimen as shearing takes
place. In this manual, the basics of the UU triaxial test is covered.
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The triaxial test, which determines the shear strength and stiffness of soil and
rock, is one of the most versatile and widely performed geotechnical
laboratory tests that is used in geotechnical design.

Two parameters of shear strength are required for the design of slopes and for
many other analyses: calculation of the bearing capacity of any strata, and
calculation of the consolidation parameters.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is

 To determine the soil strength parameters

EQUIPMENT

 Triaxial test setup

 Sample tubes
 Rubber ring
 Open ended cylindrical section
 Weighing balance

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D4767: Standard Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test for
Cohesive Soils

METHOD
The general triaxial test procedure is discussed below.

SPECIMEN & SYSTEM PREPARATION

After a test specimen has been prepared from a soil sample, it is placed it into
the triaxial cell. For cohesive soils, this may involve trimming undisturbed
specimens extruded from Shelby tubes or cut from block samples. Granular soil
specimens may require preparation directly on the pedestal, using a split-part
mold. A membrane suction stretcher can be used to place the rubber
membrane around the soil specimen once it is in position on the pedestal.
Note that disturbance to the specimen should be kept to a minimum during
the specimen preparation.
The triaxial cell other system components are assembled after placement of
the specimen. During this stage, the cell is filled with fluid, the
pressure/volume controllers are connected, and transducer readings are set.
 1.8 PERMEABILITY TEST

INTRODUCTION
Soil permeability (hydraulic conductivity) is the rate at which water flows
through soil materials. It is an essential characteristic across a broad spectrum of
engineering and earth-science disciplines. The coefficient of permeability (k) is
a constant of proportionality relating to the ease with which fluid passes through
a porous medium.
Two general types of permeability test methods are routinely performed in the
laboratory: (1) the constant head test method, and (2) the falling head test
method. The constant head test method is used for cohesionless and more
permeable soils (k>10-4 cm/s) and the falling head test is mainly used for
cohesive or less permeable soils (k<10-4 cm/s). The constant head permeability
method is espoused in this manual for determining the permeability of sandy
soil.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

 Data related to the permeability of soil is necessary for calculating the amount of seepage
through earthen dams or under sheet pile walls, the seepage rate from waste storage facilities
(landfills, ponds, etc.), and the settlement of clayey soil deposits.
 Geotechnical and civil engineers, hydrogeologists, and soil and environmental scientists use
this information for projects such as structural foundations, embankments, earthen dams,
flood management, effluent infiltration, and more.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is

 To determine the permeability of sandy soil

EQUIPMENT

 Permeameter
 Tamper, balance
 Scoop
 1000 mL
 Graduated cylinders
 Watch (or stopwatch)
 Thermometer
 Filter paper

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D2434: Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head).
 METHOD

 Measure the initial mass of the pan along with the dry soil (M1). Remove the cap and upper
chamber of the permeameter by unscrewing the knurled cap nuts and lifting them off the tie
rods. Measure the inside diameter of the upper and lower chambers. Calculate the average
inside diameter of the permeameter (D).
 Place one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber then place a filter
paper on top of the porous stone.
 Mix the soil with enough distilled water to prevent the particle sizes from segregating while
they are being placed into the permeameter. Add enough water that the mixture can flow
freely. Using a scoop in a circular motion to form a uniform layer, pour the prepared soil into
the lower chamber, filling it to a depth of 1.5 cm.
 Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil, applying approximately ten rams of the
tamper per layer, and provide uniform coverage of the soil surface. Repeat the compaction
procedure until the soil is within 2 cm. of the top of the lower chamber section.
 SECTION B - ROCK MECHANICS
Rock Mechanics Laboratory essentially deals with
determination of engineering properties of the rock mass
and rock material by carrying out various field and
laboratory tests so as to facilitate project authorities for
the safe and economical design of structure related to civil
engineering and River Valley Projects.

Facilities available in the Rock Mechanics Laboratory:

(i) Laboratory Tests
 Modulus of Elasticity & Poisson’s Ratio.
 Unconfined Compressive Strength on Rock core
specimen.
 Shear Parameters – ‘c’ and ‘’.
 Point Load Strength Index.
 Water Absorption, Specific Gravity.
 Weathering/Durability/Porosity/Soundness/Permeabil
ity Test of Natural Building Stone.
(ii) Field Tests
 Bearing Capacity by Plate Load Test.
 Block Shear Test for (‘c’ and ‘’).
 Pullout Test (Anchor Bar & Rock Bolts).
 Uniaxial Jacking Test (Modulus of Deformation).
 Load Test for Bridges and Aqueduct.
2.0 SHEAR PARAMETER
A d :Shearing area within sample in direct shear test
A p :Shearing area within sample in preset angle shear test
c :Cohesion
c c :Cohesion in triaxial compression test
CVεd :Coefficient of variation for εd
CVεc :Coefficient of variation for εc
CVεp :Coefficient of variation for εp
CVσ1 :Coefficient of variation for σ1
CVτd :Coefficient of variation for τd
CVτp :Coefficient of variation for τp
f :Rolling friction coefficient
f P p :Horizontal friction
n :The number of test data
N :The normal load in preset angle shear test
P 0 :Normal load in direct shear test
P c :Peak load under triaxial compression
P d :Shear load under direct shear
P p :Vertical force in preset angle shear test
R 2 :Fitting coefficient
T :The shear load in preset angle shear test
X i :The test data
α :Preset angle
υ :Internal friction angle
υ c :Internal friction angle in triaxial compression test
β : Rupture angle
ε c :Peak strain under triaxial compression
ε d :Peak strain under direct shear
ε p :Peak strain under preset angle shear
σ 1 :Maximum principal stress
σ 3 :Confining pressure
σ d :Normal stress in direct shear test
σ n :Normal stress in triaxial compression test
σ p :Normal stress in preset angle shear test
τ c :Shear strength obtained by triaxial compression test
τ d :Shear strength obtained by direct shear test
τ p :Shear strength obtained by preset angle shear test

M–C:Mohr–Coulomb
PAS:Preset angle shear
DS:Direct shear
TC:Triaxial compression
UCS:Uniaxial compressive strength
 2.1 Tri Axial Test

Triaxial tests are widely used in geotechnical engineering both in soil

and rock mechanics. Specimens are axially loaded to failure while a
confining pressure is constantly applied. As a result, the behavior of
geomaterials is investigated in a three-dimensional stress state.
The principal stresses (the maximum and minimum normal stresses
acting on a plane at which the shear stress is zero) in 3-dimensional
objects are three (σ1> σ2> σ3). In nature, the principal stresses may
differ. However, in laboratory triaxial tests, the intermediate stress σ2 is
equal to σ3. Conducting laboratory tests in which all applied principal
stresses differ is challenging and is not widely used. Such a procedure
would be referred as polyaxial or true triaxial test. Moreover, research
has shown that the effect of the intermediate stress is minor.
The principal stresses applied during a triaxial test are presented
in Figure 1.

The confining pressure is determined and remains constant during a

test. The sample is initially loaded isotropically until the principal
stresses are equal to the predetermined confining pressure. Then, the
axial stress, σ1, increases at a certain rate until the specimen fails and
the maximum σ1 is recorded.
Testing Procedure
A cylindrical rock specimen is placed in a specifically designed cell (such as a Hoek
cell). A specially designed membrane is attached to the cell so that it remains
airtight. The lateral pressure is hydrostatic and is applied through a liquid (usually oil)
which is pumped into the membrane. A hydraulic pump or a servomotor capable of
regulating pressure within 1% accuracy is utilized. The specimen is axially enclosed
by steel spherical seats. To derive the vertical and circumferential deformation of the
sample, strain gauges can be used. However, it is not mandatory to record the strain
response when conducting a triaxial test. A schematic of the Hoek cell and the parts
assembled together to conduct a triaxial test is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Hoek cell for

triaxial tests (Controls Group: https://www.controls-group.com/eng/)

The Hoek cell is then placed in the loading apparatus that is used to apply a vertical
load to the specimen. Modern loading systems are servo-control devices that apply a
hydraulic pressure at a constant rate. The loading rate (kN/s) is selected so that the
specimen fails in approximately 10 minutes (5-15 min). If there is already data about
the maximum σ1 under a constant σ3 (derived from previous tests), this rate can be
calculated. Otherwise, a logical assumption should be made based on existing
knowledge on the behavior of the tested material.
The lateral pressure is applied at the same rate selected for the axial load until it
reaches the prescribed value. Once this confining pressure is reached, it should be
maintained within 2% accuracy.
The loading machine must be stiff and sufficient of applying the maximum required
pressure for a rock specimen to fail. In addition, it should be frequently calibrated to
correctly derive the loading measures.
Results and Calculations
The raw data of a triaxial test include the dimensions of the sample, the lateral
pressure σ3, the axial load P, the duration of the test, which must be within the
required limits, and, if strain gauges are utilized, the deformation measurements.
Firstly, the cross-sectional area of the sample is calculated as:

where D is the diameter of the sample.

The axial stress is derived by dividing the axial load with the specimen’s cross-
sectional area:

where P is the axial load.

If deformations measurements are recorded, the stress-strain response of the
sample is plotted. The axial and circumferential strains, eA and eC, respectively are
both calculated as:

where R is the initial electrical resistance of the strain gauge, ΔR is the change in
resistance due to deformation and k is a gage factor. After a sequence of at least 3
triaxial tests, failure envelopes of the rock samples are derived. The most common
failure criteria used in rock mechanics are:

 The Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) Failure Criterion

 The Hoek-Brown (H-B) Failure Criterion

The M-C Failure Criterion correlates the shear strength and the normal effective
stress that act on the failure plane. It can be also expressed in terms of principal
stresses as:
Where t is the shear strength of the material, c is the cohesion, φ is the friction
angle, σn is the normal stress acting on the failure plane, σ1 and σ3 are the principal
stresses.
The M-C criterion is utilized due to its simplicity and its universal acceptance in
geotechnical engineering. However, the H-B criterion was developed based on a
series of laboratory tests in many rock types that showed there is a non-linear
correlation between principal stresses in rocks’ brittle failure.
The principal stresses correlation in H-B Criterion is expressed as:

where σci is the uniaxial compressive strength, mi is a constant based on the rock
type, σ1 and σ3 are the principal stresses.
After conducting at least 3 triaxial tests in different lateral pressures, the best-fit
envelopes of the criterion selected are plotted and the parameters of each one
(cohesion, friction angle in M-C and mi, σci in H-B) are derived. Nevertheless, in H-B
criterion, most of the times σci is already determined from Uniaxial Compression
Tests on the material. It is critical to ensure that the samples derive from the same
core or rock block and present similar properties. This can be achieved by visual
observation.

Example of deriving the M-C and the H-B

criteria parameters
Assume 4 triaxial tests were conducted on a specific type of rock specimens. The
pre-determined lateral stresses and the corresponding axial stresses on failure are
presented in Table 1:

Table 1: Triaxial test results data example

The results are plotted with the best-fit M-C and H-B envelopes in Figure 3.
 Figure 3:
Principal stress plot based on laboratory data and best-fit envelopes of M-C and H-B criteria.

Based on the best-fit curves, the parameters for the two failure criteria are derived
and presented in Table 2.

Table 2: The derived parameters of H-B and M-C criteria based on the laboratory testing
data
2.2 Point Load Strength Index

Introduction

Point Load (PL) is a test that aims at characterizing rock materials in terms of
strength. It is an index test, meaning that it can be performed relatively quickly and
without the necessity of sophisticated equipment to provide important data on the
mechanical properties of rocks. Index tests have been widely used in soil mechanics
(ex., particle size distribution, relative density, Atterberg Limits, water content) but
are recently introduced in rock mechanics.
The strength of a rock material is a critical factor especially in designing civil and
mining engineering projects. Deriving this critical property is not an easy task, since it
requires laboratory tests and special equipment (loading machines, core drilling and
sampling techniques). Point Load test is an alternate method that can be used to
adequately predict the uniaxial compressive strength of a rock material using a
portable and simpler equipment. Schmidt Hammer Rebound test is also a technique
used for this purpose but, it is admitted that its results are far more variable and
affected by testing methods.

Test Apparatus

A rock sample with various shapes (see below) is subjected to compression between
two conical steel platens until failure. The apparatus consists of a rigid loading frame,
a loading measuring system and a simple system of measuring the distance
between the two platens. This distance is usually 1.5 to 10 centimeters so that
specimens of various sizes can be tested.
The capacity of the loading machine is usually 25kN or 50kN and typically utilizes a
hydraulic pressure gauge.
The load measurements are accurate to, at least, 5% regardless of the strength and
the size of the sample. A typical, digital, Point Load Test apparatus is presented
in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Digital Point Load Test Apparatus by ControlsGroup (Controls-group.com)

Size and Shape of Specimens

A benefit of Point Load tests is that they can be conducted on cylindrical, rectangular
or even irregular specimens given that they comply with some geometric regulations.
According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), a specimen’s
external dimensions must range between 3,0 to 8,5 centimeters with the preferred
dimension being 5 centimeters.

Testing Procedure

Depending on the shape of the specimen, the Point Load strength index can be
derived via 4 different types of tests:
Diametral Test
Diametral Point Load Tests are conducted on cylindrical samples. The ratio of the
specimen’s length to its diameter (2L/D) should be more than unity. The sample is
placed in the loading device and is loaded perpendicular to its core axis so that the
platens make contact along its diameter. The distance between the free end and the
location of the contact points must be greater than 0.5D. Then, the distance between
the contact points (which should be equal to the diameter) is recorded and the
specimen is loaded to failure. A schematic of a diametral point load test is presented
in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Sample’s shape requirements for the

Diametral PL Test and loading forces applied by the apparatus platens.

Axial Test
The Axial Point Load Test is conducted on cylindrical samples that have a relatively
smaller length. The ratio between the length and the diameter of the specimen must
range between 0.3 and 1.0. The specimen is placed so that the loading platens are
parallel to its core axis. The distance between the contact points is measured before
initiating the test. A typical configuration of an axial PL test is shown in Figure 3.
 Figure 3: Sample’s shape requirements for the Axial PL Test and
loading forces applied by the apparatus platens

Block Lump Test

Block Lumps Tests are conducted on rectangular prism samples with a preferable
dimension of 5.0 ± 3.5 centimeters. The sample is placed in the apparatus so that its
smallest dimension makes contact with the loading platens. As shown in Figure 4,
the Diameter to Width ratio should be between 0.3 and 1.0 and the length between
the contact points and the free end of the sample, must be greater than 0.5D.

Figure 4: Sample’s shape requirements for the Block Lump PL Test

and loading forces applied by the apparatus platens
Irregular Lump Test
PL tests may also be carried out in irregular blocks that resemble the geometry of a
rectangular prism. In this case, a cross-section of a certain block is considered a
trapezoid with its top and bottom bases (W1 and W2) being parallel and its height
being constant (D). An average width is calculated (W=(W1+W2)/2) and the loading
process is similar to that of the Block Lump Test. A schematic of the specimen’s
geometric characteristics and the loading forces applied during the PL test is
depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Sample’s Shape Requirements for the Irregular

Lump PL Test and loading forces applied by the apparatus platens

In all cases, at least 10 samples of the examined material should be tested in order to obtain
reliable results (even more required if the rock is anisotropic or heterogeneous). The
distance D should be recorded within ±2% accuracy. The load should steadily increase so
that the specimen fails within 10 to 60 seconds.

Validity of PL tests

Based on the mode of failure, Point Load tests are classified as valid or invalid.
Invalid tests are not taken into consideration in the final results; therefore, it is crucial
to acknowledge when a test is valid. The failure surface should pass through both
contact points. Typical examples of valid and invalid modes of failure in PL tests are
depicted in Figure 6.

Figure 6: a,b,c) Typical modes of failure for valid PL tests. d, e) Typical modes of failure for
invalid PL tests (ISRM, 1985)
Anisotropic Rock

A rock material is considered anisotropic when its mechanical properties change

depending on the loading direction. This property is actually presented in many rocks
since weak planes are created due to geologic processes and the materials do not
appear homogenous. Schist, marble, gneiss and phyllite are some examples of
rocks presenting anisotropic behavior.
Regarding PL test, such materials should be tested in the directions of the maximum
and minimum strength. Those directions are parallel and perpendicular to the
anisotropy planes as shown in Figure 7. The best results are obtained using core
specimens in which the core axis is perpendicular to the anisotropy planes.

Figure 7: Point
Load test on a) the direction of the maximum strength and b) the direction of minimum
strength in anisotropic rocks

Calculations

When a PL test is completed, the raw data include the dimensions of the sample and
the load of failure P (kN).
Initially, the equivalent core diameter “De” is calculated based on the shape of the
specimen as:
Where, A is the minimum cross-section area of a plane through the contact point of
the planes and is calculated as:

The Uncorrected Point Load Strength IS (the term will be explained below), is derived
via the following equation:

It is generally acknowledged that, in rock mechanics, the size of a tested specimen

affects its mechanical properties. This is highly associated with the non-homogenous
nature of rock materials. In bigger samples, there is a higher probability of a weaker
plane or a fracture affecting the behavior of the material. For this reason, the value of
the IS is corrected based on the size of the sample to a reference dimension (50mm)
as:

Where, F is a size correction factor which is calculated as:

After each corrected PL strength index is calculated, the two highest and two lowest
values are excluded (given that 10 or more tests have been conducted on the tested
material) and the average IS50 is derived.
Estimation of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) based on IS50
The PL tests are a rock classification index but they can also be used to estimate the
UCS of the tested rock. There have been many studies on the correlation between
IS50 and UCS and research has shown that there is no valid relation that could predict
with high accuracy the actual UCS of a material based on IS50. However, an
approximate value can be determined.
The UCS can be estimated using the following formula:
 2.3 Unconfined Compressive Strength
The Unconfined Compression Test is a laboratory test used to derive
the Unconfirmed Compressive Strength (UCS) of a rock specimen. Unconfirmed
Compressive Strength (UCS) stands for the maximum axial compressive stress that
a specimen can bear under zero confining stress. Due to the fact that stress is
applied along the longitudinal axis, the Unconfined Compression Test is also known
as Uniaxial Compression Test. UCS is a parameter widely used in geotechnical
design, but may not represent the strength in-situ. On a large scale, the rockmass
properties are highly affected by other factors including discontinuities, faults and
weathering.
During the test, apart from the axial load, axial and lateral deformation are commonly
measured to derive the sample’s elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio.

Laboratory Procedure

Sampling

Samples are retrieved by drill cores and are selected cautiously in order be
representative of the original rock formation. The minimum diameter of a specimen
must be at least 47 millimeters and 10 times larger than the size of the largest
mineral grain (or 6 times larger for weaker rocks e.g. sandstones, marlstones).
The samples’ length to diameter ratio (L/D) must be between 2.0 and 2.5, according
to ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) and 2.5-3.0 according to
ISRM (International Society for Rock Mechanics). The cylindrical surfaces are
prepared in order to be flat and smooth. In particular, the sample’s ends must be
leveled within a 0.02 millimeters tolerance and they should not depart from
perpendicularity by more than 0.06 degrees.
The purpose of the procedure is to preserve the in-situ properties of the sample until
the test is conducted. Therefore, moisture recorded in the field should also be
preserved until testing.
At least 5 samples are required to achieve a reliable value of the UCS.

Apparatus

The apparatus used to conduct the Unconfined Compression Test consists of the
following parts:
Loading Device: The loading device must be designed to consistently apply load at
the required rate until the end of the test. The test may be stress- or strain-controlled.
It is pointed out that only strain-controlled devices can capture the post-failure
behavior of a material.
Platens: The axial stress applied by the loading device is transferred to the specimen
by two steel platens that are made with a minimum Rockwell Hardness of 58. Their
diameter must be at least equal to the sample’s diameter. The length to diameter
ratio must also be at least 0.5.
Strain measurement devices: The axial and lateral deformations are measured by
various devices (e.g. Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs),
Compressometers, Electrical Resistance Strain Gages).

Testing Procedure

The two plates shall be carefully cleaned before the specimen is placed in the testing
chamber. The load should be continuously applied at a rate of 0.5 MPa/s to 1.0
MPa/s (in case of a stress-controlled load device) and failure must occur in
approximately 10 minutes. Stress and deformation data can be recorded through an
electronic system that has the appropriate accuracy specifications. The maximum
load is recorded in Newtons within a 1% accuracy.
Results

A typical stress-strain diagram deriving from a Uniaxial Compression Test of an undisturbed specimen of basalt is
presented in Figure 1. The UCS is the peak value of the diagram and is equal to 44.7 MPa. Photos of the
specimen before and after the test are presented in Figure 2. During the failure process, cracks propagated from
the bottom to the top of the specimen, shearing off a large piece of the sample.

Figure 1: Stress-strain curve of the Unconfined Compression Test for a specimen of Basalt.

Figure 2: Photographs of the specimen before and after the testing procedure.
Calculations

The axial strain is calculated as:

εa = Δl / L0
Where εa: Axial strain, Δl: Change in measured axial length and L0: The initial length
of the sample.
The diametric strain is calculated as:
εd = Δd / D0
Where εd: Diametric strain, Δd: Change in diameter and D0: The initial diameter of the
sample.
The compressive stress is calculated as:
σ = P / A0
Where σ: Compressive Stress, P: Load and A0: The initial cross-section area of the
specimen.
Therefore, the Unconfined Compressive Strength is calculated for the maximum load
applied:
σUCS = Pmax / A0
The modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) E which represents the ratio between
axial stress and axial strain can be derived via several methods. Usually, it is
calculated at stress-strain level of about 50% of the maximum load.
E = Δσ / Δεa (At 50% of maximum load)
The Poisson’s ratio that represents the ratio between diametric and axial strain, is
calculated as:
n = - (εd / εa)
Size corrections:
According to ASTM, the preferable sample L/D ratio is 2.0. Therefore, a correction
formula is applied for larger ratios (smaller rations are unacceptable). In particular,
the Uniaxial Compressive Strength is re-calculated as:
σc = σUCS / (0.88 + 0.222*(D/L) )
Where σc is the corrected uniaxial compressive strength.
 Rock characterization and typical range of
UCS based on rock types
Based on their Uniaxial Compressive Strength, rocks can be characterized from very weak
to very strong as following:

Strength range (MPa) Strength classification Typical

10-20 Very weak weathered and weakly-co
20-40 Weak weakly-cemented se
40-80 Medium competent sedimentary rocks; some l
80-160 Strong competent igneous rocks; some metam
Table 1: Classification of rock hardnesses (from Attewell & Farmer 1976).
The range of the Uniaxial Compressive Strength for a large amount of typical rock types is
presented in Table 2.
Typical Rock Types Uniaxial Compressive Strength (

Granite 100-250

Diorite 150-300

Diabase 100-350

Gabbro 150-300

Basalt 100-300

Gneiss 50-200

Marble 100-250

Slate 100-200

Quartzite 150-300

Sandstone 20-170

Shale 5-100

Limestone 30-250

Dolomite 30-250
Table 2: Typical values of Uniaxial Compressive Strength for a various number of rocks
(from Attewell & Farmer 1976).
 SECTION C – HIGHWAY
3.0 IMPACT TEST

INTRODUCTION

Aggregates undergo significant wear and tear throughout their

life. Aggregates must be hard and tough enough to resist crushing,
degradation and disintegration and be able to transmit loads from the
pavement surface to the underlying layers and eventually the
subgrade. Testing the strength of parent rock alone does not exactly
indicate the strength of aggregates in concrete. For this reason
assessment of strength of the aggregates are made by using a
sample bulk aggregates in standardized manner.Several tests are
thus performed to assess the stability and quality of roads. The
Aggregate Impact Value Test is one such test. The impact test is a
type of quality control test for highway pavements that is used to
determine the suitability of aggregates for use in highway pavement
construction.
The principal mechanical property of aggregate required in any
construction is

1. Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during

construction
2. Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic

Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough

to resist abrasion and crushing and also the impact load. If
aggregates are weak, then the stability of pavement structure will be
adversely affected. The toughness of aggregate is its ability to resist
sudden load acting on it. The movement of vehicles on the road
sometimes gives rise to impact loading which results in breaking of
aggregates into smaller pieces. Therefore the aggregates should have
sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This
characteristic of aggregate is measured by impact value test.
 Aggregate Impact Testing Machine

In this test sample of standard aggregates kept in a mould which is

subjected to fifteen blows of metal hammer of weight 14 kgs falling
from the height of 38cms. The quantity of finer materials resulting from
pounding will indicate the toughness of the sample of aggregates. As
per IS 283-1970 Aggregates Impact Value is defined as the ratio of
weight of fines formed to weight of total sample taken and is
expressed in percentage

Aggregates Impact Value gives relative measure of resistance

of aggregates to sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates
differs from its resistance to slow compression load. Impact Value
should not be less than 45% for aggregates used for concrete other
than wearing surface and 30% for concrete used in wearing surface.
Table below shows the classification of aggregate with respect to
aggregate impact value and limits of aggregate impact value for
different types of road construction suggested by Indian Road
Congress.
Classification of aggregates based on Aggregate Impact Value

Impact Value of Aggregate for different types of pavement

Relevant Indian Standards:

1. IS 2386 (Part IV) 1963: Methods of Test for Aggregates

Mechanical Properties, Tenth Reprint MARCH 1997.
2. IS 383-1970: Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates.
3.1 CRUSHING STRENGTH

INTRODUCTION

Different rock samples give different compressive strength

varying from minimum of about 45Mpa to maximum of 545Mpa. The
compressive strength of parent rock does not exactly indicate the
strength of aggregates in concrete. For this reason assessment of
strength of the aggregates are made by using a sample bulk
aggregates in standardized manner. The test conducted to know the
compressive strength of aggregate is known as aggregates crushing
value test. The crushing value of aggregates is rather insensitive to
variation in strength of weaker aggregates. For this reason, a simple
test known as 10 percent fine value is introduced. When the
aggregates crushing value become 30% or higher, the results are
likely to be inaccurate.

Aggregate Crushing Load

(Source: IS 2386(Part 4):1963)

 The aggregates crushing value provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.
The principal mechanical property of aggregate required in any
construction is (i) satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller
during construction (ii) adequate resistance to surface abrasion under
traffic. Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough
to resist crushing under traffic wheel load. If aggregates are weak the
stability of pavement structure is adversely affected. The strong
aggregates will have low crushing value and weak aggregates have
high crushing value. The aggregate crushing strength for various
types of surface course of pavements should be high enough to
withstand the high wheel load, including the steel tires of loaded
bullock-carts. However, low strength aggregates having lesser
crushing strength are used in base and sub-base courses of
pavements. IRC have specified aggregates crushing values of the
coarse aggregates used for cement concrete surface should not
exceed 30%. For aggregates used for concrete other than surfaces,
the aggregates crushing values should not exceed 45%.
Aggregate Crushing Value for different types of Roads / Pavements

Types of Roads / Pavements Aggregate Crushing Value Limit

Flexible Pavements

Soling 50

Water bound macadam 40

Bituminous macadam 40

Bituminous surface dressing or thin premix carpet 30

 Dense mix carpet 30

Rigid Pavements

Other than wearing course 45

Surface or Wearing course 30

(Source: IS 2386(Part 4):1963)

Relevant Indian Standard for Crushing Test on Aggregate:

1. IS 2386 (Part IV) 1963: Methods of Test for Aggregates

Mechanical Properties, Tenth Reprint MARCH 1997.
2. IS 383-1970: Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates.
3.2 Softening Point/Compressive Strength of Cube

Standard Test Method for Softening

Point of Pitches (Cube-in-Water
Method)
Significance and Use

5.1 Pitch does not go through a solid-liquid phase change when heated, and therefore it does not
have a true melting point. As the temperature rises, pitch softens and becomes less viscous. The
softening point is arbitrarily defined and shall be established by a closely controlled method
which shall be carefully followed if test results are to be reproducible.

5.2 This test is useful in determining the consistency of pitch as one element in establishing the
uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.

Scope

1.1 This test method covers the determination of the softening point of pitches below 176 °F
(80 °C). Pitches of higher softening point should be tested by Test Method D2319 or Test
Method D3104.

1.2 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in
parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and
are not considered standard.

1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with
its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health,
and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized
principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of
International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Compressive Strength Test of Concrete
The compressive strength test of concrete is one of the destructive tests widely
done at the site to find out the compression strength of a particular concrete batch.

What is the Compressive Strength of

Concrete?
The ability of hardened concrete cube to resist the compression loads applied on

the surface is known as the compressive strength of

concrete.
Otherwise, the compressive strength of concrete is defined as the maximum
crushing stress endured by the concrete.
Purpose of this Test
Assume a slab at our site is designed to cast M25 grade of concrete, but we could
not define its strength in the semi-solid state.
For that matter, A certain quantity of concrete shall be cast as a cube while
concrete pouring time to find the compressive strength of that concrete batch. The
cube will be preserved and curated well for almost 28 days to be tested by the
Compression Testing Machine.
Compressive Strength of Concrete Test
Apparatus Required
 Steel Mould (150mm x 150mm x 150mm)
 Tamping rod
 CTM Machine
 Trowel
 Weighing machine
Procedure
Cube Casting


 Estimate the adequate ingredients to prepare the concrete with a proper water-
cement ratio.
 Ensure that the cube mould should be free from dust and rust.
 Now, pour the concrete into the mould by proper compaction with the help of
a tamping rod.
 Finish the top surface as smooth by the trowel.
 The mould should be covered with a gunny bag and placed undisturbed for 24
hours at a temperature of 27 ° Celsius ± 2.
 After 24 hours, the cube specimen shall be removed from the mould, and it
should be immersed into the water for 7 or 28 days based on the test.
Method of Testing


 The cube should be removed from the water 30 minutes before the test, and it
should be in dry condition.
 The specimen should be weighed before the test.
 The specimen should be placed between the plate with proper alignment.
 Now, apply the load (kilonewton) gradually to the specimen.
 The specimen will break at maximum load (1 Division = 5 KN), which is
noted down as the crushing value of the cube.
 The average (Minimum Three Sample) crushing value should be note down as
the compression value of the selected concrete batch.
How To Calculate Compressive Strength Of
Concrete Value? – Formula
Compressive Strength of concrete cube = Maximum load/Area of the cube
Example Calculation
 Assume that the compression load is 375 KN (1 Kg = 9.81 N)
 Cross Sectional Area – 15 x 15 = 225 Sqcm.
 Compressive Strength = (375 x 1000/225) = 1666/9.81 = 169.82 Kg/Sqcm.

Lab Report
Age of Load Tensile Strength Average
Grade Test Specimen (KN) (Kg/Sq.cm) Strength

28 Days Sample 1 300 136

28 Days Sample 2 290 131

M10 28 Days Sample 3 325 147 138

SECTION D – GROUND WATER
4.0 SENSITIVITY TEST
One of the most difficult tasks in ground-water
modeling is the estimation of aquifer parameters
from field measurements of hydraulic head. This
paper examines model sensitivity through the use
of sensitivity analysis. For each model parameter
one can define a sensitivity coefficient. These
sensitivity coefficients depend on the choice of
model, the spatial coordinates, the time variable,
the number and type of model parameters, and
the boundary conditions. For good sensitivity to
the parameters, all sensitivity coefficients should
be independent and as large as possible at the
locations and times of interest. Methods for
determining sensitivity coefficients are discussed
and some typical examples showing certain
important characteristics are presented. The
sensitivity coefficients can be used to estimate
variances and confidence intervals for the aquifer
parameters. The model sensitivity can be
increased for parameter estimation by applying
some general principles from sensitivity analysis.
Several examples of improved sensitivity are
presented.
4.1 DISCHARGE CAPACITY TEST
One of the final stages of the drilling work series is testing the
quantity of water to be exploited. The quantity of water can be
determined based on a pumping test so that the measured flow
and water level drop data can be obtained from the capacity of
the type of well or vice versa the decrease in the type of well.
The capacity of a well type is a measure of the production
capability of a well. The main targets for implementing this
pumping test are:
1. Aquifer Test

Aquifer testing or better known as the long-term constant rate

test method is intended for measuring parameters that are
horizontal to the test well, so several reinforcement wells are
needed around the test well. And this aquifer test is usually
accompanied by a recovery test or recurrence test, which is
the restoration of the groundwater level after being pumped.
2. Well Test

Aims to determine the capability of the well and does not

require a piezometer nearby and is simpler than aquifer
testing. This test places more emphasis on recording well
data/parameters vertically. From the measured discharge and
groundwater level, the specific capacity of the well can be
obtained which is expressed by the magnitude of the specific
drawdown which is expressed by the magnitude of the decline
for each unit of discharge.
Pumping tests are usually carried out using two methods:

1. Step-drawdown Test

Pada dasarnya dilaksanan setelah pelaksanaan konstruksi

sumur dan setelah pembersihan/penyempurnaan sumur atau
dengan kata lain tahap akhir dari rangkaian pekerjaan
pengeboran air tanah. Metode ini dilakukan dengan cara
mengukur penurunan muka air tanah di dalam sumur uji
dengan debit pemompaan yang ditambah secara bertahap.
2. Long-term constant rate Test

Aims to estimate the hydraulic properties of aquifer systems

such as transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, and storage
The pumping test procedure is carried out as follows:

1. Determine the monitoring well that will be tested for

pumping
2. Prepare the Water Level and launch it into the well
where the pumping test will be carried out. Measure the
groundwater level of the well before the test well is
pumped
3. Note the height of the groundwater level at the beginning
of the measurement
4. Start the pump and record the groundwater level
according to the measurement interval in the
measurement table. The measurement interval can be
seen in the example pumping test table
5. When the groundwater level remains constant for up to
three intervals, the pump can be turned off and the well
recovery measured
6. Note the water level in the well when the pump is turned
off
7. Repeat the measurement according to the interval in the
measurement table. Measurements are carried out to a
height so that the ground water returns to the level it was
before the pumping test was carried out
8. Data analysis of pumping test results
 4.2 BACK LEAKAGE TEST
THE BASICS OF LEAK INVESTIGATIONS

Performing water testing on non-fenestration building assemblies requires an understanding of all

types of construction, as well as significant knowledge of building science and the nature of the
materials. Water comes in many forms and it can sometimes move in mysterious ways. Plumbing
leaks are a typical cause of water issues, though they can also come from groundwater, rainwater
or condensation, or water vapor.

It is helpful to determine the origin of the leak, specifically if it is a plumbing leak or a weather-
related leak. Do the building assemblies leak only after a weather event or is it a constant leaker,
in which case it is likely a plumbing leak? Sometimes, as in the instance of a storm drain, it can
be both.

If it is a plumbing leak, the issue can be a supply line, waste line, storm drain, steam or hot water
heating, or condensate line. If the leak is coming from ductwork, it should be determined if the
water is condensation or stormwater.

If water is coming through the foundation wall it could be groundwater, a broken pipe, or an
underground stream. Sometimes specific water tests can help identify the source. The presence of
chlorine will generally indicate a municipal water main break, E. coli will indicate a sewer main
break, and the absence of either substance can indicate groundwater or an underground stream.
Some bacteria, but no E. coli, generally indicates surface stormwater.

Other details to identify are locating where the water has entered the interior and understanding
the general construction of the building. If water is appearing on the ceiling, what is the
construction of the ceiling? Is the ceiling a suspended gypsum board or is it a suspended ceiling
tile system? The answers to these questions on what these materials are, what the density of these
materials are, how thick they are, and how they are assembled are imperative to the beginning of
a leak investigation. Other questions to ask are:

 Are there nearby plumbing lines, storm drain lines, domestic water lines, steam lines, and
mechanical ductwork?

 Are there any layers of membranes or impermeable coatings?

 Are there chemical water repellents?

The next step is to investigate the ceiling cavity, if included, and look at the floor or roof above.
Sometimes, destructive probes may be necessary to carefully look at each layer of material,
almost in a way that an archeologist carefully removes layer after layer of material. A coating can
sometimes be nothing more than a thin discolored layer that can easily be overlooked.

Leak from suspended ceiling. Measure location relative to exterior walls and windows in two
directions so the leak can be located from the roof.

The suspended ceiling space directly above the underside of the roof slab.
 Look for discolored or wet spots, water, or rust stains from the pipe sleeve.

Pair of pipe sleeves located on the roof and measured from exterior walls or parapets
corresponding to the pipe sleeves observed below.

Close examination of pipe sleeves reveals the sloppy or partial application of silicone sealant
where absorptive and still-wet fiberglass insulation is partially exposed to the elements. In this
instance, the source of the leak was clear, and no water test was needed.

SURFACE TENSION

A 360° view around the entire leak area is a vital next step to see if the water is traveling
horizontally. Though a leak might be located inside, it often does not always correspond directly
to a leak on the roof immediately above it. For instance, water could drip down a sloped rafter or
framing member and travel along that framing member before it drips down to the ceiling where
it becomes visible. The surface tension of water can surprisingly change the direction of a leak a
far distance.
Surface tension and the lack of a simple drip edge can have lasting effects on a leaking situation.
In the photo below, the lack of a proper drip edge from the balcony slab above was one of several
factors that caused the water infiltration and collapse of the gypsum-based fascia and soffit.

ROOF DRAIN LEAK INVESTIGATION EXAMPLE:

In another example, a roof drain and drain flashing were suspected to be leaking after a heavy
downpour. The drain is a JR Smith 1083 Raintrol drain that allows for stormwater flow rate
adjustment. These drains were installed throughout the roof to slow the flow of stormwater which
was often overwhelming the building’s stormwater system. During a downpour, leaks occurred
two floors below the roof. Rimkus tested the drain and drain flashing at the roof first by removing
the strainers and plugging the drain with an expanding drain plug. Approximately 4” of water and
an area of about 5’- 6’ in diameter was flood tested for about 30 mins. No water was observed in
the chase or on the pipe. The drain plug was then removed and within 30 seconds, water was
observed streaming down the side of the drainpipe.

Wall opening
 3” cast iron storm drain line

THE PROCESS OF ELIMINATION

By first testing the roof drain and flashing, we were able to conclude that the breach in the system
shown above was not in the roof membrane or drain body, but actually somewhere in the drain
line between the drain body and the location of the opening in the plumbing chase wall.

Using the process of elimination and isolating the area being wetted are two key steps to take.
This way, when it does leak, you can accurately attribute the leak to a specific location or
component of construction. It is also vital to allow sufficient time for water to migrate or work its
way through the material or construction assembly. If the process is rushed, it is easy to
mistakenly attribute the leak location at a later stage of the test, when the leaking may have
occurred at an earlier stage in the testing. If spray testing with a garden hose or spray bar,
remember, because of gravity and the nature of water flow, you need to “start low” and work
your way up higher in elevation along the slope, up the wall, or up all the key construction
assemblies to the highest suspected breach point.

SEQUENCING THE TEST BY STARTING LOW

For example, the photo below shows a second-floor terrace where leaks were reported below the
terrace floor under the brick walls.
 The water testing sequence followed the “start low” rule

A wet spot was observed after about 25 minutes after stage two of testing

Breach found in EPDM base flashing

 The roof slab construction was concrete, so at least one hour was needed to allow for the water to
work its way through the concrete. Windowsills were tested for 1⁄2 hour because leaks usually
become evident more quickly through sheet metal. In this investigation, we found the breach in
the EPDM base flashing. The roof was covered with rigid insulation board and pavers which
were removed before water testing.

Sometimes it is a good idea to reconfirm your findings, especially if water is slow to migrate
through dense construction materials. You can stop your test, lower the water level to the prior
test stage in a flood test, or stop spraying, observe the reduced flow, (sometimes by counting the
rate of droplets per minute ), and then retest the area and re-observe the flow rate change. This
additional observation will take some extra time, but allows for more certainty in finding the
source of the leak.

In the roof drain example above, we did not “start low” since we were only testing two possible
assemblies: 1) The roof and drain body and 2) the drain line below the roof. We used the water
collected on the roof to test the drain line, which best simulated torrential rain and provided a
sufficient volume of water to adequately test the drain line. A garden hose suspended in the drain
line may not have provided enough water volume to adequately test the drain line.

In conclusion, no two leak investigations are exactly alike. Some leak investigations are resolved
in 20 minutes, and others can take several years to fully resolve. Due to complex constructions,
sometimes leaks can have several sources. It can take a long time to cycle through several
investigations, tests, and repair cycles before all sources are discovered and repaired. Some final
notes on important things to remember when water testing:

 Be aware of where water is flowing and be wary of letting the test go on for too long.

 Do not test overnight unless it is fully monitored or there is no chance of potential water damage.

 All tests need to closely be monitored with a second person with two-way communication from
the inside so the water test can be stopped immediately once water infiltration is observed.

 Take note of each test stage’s start times, dwell times, and end times: letting a water test run too
long can sometimes result in unintended leaks and costly water damage to adjacent areas.

 Be patient and thorough!

THANK YOU