Muthyala Udaya

Chada Ramamuni Reddy Editors

Vocabulary,
Corpus and
Language
Teaching
A Machine-Generated Literature
Overview
Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching
Muthyala Udaya • Chada Ramamuni Reddy
Editors

Vocabulary, Corpus and

Language Teaching
A Machine-Generated Literature Overview
Editors
Muthyala Udaya Chada Ramamuni Reddy
Armsburg Alluri Apartments, Flat 403 Department of ESL Studies
Hyderabad, Telangana, India English and Foreign Languages University
Hyderabad, Telangana, India

ISBN 978-3-031-45985-6    ISBN 978-3-031-45986-3 (eBook)

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Introduction

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v
Contents

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
2 Vocabulary and Acquisition��������������������������������������������������������������������    7
3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies��������������������������������������   45
4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning ����������������������������������������������������������������   81
5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies���������������������������������������������������������� 119
6 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 145

vii
Chapter 1
Introduction

In the modern world, innovation is one of the main driving forces of economic and
social development. AI research and development technologies have a special place
in the science world since they help solve many problems. In particular, AI & Ml
resolve one of the most critical issues for researchers: data analysis. As huge
amounts of data make it difficult to find relevant information necessary for research-
ers, AI quickly solves such issues with a single search and extracts patterns. It helps
researchers discover data similarities; it helps make decisions by revealing insights
that scientists have missed. Artificial intelligence and machine learning appeared in
the middle of the last century. In recent years, thanks to the emergence of new fun-
damental techniques, the availability of huge amounts of accumulated data, and the
development of hardware capacities, interest in this technology has reached its
peak. Machine-generated literature overviews are automatically generated summa-
ries of already published SN research publications. The algorithm identifies relations
between articles and chapters and clusters the summaries into a table of contents.
The summaries in orient themselves on the original structure of the chapters and
articles, which means you can also have small summaries of each subsection.
This book attempts to help ESL/EFL researchers and teachers understand the
domain of vocabulary instruction in the field of language education and learning.
Vocabulary is the core of language, and words are important to a typical language
learner. Nonetheless, researchers and teachers in the field of language acquisition
undervalued the role of vocabulary by prioritising syntax or phonology, which are
central to linguistic theory and more critical to language pedagogy. Therefore, in
recent years, ESL/EFL vocabulary acquisition has become an increasingly interesting
topic for researchers, teachers, curriculum designers, theorists, and others involved
in language teaching and learning.
The chapters in this book are grouped together to provide balanced research
coverage and help young researchers activate their knowledge in less time. The
preface provides a framework for the rest of the book by introducing the main
aspects: Vocabulary and acquisition; vocabulary teaching and learning strategies;

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_1
2 1 Introduction

vocabulary information technology for vocabulary learning; corpus-based vocabu-

lary research; and current practises are some of the topics covered in this book.
In doing so, it emphasises the sub-topics that have received the most attention in
the literature: (1) Discussions of various vocabulary acquisition teaching methods;
(2) Different types of vocabulary enhancement teaching and learning strategies; (3)
Integrating ICT in vocabulary teaching to promote better learning; and (4) Corpus
studies with functional references.
Second or Foreign Language Vocabulary Acquisition will be of great interest to
those interested in current views on the nature of L1-L2 vocabulary acquisition and
approaches to vocabulary instruction. Based on these criteria, the summaries pre-
sented in part I focus on various aspects such as self-efficacy beliefs and academic
achievement, with instructional interventions demonstrating that learning strategies
enhance task-related cognitive sets. Another study focused on English morphologi-
cal awareness plays an important role in French vocabulary acquisition because L1
plays an important role in L2 acquisition. According to Wysocki and Jenkins’ (1987)
research on morphological generality, increasing vocabulary size leads to a higher
level of abstract morphological perception than base and suffix recognition,
especially for sixth and eighth graders. Additionally few studies found that writing
morphology aids in recognising meaning cues in complex words and enriches the
vocabulary of fourth and fifth graders. Krashens’ monitor model also helps in
understanding incomprehensible inputs and the ability to successfully translate for-
eign words and generate situational models for understanding. Future research may
aim to determine the optimal number of spell exposures required to ensure adequate
knowledge of words in memory.
In Part II the contrast to “GroupLens” collaborative filtering algorithm, Estrand
et al.’s (2010) collaborative filtering theory focuses on making and testing vocabu-
lary learning tools, which are a powerful way for users to sort through large amounts
of information and goods. The teaching and learning of languages in a setting that
makes use of technology is a useful alternative to conventional education. Depending
on the way they are taught, when students read new texts, books, poems, articles, or
other materials, they use different strategies to learn new words. These strategies
assist in teacher and peer-scaffolding from a sociocultural perspective, resulting in
the application of collaborative techniques (scaffolding). To add, one important
strategy is metacognition, which has two aspects: knowledge of cognition (i.e., to
know what, how, when, and why to use strategies); and regulation of cognition:
metacognitive control strategies, such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and self-­
evaluation [1]. Few studies discussed how learners’ needs are involved in cognitive
VLS and how to enhance their awareness of and mastery of metacognition. All the
teaching techniques are covered here, along with some intriguing ideas on self-
regulation. The focus is on students’ self-­initiation, or their own deliberate efforts to
control their learning process [2]. Instead of just teaching cognitive skills, Schunk
and Ertmer [3] say that motivating factors like task interest and self-efficacy should
also be taught in order to improve and help students use self-regulatory mecha-
nisms. Young children’s vocabulary development is aided by teachers’ detailed
explanations of the target word meanings during story readings [4]. Children engaged
1 Introduction 3

in word explanations through interactive education strategies that allow them to

relate the word meanings to book pictures, story plots, and background information
have significant short- and long-term effects on vocabulary learning. For language
to be learned by inference rather than dictionary searches, learners must have expe-
rience in using this strategy. Therefore, word learning improves from interventions
that provide students the opportunity to practice inferencing strategies. Interventions
help learners get acquainted with inferencing techniques and have a positive effect
on word learning. Another interesting study is using well-known songs promote the
acquisition of new vocabulary in EFL learners, with “chanting” and “music videos
with caption” techniques. This strategy developed an English vocabulary learning
application using gamification and cloud intelligence approaches, using the promi-
nent features of smartphones that provide learners with long-lasting incentive.
In Part III, the selected summaries present a reflection on the influence of
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on acts of learning and new
ways of teaching. Research on the effects of three different types of electronic tex-
tual glosses, tooltip-type glossing, frame-type glossing, and concordance glossing,
on foreign language vocabulary learning are studied along with a the third type that
provides authentic concordance sentences for glossed words. Exposing learners to
authentic concordance sentences, and comparing their effects with the two different
formats of glossing is an interesting research summary followed by the effects of
E-flashcards and paper flashcards on vocabulary learning and learner attitudes.
E-flashcards (or digital flashcards).types of multimedia-assisted vocabulary learn-
ing materials, have been found to positively impact second language (L2) learners’
word attainment [5, 6]. Perceived competence refers to student beliefs about their
ability to do well in an academic environment (Ryan and Deci 36). Self-determination
theory suggests that humans have innate needs for autonomy and perceived compe-
tence. Autonomous learning is seen as having control over what, when, where, and
how students learn, as well as how their needs and interests are respected by teach-
ers and other stakeholders [7]. Augmented reality (AR) is useful for supporting
ubiquitous learning in authentic environments. It is a type of multimedia learning
theory that creates a stronger connection between the digital content and the real
environment. One of the studies focussed on the effects of multimedia annotations
on incidental vocabulary learning and employing on-screen tests where visual ele-
ments are incorporated in hypermedia environments. Electronic and Paper Textual
Glosses summary examined the effectiveness of electronic and paper textual glosses
on second language vocabulary learning and reading comprehension within a cog-
nitive load theory framework. The electronic glossing condition was also the most
efficient in light of the cognitive load framework, showing the highest instructional
efficiency. Self-­directed learning on paper and mobile application flashcards is
asstudy that explored vocabulary learning outcomes by using paper and mobile
application flashcards. The study used a repeated measures design, by exposing the
participants to different learning conditions. The findings underscore the long-term
impacts of mobile-assisted vocabulary learning, and the affordances provided by
such platforms for learning a considerable number of words by EFL learners. ESL
Players’ Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies in Massively Multiplayer Online
4 1 Introduction

Role-­Playing Games (MMORPG) is an innovative study that investigated the impact

of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) on players’
application of vocabulary learning strategies. Apart from identifying the vocabulary
learning strategies used by the ESL players during online gaming, in order to find
out how aspects related to MMORPG influence the use of strategies. Using Gu and
Johnson’s [8] categorisation of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS), it was found
that these ESL players utilise metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation
strategies in order to learn game-related vocabulary during the MMORPG game-
play sessions.
Review summaries for Part IV provide an introduction to corpora and terminol-
ogy. As corpora may be implemented to improve learner language development and
used as effective tools for improving vocabulary teaching and learning, corpora
have a direct implications for classroom instruction. A new pedagogy called corpus-­
based language pedagogy (CBLP) is offered as a novel way to incorporate corpora
into the classroom and support instructors’ instruction as very few summaries
convey fundamental ideas connected to corpora. Corpus linguistics and classroom
pedagogy are combined in CBLP. To assist instructors in creating successful
corpus-based lessons, four design elements are shown. Finally, a few significant
concerns are brought forward to assist teachers in developing corpus-based lesson
designs.
The first summary is about the KELLY project, and it includes work on develop-
ing monolingual and bilingual word lists for language learning, using corpus meth-
ods, for nine languages and 36 language pairs. It presents the approach to preparing
the list for each language. Was as follows: Identify the corpus. Generate a frequency
list (the ‘Monolingual 1’ or ‘M1’ list) Clean up the list, and compare it with lists
from other corpora and other wordlists. Make adjustments to give the ‘M2’ list
Translate each item into all the other KELLY languages (the ‘Translation 1’ or ‘T1’
list) Use the ‘back translations’ to identify items for addition or deletion. Make
further adjustments to give the final M3 list. Another study focuses on using word
lists where the vocabulary is checked for being common (frequent) versus rare
(infrequent) in readability analysis where texts are analysed for their lexical fre-
quency profiles. One perspective is about how linguistic and sociocognitive factors
designate when, why, and how speakers say “sorry” and “I’m sorry” in two corpora
of American spoken English, namely, the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken
English (MICASE) and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
within pragmatic and socio-cognitive dimensions, hoping to bridge corpus linguis-
tics and discourse analysis. Following Liu and Myers’ approach (2020), one of the
studies characterised the most common meaning senses of 150 PVs (a lexical verb
and a particle) [9] among 500 TED talk transcripts based on corpus analyses and
frequency information of meaning senses. Antconc, a computer program, was
adopted to locate sentences in the TED Talks. A Study of Modal and Usage of
Modal Verbs in the UCC (Uniform Commercial Code) and conducted a socio-
semantic interpretation. An innovative study that highlights this section is combin-
ing intelligent machine algorithms with Japanese text sentiment classification. That
provides a theoretical reference for subsequent natural language research. Through
1 Introduction 5

various comparative analyses, it shows that the research model has good compre-
hensive performance, meets the needs of the sentiment classification system, and
can provide theoretical reference for related research. Lastly, one of the intriguing
research that examines how gender is represented in EFL textbooks is Gender
Construction in Teaching Materials by Combining Critical Discourse Analysis and
Corpus Linguistics. The proof of a long-standing stereotype that domestic labour is
seen as socially acceptable for women mirrors prior gender-based discourse studies
[10]. The empirical evidence indicates that the textbook authors constructed gender
stereotypes in terms of sports and reading.

Bibliography

1. Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C. Wittrock
(Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 315–327). Macmillan.
2. Schunk, D. H., & Ertmer, P. A. (2000). Self-regulation and academic learning: Self-
efficacy enhancing interventions. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.),
Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 631–649). Academic. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/
B978-012109890-2/50048-2” https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50048-2
3. Zimmerman, B. J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Self-regulatory dimensions of academic learn-
ing and motivation. In G. D. Phye (Ed.), Handbook of academic learning: Construction of
knowledge (pp. 105–125). Academic.
4. Biemiller, A., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building vocabulary in primary
grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 44–62.
5. BaŞoğlu, E. B., & Akdemir, Ö. (2010). A comparison of undergraduate students’ English
vocabulary learning: Using mobile phones and flash cards. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, 9(3), 1–7.
6. Chuang, H. Y., & Ku, H. Y. (2011). The effect of computer-based multimedia instruction with
Chinese character recognition. Educational Media International, 48, 27–41.
7. Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during
a learning activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 209.
8. Gu, Y., & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning out-
comes. Language Learning, 46, 643–679.
9. Garnier, M. & Schmitt, N. (2015). The PHaVE List: A pedagogical list of PVs and their
most frequent meaning senses. Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 645–666. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1362168814559798.
10. Barton, A., & Sakwa, L. N. (2012). The representation of gender in English textbooks in
Uganda. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 20(2), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/0218879
1.2014.924388
Chapter 2
Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1 Machine Generated Summaries

Disclaimer: The summaries in this chapter were generated from Springer Nature
publications using extractive AI auto-summarization: An extraction-based summa-
rizer aims to identify the most important sentences of a text using an algorithm and
uses those original sentences to create the auto-summary (unlike generative AI). As
the constituted sentences are machine selected, they may not fully reflect the body
of the work, so we strongly advise that the original content is read and cited. The
auto generated summaries were curated by the editor to meet Springer Nature pub-
lication standards. To cite this content, please refer to the original papers.
Machine generated keywords: child, morphological, children, build, beck, carl-
isle, bilingual, young child, intervention, young, morphologically, biemiller, vocab-
ulary instruction, growth, vocabulary word.

2.1.1 Self-Efficacy, Task Complexity and Task Performance:

Exploring Interactions in Two Versions of Vocabulary
Learning Tasks [94]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Wu, Xiaoli; Lowyck, Joost; Sercu, Lies; Elen, Jan: Self-efficacy, task complexity
and task performance: Exploring interactions in two versions of vocabulary
learning tasks [94]
Published in: Learning Environments Research (2012)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-­012-­9098-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 7

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_2
8 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The present study aimed for better understanding of the
interactions between task complexity and students’ self-efficacy beliefs and stu-
dents’ use of learning strategies, and finally their interacting effects on task
performance.”
“Results indicated a significant task effect for self-efficacy beliefs and task per-
formance, and a significant interaction effect of sequence with task complexity for
learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in learning for both task versions, learners with higher
self-efficacy beliefs had better task performances than learners with lower self-­
efficacy beliefs.”
“The results also revealed a strong correlation between self-efficacy and the use
of learning strategies for both tasks.”

2.1.1.1 Introduction

“Taking into account the previous findings that students’ self-efficacy beliefs are
critical to academic achievement and instructional intervention [1–4], informed by
the tenets of social cognitive theory of self-efficacy [5] and the cognitive media-
tional paradigm of instructional design [6–9], the present study investigated the
interactions between task complexity and learners’ self-efficacy beliefs, learners’
self-efficacy beliefs and their use of learning strategies, and finally their interacting
effects on task performance.”
“In an effort to contribute to the insight into this research question, the present
study examined the interaction between instructional tasks and learners’ self-­
efficacy beliefs by manipulating the complexity of two language learning tasks.”
“Tasks at different levels of complexity can affect learners’ self-efficacy beliefs,
as well as demanding different metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies.”
“We were also interested to know whether tasks at different levels of complexity
would be perceived by students differently, as indicated in the variable of learners’
self-efficacy beliefs, and thus demand different use of meta-cognitive and cognitive
learning strategies to perform the tasks.”

2.1.1.2 Research Questions and Hypotheses

“In line with the review of literature above, we hypothesised that cognitively more-­
complex tasks challenge students’ self-efficacy beliefs more because there are more
elements (new declarative knowledge), namely, more new vocabulary items, to be
dealt with in performing the task.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 9

“Students’ self-efficacy beliefs for simple and complex tasks are different
depending on the specific version of the task that they perform.”
“How do learners’ self-efficacy beliefs about simple and complex versions of a
reading and EFL vocabulary learning task affect learning outcomes?”
“We hypothesised that self-efficacy belief would be positively related to task
performance on both tasks and that, at each task version, students with higher self-­
efficacy beliefs would perform better in the posttest following task execution.”

2.1.1.3 Research Method and Procedure

“Both simple and complex tasks required the participants to attend to a reading pas-
sage (of about 281 words), and each of the target words in the same manner.”
“Participants were also informed that, after they finished the task, their knowl-
edge of the target words would be tested.”
“Participants were asked to fill out the scale and indicate the frequency of using
these strategies on learning the target words in the text from 1 (Never) to 7 (Always).”
“Participants were asked to complete both the task self-efficacy and vocabulary
learning self-efficacy scales on this task.”
“The sources of our data were: task complexity, self-efficacy scores from two
scales, vocabulary post-tests and students’ learning strategy measures.”
“Results from the vocabulary pretest indicated that the target words were unfa-
miliar to the students participating in this study before the experiment.”

2.1.1.4 Results

“These results indicate that the task complexity differentials led to the mean score
differences in participants’ task self-efficacy, vocabulary learning self-efficacy and
task performance; however, results showed no significant task effect for the mean
scores for learning strategies (F (1, 70) = 0.01, p = 0.92).”
“Further analyses revealed a significant interaction effect for task sequence with
task complexity on learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in vocabulary learning (Wilks’
lambda = 0.94, F (1, 70) = 4.78, p = 0.03, eta2 = 0.06 and observed power = 0.58).”
“With regard to the complex task version, ANOVA revealed similar significant
overall effects for task self-efficacy (F (2, 67) = 5.63, p = 0.005, ES = 0.14) and
vocabulary learning self-efficacy (F (2, 64) = 10.83, p = 0.001, ES = 0.25) on the use
of learning strategies.”

2.1.1.5 Discussion and Conclusion

“In line with the theoretical background of the study presented earlier in this article
on task complexity and learners’ self-efficacy beliefs, we were interested to know
how differences in the cognitively-defined complexity of the tasks were reflected in
10 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

learners’ perceptions of their capabilities to perform on the task and learners’ per-
formance on the task.”
“Further analysis of the change in self-efficacy beliefs for the two experimental
groups at four measure points showed that the order in which simple and complex
versions were performed had an interaction effect with task complexity for learners’
ratings of their confidence in performing the tasks.”
“The study examined the effects of increasing task complexity on learners’ self-­
efficacy beliefs along a number of dimensions.”
“Our results show that students’ self-efficacy beliefs are significantly correlated
to their use of cognitive learning strategies for both task versions, and vocabulary
learning self-efficacy belief is positively related to task performance for the sim-
ple task.”

2.1.2 The Crossover Effects of Morphological Awareness

on Vocabulary Development Among Children in French
Immersion [95]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Lam, Katie; Chen, Xi: The crossover effects of morphological awareness on vocab-
ulary development among children in French immersion [95]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2017)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­017-­9809-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2017
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The purpose of the current study was to explore longitudi-
nally the bidirectional cross-language effects between morphological awareness
and vocabulary development across English and French over 1 year.”
“All were non-native speakers of French, and demonstrated average English
word reading and vocabulary skills.”
“The Grade 1 students were assessed in English only at pretest, and in English
and French at post-test.”
“The Grade 2 students were assessed in English and French at both time points.”
“As predicted, regression analyses revealed that English inflectional awareness
predicted unique variance in French vocabulary among Grade 1 students.”
“Among Grade 2 students, cross-lagged analyses showed that both English
inflectional and English derivational awareness predicted gains in French vocabu-
lary between Grades 2 and 3.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 11

“Counter to our expectations, French morphological awareness did not predict

gains in English vocabulary over time.”

2.1.2.1 Introduction

“The purpose of the present study was to explore longitudinally the bidirectional
cross-language relations between morphological awareness and vocabulary among
emergent English-French bilingual children.”
“After more than two decades of research, there is now considerable evidence
that morphological awareness contributes to within-language vocabulary learning
in English (e.g., Carlisle [10]; Carlisle & Fleming [11]; Chen et al. [12]; Lam et al.
[13]; McBride-Chang et al. [14]; Nagy et al. [15]; Sparks & Deacon [16]) and in
French for both monolinguals and bilinguals (e.g., Colé et al. [17]).”
“Research examining the cross-language effects of morphological awareness on
vocabulary in English-French bilinguals is sparse, despite many shared morphologi-
cal features between the two languages (described below) that may facilitate such
transfer.”
“Given the key role that vocabulary plays in reading comprehension (e.g.,
McKeown et al. [18]; Ouellette [19]), identifying cognitive processes involved in
vocabulary growth leads to improved practices in vocabulary instruction, which
ultimately can facilitate bilingual children’s reading acquisition.”

2.1.2.2 Development of Morphological Awareness

“Inflectional awareness and derivational awareness have been observed to transfer

between English and Romance languages (e.g., French–English in Deacon and
others [20]; Spanish–English in Ramírez and others [21, 22]), as well as between
English and Semitic languages (e.g., Hebrew–English in Schiff & Calif [23];
Arabic–English in Saiegh-Haddad & Geva [24])—notably, all of these languages
frequently use inflectional and derivational morphology in forming morphologi-
cally complex words.”
“The majority of studies have focused on examining the transfer of morphologi-
cal awareness to facilitate word reading across languages (e.g., Deacon et al. [20];
Ramírez et al. [21]; Schiff & Calif [23]; Saiegh-Haddad & Geva [24]; Chung &
Ho [25])”
“Only a small number of studies have investigated cross-language relations
between morphological awareness and vocabulary in bilingual children (e.g.,
Ramírez et al. [22]; Hipfner-Boucher et al. [26])”
“The present study was designed to investigate bidirectionally the cross-language
relations between morphological awareness and vocabulary over 1 year by follow-
ing a cohort of Grade 1 students and a cohort of Grade 2 students enrolled in an
early French immersion program.”
12 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.2.3 Method

“Only seven children in the younger cohort and four children in the older cohort
were reported to speak English less than 25% of the time at home.”
“For half of the items, the stimulus word was a stem/base and the children were
required to produce an inflected/derived form of the stem/base word to complete the
sentence.”
“For the other half of the items, children were presented with an inflected/derived
word and were asked to identify the stem/base to complete a sentence.”
“The testing format was the same as the English morphological awareness tasks,
in which children were asked to produce the inflected/derived form of a stem/base
(e.g., Chanter: Ma soeur chante.) or the stem/base of an inflected/derived word to
complete the sentences presented (e.g., Heureuse: Aujourd’hui, Paul a l’air très
heureux).”
“Children were given three practice items prior to the testing items to ensure
understanding of the task.”

2.1.2.4 Results

“Final beta weights suggested that in addition to age and French word reading, both
types of English morphological awareness measured at Time 1 were unique predic-
tors of Time 2 French vocabulary.”
“Follow-up analyses with interaction terms were carried out to determine
whether the cross-language effects of English morphological awareness on French
vocabulary differed by children’s language status in the older cohort.”
“To determine whether the cross-language effects of French morphological
awareness on English vocabulary differed by children’s language status (i.e., EL1
vs. ELL), follow-up analyses were performed with interaction terms [27].”
“None of the interaction terms contributed significantly to English vocabulary
beyond the other predictors, thus indicating the effects of French morphological
awareness on English vocabulary did not differ between the EL1 and ELL children
in all the models.”

2.1.2.5 Discussion

“By adopting a longitudinal design with substantive controls in the present study,
we aimed to evaluate the cross-language associations between earlier morphologi-
cal awareness and later vocabulary across English and French, while accounting for
the maximum amount of spurious variance.”
“The current pattern of results is consistent with the hypothesis that there would
be significant cross-language associations between morphological awareness and
vocabulary in English and French, beyond substantial controls.”
“The association appears to be bidirectional: children’s earlier English morpho-
logical awareness transferred to predict variance in later French vocabulary; at the
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 13

same time, earlier French derivational awareness predicted significant variance in

later English vocabulary among the older cohort.”
“Results from the present study suggest that by the early elementary years, chil-
dren had developed sufficient morphological awareness in English to apply this
metalinguistic skill to their French vocabulary learning.”

2.1.2.6 Conclusion

“This study demonstrated that among English-speaking children who are at the
early stages in acquiring French as their additional language, English morphologi-
cal awareness plays an important role in acquiring French vocabulary.”
“Children who are better at manipulating morphemes and reflecting on morpho-
logical structures in English are also able to analyze and acquire novel French words
more efficiently.”
“Koda [28] has posited that in the initial stages of acquiring a second language,
morphological awareness from the learner’s first language is activated to serve as a
filter through which one begins to analyze, organize, and understand input from the
second language.”

2.1.3 
Word and Child Characteristics in Vocabulary Learning
of Native English Speakers and Bilingual Learners [96]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Zhang, Jie; Lo, Meng-Ting; Lin, Tzu-Jung: Word and child characteristics in vocab-
ulary learning of native English speakers and bilingual learners [96]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2022)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­022-­10293-­3
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2022
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This study investigated how word and child characteristics
affect children’s ability to learn the meanings of novel words.”
“Students were taught the meanings of a series of novel words that were either
morphologically related or unrelated.”
“Results showed that compared to the EL group, the NE and FEP groups were
better able to learn the meanings of morphologically related words than morpho-
logically unrelated words.”
14 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

“The effect of morphological relatedness on semantic learning was stronger for

the target words with familiar suffixes than with novel suffixes.”

2.1.3.1 Introduction

“The current study aims to investigate the extent to which word and child character-
istics affect children’s ability to use morphological cues (novel base words and
existing suffixes) to learn the meanings of novel derived words (e.g., skaffist) and
whether the relationships vary as a function of language status in native English
speakers and bilingual learners with fluent English proficiency and designated
English learners.”
“We investigated a variety of child attributes including gender, grade level (fourth
or fifth), language status (native English speakers-NE, fluent English proficient
learners-FEP, designated English learners-EL), working memory, morphological
awareness, word reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.”
“By taking both L1 and L2 status, and English proficiency level into account,
Author studied three groups of fourth- and fifth-grade students: native English
speakers, bilingual students with FEP and with EL, and found that the NE and FEP
groups, with equivalent English proficiency, showed no difference but both groups
were better able to use morphological analysis to infer new word meanings while
reading sentences than the EL group.”

2.1.3.2 The Present Study

“The current study investigated the word-level and child-level characteristics under-
lying a novel vocabulary learning paradigm that taps into the acquisition of lexical
morphology, which emphasizes the understanding of roots of complex derived
words [29], as well as derivation morphology that focuses on suffixes.”
“The word-level attributes included morphological relatedness (related, e.g.,
blick/ blickable vs. unrelated, e.g., yord/ slomness), word type (familiar vs. novel
suffixes), and morphological complexity (derived vs. root words).”
“Regarding the interaction effects between word and child characteristics, based
on the literature, we hypothesized that students with higher English proficiency (NE
and FEP) would be better than designated ELs at recognizing the morphological
relations among the target words and using morphology to define novel morpho-
logically complex words.”

2.1.3.3 Method

“Participants were administered three individual tasks: novel word learning, sen-
tence span, and backward digit naming, as well as other group measures: Extract the
Base, Suffix Choice, Word Reading Fluency, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 15

“Students completed a sentence by choosing an appropriate derivative given a

base word.”
“Of the 256 students included in the analysis, 194 (75.8%) had complete data,
whereas 8 (3.1%) had missing data on at least one or more test trial outcomes of the
word learning task.”
“Bayesian cross-classified multilevel logistic models were fitted to examine stu-
dents’ responses (i.e., 1 = correct response, 0 = incorrect response) on the novel
word learning task as a function of test trials, word-level, and child-level factors.”
“The models included random-effect estimates, allowing the intercept to vary by
child-level and word-level predictors and allowing the slope of test trials to vary
by students.”

2.1.3.4 Results

“The mean percentages of correct responses increased over time for all 12 items
regardless of language status, indicating that students performed better over
test trials.”
“Three significant interaction effects were found: test trials and word type, lan-
guage status and morphological relatedness, and word type and morphological
relatedness, while other interaction effects were not significant.”
“For students who learned the words with familiar suffixes, one test trial increase
was corresponding to a 1.409 [exp (0.343)] increase in the log-odds of the probabil-
ity of correct responses, which was higher than that of students who learned the
words with novel suffixes [1.244 = exp. (0.218)].”
“For the words with familiar suffixes, morphologically relatedness was corre-
sponding to a 1.422[exp(0.352)] increase in the log-odds of the probability of cor-
rect responses, which was higher than the novel suffixes condition [1.004 = exp.
(0.004)].”

2.1.3.5 Discussion

“The significant interaction between English language status and morphological

relatedness suggests that students with higher English proficiency (NE and FEP
groups) were more capable than the designated ELs to use morphological cues
among the target words to facilitate semantic learning.”
“The current word learning task requires making explicit links between suffixes
and lexical meanings, a more difficult and abstract level of morphological
awareness [30].”
“The current word learning task, especially for the subset of words with novel
suffixes, requires a more difficult and abstract level of morphological awareness
than recognizing bases and suffixes, because it involves chunking complex words
into meaningful parts and making links between suffixes and lexical meanings,
which Wysocki and Jenkins [31] found challenging even for sixth and eighth-grade
students.”
16 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.4 Effects of Morphological Instruction on Vocabulary

Acquisition [97]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Bowers, Peter N.; Kirby, John R.: Effects of morphological instruction on vocabu-
lary acquisition [97]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2009)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­009-­9172-­z
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The effects of a 20-session intervention targeting morpho-
logical word structure on vocabulary knowledge were investigated in four Grade 4
and 5 classes, assigned randomly to treatment and control conditions.”
“Hierarchical regression analyses controlling for initial vocabulary showed sig-
nificant instructional effects on morphological analysis and vocabulary with words
that were taught directly and novel words built on bases that were taught in the
context of other derivations, but not for words with untaught bases.”

2.1.4.1 Introduction

“Morphological instruction produced large immediate effects for deriving the

meaning of morphologically decipherable instructed words compared to a
comparison group who received vocabulary instruction about learning words from
(non-­morphological) context cues, and to a control group, but delayed effects
were small.”
“The morphological instruction in this study focused on 15 prefixes and five suf-
fixes and how to use the meaning of these word parts in conjunction with root words
(base words) to learn the meaning of new vocabulary words.”
“Teaching students to discover spelling-meaning connections between words via
a structured inquiry, problem-solving approach was intended to motivate children to
see studying word structure as an interesting, engaging activity in accordance with
researchers who encourage the development of “word consciousness” (e.g., Graves
[32]; Nagy & Scott [33]; National Reading Panel [34]).”
“This instruction used sets of morphologically related words to teach how to find
meaning cues in consistent spelling patterns.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 17

2.1.4.2 Method

“The scoring criteria were as follows: (1) two points were awarded for responses
that showed a clear understanding of the target word, including base or stem and
affixes, either by providing a definition, or by using the target word correctly in a
sentence. (2) One point was given to responses that either (a) gave a vague sense of
the meaning of the word by using it in a sentence, or (b) gave the meaning of one of
the main morphemes (e.g., the produce or the re of reproduce), or (c) gave a vague
sense of the meaning of one of the main morphemes by using it in a sentence. (3)
Zero points were given if participants gave no response or if their answer was not
connected to the meaning of target word.”
“To demonstrate a gain from instruction on these words, students would have to
apply knowledge of bases, affixes, and perhaps suffixing patterns to words that were
not explicitly taught.”

2.1.4.3 Results

“A 2 (group: experimental versus control) × 3 (Level of Transfer: near, medium, and

far) ANCOVA was performed, with repeated measures on the second factor repre-
sented by the three types of words (Word Taught, Base Taught, and Affix Taught,
respectively), for each of the outcome measures (Base Identification and
Morphological Vocabulary).”
“For each level of transfer, the group effect was significant, for the near transfer
measure, Word Taught, F(1, 78) = 39.49, p < .001, ŋ = 34, for the mid transfer
measure, Base Taught, F(1, 78) = 28.02, p < .001, ŋ = 26, and for the far transfer
measure Affix Taught, F(1, 78) = 13.33, p < .001, ŋ = 15.”
“The covariate was significant for each level of transfer: for the near transfer
measure, Word Taught, F(1, 79) = 35.6, p < .001, ŋ = .31; for the mid-transfer mea-
sure Base Taught, F(1,79) = 20.2, p < .001, ŋ = .20, and for the far transfer measure
Affix Taught, F(1, 79) = 18.86, p < .001, ŋ = .19.”

2.1.4.4 Discussion

“The first research question addressed whether students learn to identify the bases
of morphologically complex words as a result of the instruction.”
“Whether or not students received direct instruction about morphology, their
ability to identify the base in complex words contributed a significant amount of
variance to their knowledge of the words in the Morphological Vocabulary measure.”
“This study provides evidence that a 20-lesson classroom intervention for Grade
4 and 5 students can teach morphological analysis knowledge and skills that provide
them with a means to develop vocabulary beyond the words they are taught, but not
beyond the morphological families that they are taught.”
18 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

“The current study has shown that instruction about the details of written mor-
phology aids the ability of students in Grades 4 and 5 to recognize meaning cues in
complex words and build vocabulary.”

2.1.5 Acquiring Foreign Language Vocabulary Through

Meaningful Linguistic Context: Where Is the Limit
to Vocabulary Learning? [98]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

de la Garza, Bernardo; Harris, Richard Jackson: Acquiring Foreign Language
Vocabulary Through Meaningful Linguistic Context: Where is the Limit to
Vocabulary Learning? [98]
Published in: Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (2016)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-­016-­9444-­0
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The present studies examined the effects of varying degrees
of unfamiliar vocabulary within written discourse on individuals’ abilities to use
linguistic context for the purposes of translation and comprehension (i.e., lexical
inferencing).”
“Results indicated that, as the number of foreign words per sentence, i.e., non-­
comprehensible input, increased the ability to successfully translate foreign words
and create situational models for comprehension begins to decrease especially
beyond five unfamiliar words per sentence.”
“This result suggests that there is an optimal level of effectiveness in the use of a
linguistic context strategy for learning foreign language vocabulary, but also that
there is a limit to the strategy’s effectiveness.”

2.1.5.1 Introduction

“To better facilitate the vocabulary acquisition process, foreign language learners
may frequently implement numerous techniques in the hope of acquiring the new
vocabulary; yet, many leaners are quick to abandon a technique, or worse, leave
attempting to learn a language altogether, potentially due to discouragement at what
they see as substandard results.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 19

“The common feature that exists between all vocabulary learning techniques is
the hope that learners will be able to adequately acquire novel vocabulary.”
“The context learning vocabulary learning technique (i.e., Lexical Inferencing)
was evaluated for the purposes of acquiring foreign language vocabulary.”
“The present studies attempted to estimate the degree (i.e., the point) at which
vocabulary acquisition from linguistic context would begin to deteriorate; that is to
say, where does attempting to acquiring novel vocabulary become too difficult for
the novice learner when using a linguistic inferencing learning method?”

2.1.5.2 Learning Words in Context: Lexical Inferencing

“The use of linguistic context information and/or contextual cues for the identifica-
tion of unfamiliar words in one’s native language has been vastly explored; findings
suggest that in instances when unfamiliar vocabulary appears, individuals are often
able to accurately infer the meaning of the unknown word(s) based on the linguistic
discourse cues which have been provided [35, 36].”
“For learning unfamiliar words in the reader’s L1 (i.e., primary language) from
written context, individuals with a low degree of knowledge of the unfamiliar
vocabulary are able to use linguistic information (i.e., contextual cues) from written
text as a means to increase their L1 vocabulary knowledge [35–42], a result which
has been found for both children and adults [43–48].”
“Since language acquisition does not begin with higher level skills, it is critical
to understand at what point foreign language learners are no longer able to use lin-
guistic context strategies to acquire novel vocabulary.”

2.1.5.3 The Input and Involvement Load Hypotheses

“For successful acquisition, the L2 input would need to be slightly above the learn-
er’s base level of knowledge (i.e., the task would not be found to be too difficult or
too easy).”
“Applying these assumptions to the acquisition of the novel vocabulary, one can
propose that a new language learner’s i would approximate zero, since the individ-
ual is a novice learner who has had no exposure to the vocabulary being learned, and
thus any exposure to that vocabulary would be above their i (i.e., above their current
level of knowledge).”
“Based on these proposed assumptions for novel vocabulary acquisition, the cur-
rent studies examined if novice learners would be able to adequately acquire novel
vocabulary when utilizing a linguistic context vocabulary learning strategy, which
varied the number of foreign content words per sentence based on substitutions
made with Pseudo-Finnish or Spanish words.”
20 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.5.4 The Present Research

“Using the predictions made by both models (Input and Involvement Load
Hypotheses), Study 1 aimed to examine: (1) The utility of using a linguistic context
strategy as the number of substituted content words increases from 0 to 3 novel
words per sentence; (2) If substituting the number of primary content words, which
were in the reader’s native language (i.e., English), with 0–3 novel vocabulary
words (i.e., items which were either Pseudo-Finnish or Spanish words) would
impede the creation of situational models for comprehension.”
“When comparing monolinguals and bilinguals on Pseudo-Finnish translations,
however, Spanish–English bilinguals and English monolinguals scores should mod-
erately increase from pre- to post-test, since there continues to be a large degree of
contextual information that is known to those readers, although scores would at
some point begin to decline as increasing L1 comprehensible contextual informa-
tion is being lost due to the presence of more foreign words.”

2.1.5.5 General Discussion

“The findings from this study are consistent with the findings from Nagy et al. [35]
and Nagy et al. [36], who suggested that the use of the context learning method
would allow individuals to successfully infer the meaning of unknown vocabulary
in the learner’s L1, based on the surrounding cues given by the text or speech.”
“Even though this finding is of substantial interest, the most notable result stems
from the findings in Study 2; even though individuals found the context learning
method (i.e, lexical inferencing) to be useful for the identification of novel vocabu-
lary, there was a limit to the usefulness of this technique.”
“These findings provide support for Krashen’s Input Hypothesis model in which
it could be suggested that some of the basic properties of this model (e.g., degree of
comprehensible input) may be useful when attempting to understand the method by
which individuals are attempting to acquire information, either from a native or
foreign language.”

2.1.6 Improving the Acquisition of Novel Vocabulary Through

the Use of Imagery Interventions [99]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Cohen, Marisa T.; Johnson, Helen L.: Improving the Acquisition of Novel Vocabulary
Through the Use of Imagery Interventions [99]
Published in: Early Childhood Education Journal (2010)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-­010-­0408-­y
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 21

Copyright of the summarized publication:

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “A total of 15 students were randomly assigned to three dif-
ferent intervention conditions: Word Only, which involves the simple verbal presen-
tation of a vocabulary word; Dual Coding, in which a picture was paired with the
vocabulary word, and Image Creation, in which students were told to create a men-
tal picture of the vocabulary word in their mind and draw it on paper.”
“A Latin square design was used, in which each group of students rotated through
each of the interventions, being exposed to a different treatment condition for each
category of words.”
“While no statistical significance was shown between the interventions across
the word categories, a significant difference was found between the Image Creation
and Word Only interventions within the science terms category.”
“Students also reported that the imagery interventions facilitated the ease with
which they learned the words.”

2.1.6.1 Overview

“Reading comprehension is a skill which requires a student to recognize words in

text and understand their meanings.”
“While there are a variety of methods for enhancing reading comprehension, text
simply cannot be understood without knowledge of the words it contains.”
“Vocabulary instruction helps students understand the meaning of words, and is
crucial if students are to learn content from their school curricula.”

2.1.6.2 Literature Review

“Vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension are intertwined.”

“Enhancing the development and growth of the vocabularies of children enables
them to better comprehend what they read, as struggling readers’ comprehension
improves with vocabulary instruction [49].”
“Cunningham and Stanovich [50] have shown that knowledge of vocabulary
assessed in the first grade predicts over 30% of reading comprehension variance in
the 11th grade.”
“Vocabulary knowledge is a significant predictor of comprehension, as knowing
the meaning of the words in a text is necessary for understanding it [51].”
22 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

“There are a variety of techniques based upon different theoretical accounts

which can aid students in their development of word knowledge and reading com-
prehension, one of which is the dual coding theory.”
“In one condition, students were instructed to create images to help them remem-
ber vocabulary words.”

2.1.6.3 Present Study

“This preliminary study focused on three different interventions for presenting

vocabulary to second grade learners: a Dual Coding method, in which an index card
with a picture depicting the word was presented to the participants; an Image
Creation method, in which the participants were told to create an image of the word
in their heads and to draw the picture on paper; and Word Only, which involved the
verbal presentation of a word.”
“The interventions used in the present study increase the depth at which the
vocabulary is processed, by adding an imaginal component, and linking the verbal
code to the visual code.”
“Using this framework, the Image Creation method would be the intervention
which enables the vocabulary to be processed at the deepest level as the participant
must become active in forming an image and drawing it on paper.”

2.1.6.4 Hypotheses

“It was hypothesized that when students are instructed via imagery interventions,
they would demonstrate better mastery of the vocabulary than when presented with
only the word, because including both a verbal context and imagery creates a highly
effective combination for learning vocabulary [52].”
“Students should demonstrate higher levels of vocabulary acquisition after the
Dual Coding and Image Creation interventions compared with the Word Only
intervention.”
“The Image Creation presentation should be the second most effective interven-
tion in aiding vocabulary learning.”
“The least effective strategy for vocabulary learning would be the Word Only
presentation, as the word is only presented in one code: verbal, and thus only allows
for shallow processing.”

2.1.6.5 Methodology

“Three different interventions were utilized in this study to manipulate the amount
of imagery the students used when learning the vocabulary words: Dual Coding,
Image Creation, and Word Only.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 23

“Twenty-four hours following the instruction of each of the word categories,

students were assessed as to their comprehension of the words taught by an experi-
menter designed vocabulary test.”
“The researcher asked students in their groups to describe what methods they
used when attempting to learn and remember the vocabulary words that were pre-
sented to them.”
“Group B was trained using the Dual Coding presentation script, and was
instructed on the meanings of the seven vocabulary words via this intervention
method.”
“On the second day of experimentation, which occurred 24 h after the initial
instruction of words one to seven, students were tested on their vocabulary knowl-
edge of this first septuplet of words using the experimenter designed vocabu-
lary test.”

2.1.6.6 Statistical Analyses

“To handle the missing data, the scores for the outcome measures of the students
present in the group for that particular category and intervention were averaged.”
“To test if group placement affected the results of the vocabulary outcome mea-
sures, a one-way ANOVA was carried out.”
“To examine any effects due to the interventions the students used across the
word categories, a repeated measures analysis was carried out.”
“Data were separated by category of words, to examine if there were any inter-
esting trends within each category, and an additional three-one-way ANOVAs were
carried out.”

2.1.6.7 Results

“There was no statistically significant difference between the interventions

F(2,24) = .170, p = .845.”
“It is interesting to note that the mean of the Dual Coding group was 4.00 words
correct, which was higher than the Image Creation group (M = 3.58) and Word Only
group (M = 3.50), but the difference was not statistically significant.”
“The first one-way ANOVA examining the differences between the three inter-
ventions for the animals and habitats category did not demonstrate significant dif-
ferences between them F(2,12) = .894, p = .435.”
“The second one-way ANOVA, examining the differences between the three
interventions within the musical instrument words, did not show a significant differ-
ence either F(2,12) = .968, p = .408.”
“The third one-way ANOVA examining the differences between the three inter-
ventions within the science terms, demonstrated a significant difference
F(2,12) = 6.500, p = .012.”
24 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.6.8 Discussion

“Within the science terms category, the vocabulary outcome measure showed a sig-
nificant difference between the Image Creation intervention participants and those
in the Word Only intervention.”
“Most of the students said that the interventions that used images, Image Creation
and/or Dual Coding, had been the most helpful in aiding them with the memoriza-
tion of the vocabulary words.”
“It is interesting to note, that while the Image Creation intervention was signifi-
cantly more effective than Word Only for the science terms, many students described
the former method as being difficult.”
“Many students mentioned that the Image Creation intervention would have
been more helpful if they were allowed to keep the pictures they drew or were given
examples of types of pictures they were supposed to draw.”
“Students reported that the imagery interventions were more effective than the
Word Only condition.”

2.1.6.9 Concluding Remarks

“During the small group discussions students also reported that imagery facilitated
the ease with which they remembered the vocabulary words.”
“Even with these outside influences, the students reported learning a great deal
and seemed to enjoy the exercises and strategies they were taught.”
“The end result was also clear; vocabulary strategies involving imagery influence
learning.”
“Despite the type of intervention that is implemented, teachers must remember
to stress the importance of vocabulary learning and reading comprehension strate-
gies early on, both to further assist those who are doing well in continuing to learn
and to bridge the achievement gap between students.”

2.1.7 Phonological Decoding Enhances Orthographic

Facilitation of Vocabulary Learning in First
Graders [100]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Chambrè, Susan J.; Ehri, Linnea C.; Ness, Molly: Phonological decoding enhances
orthographic facilitation of vocabulary learning in first graders [100]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2019)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­019-­09997-­w
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 25

Copyright of the summarized publication:

Springer Nature B.V. 2019
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The purpose was to determine whether having students
decode the spellings of vocabulary words improves word learning over passive
exposure to spellings, and whether both treatments boost word memory compared
to no spelling exposure.”
“Students were taught the pronunciations and meanings of unfamiliar words over
several test trials with feedback, one set with spellings present during learning but
not when recall was tested, and one set with no spellings present.”
“Results revealed that students remembered words better when spellings were
seen than not seen during learning and on delayed posttests.”
“Students who decoded spellings learned pronunciations and meanings better
during the learning trials compared to students who only viewed spellings, but the
advantage of decoding declined one and 7 days later.”
“This was supported by a posttest showing that spellings were written more
accurately when students had seen them than when they had not, with decoding
producing better recall than exposure.”

2.1.7.1 Introduction

“Studies of orthographic facilitation have examined not only whether learners

remember pronunciations of vocabulary words better but also whether they learn
meanings better when exposed to spellings.”
“The current study extended previous studies by examining orthographic facili-
tation effects in low SES first-graders to determine whether having students decode
the spellings of words would enhance memory for their pronunciations and mean-
ings compared to exposure without decoding and compared to no exposure to
spellings.”
“The following research questions were addressed: 1. Will low SES first-graders
learn the pronunciations and meanings of vocabulary words better when they hear
and see the spellings of words during learning but not during testing compared to
when they only hear but do not see spellings? 2. Will having students explicitly
decode the spelling of words enhance vocabulary learning of pronunciations and
meanings more than drawing no attention to the spellings? 3. Will orthographic
facilitation of pronunciations and meanings still be evident 1-day and 1 week after
the words have been learned?”
26 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.7.2 Methods

“Students were randomly assigned to one or the other of two vocabulary learning
conditions in which they were exposed to spellings of six words.”
“Students in both conditions learned a second set of six vocabulary words with-
out spellings following identical procedures.”
“For both sets of words, students were taught pronunciations and meanings dur-
ing an initial study trial and during feedback periods on nine test trials.”
“In learning six words with spellings, students began with an initial study trial
that preceded nine test trials.”
“Each word card was shown with its spelling printed beneath the picture, the
tester pronounced the word and gave its definition, and students repeated the word.”
“To prompt memory for pronunciations, students were shown each picture of the
words with no spellings present.”
“All students learned one set of vocabulary words with spellings and one set
without spellings in a repeated measure design.”

2.1.7.3 Results

“To assess effects over trials, an ANOVA was conducted with treatment group,
spelling exposure, and test trial as the independent variables, and recall of pronun-
ciations as the dependent variable.”
“To assess effects on learning, an ANOVA was conducted with treatment group,
spelling exposure, and test trial as the independent variables, and recall of defini-
tions as the dependent variable.”
“Findings showed that both exposure to orthography and directing students’
attention to spellings through decoding helped students learn meanings as well as
pronunciations of vocabulary words.”
“The absence of an effect of test point shows that students’ recall of pronuncia-
tions did not decline significantly from 1 day to 1 week, and the benefit of spelling
exposure persisted.”
“Decoding skill contributed less because the experimenter gave feedback by tell-
ing students how to read the words, this may have compensated for any decoding
skill deficiency and enabled weaker decoders to map spellings onto pronunciations
in memory to support recall on the test trials.”

2.1.7.4 Discussion

“The addition of having students decode words may have provided extra practice
that enhanced immediate memory for the learning events but did not strengthen the
long-term bonding between spellings and pronunciations in memory.”
“Even though children cannot decode words, if someone tells them how to read
the word, they can form at least a partial mapping between the spelling and pronun-
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 27

ciation and hence store these connections in memory to advance their

vocabulary learning.”
“The current study suggests two procedures that hold promise of improving
vocabulary learning: exposing students to the spellings of novel words along with
their pronunciations and meanings; and enhancing students’ attention to spellings
by having them decode the words as they learn pronunciations and meanings.”
“Findings from this study suggest that in addition to oral explanations and con-
text examples, teachers might adopt the habit of having students view and decode
novel words to connect spellings to pronunciations and meanings in memory.”

2.1.7.5 Conclusion

“Present findings show that even children as young as first-grade can map spellings
onto pronunciations to learn vocabulary words.”
“The best way to insure that alphabetic foundational knowledge is acquired and
that students learn to decode unfamiliar words is to implement systematic phonics
instruction in the early grades [53, 54].”
“Decoding speeds up the learning of new words, both their pronunciations and
meanings, compared to implicit exposure to spellings, and it better secures correct
spellings of the words in memory.”
“Results suggest the value of integrating spelling exposure and decoding into
vocabulary instruction in order to improve students’ learning of new words, espe-
cially students at risk for below-grade-level vocabulary knowledge.”
“Results support connectionist theories of word learning, specifying that
grapheme-­phoneme connections are activated either through decoding or passive
exposure and serve to secure spellings to pronunciations in memory and enhance
the lexical quality of vocabulary words [55–57].”

2.1.8 Incidental Vocabulary Learning for Primary School

Students: The Effects of L2 Caption Type and Word
Exposure Frequency [101]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Teng, Feng: Incidental vocabulary learning for primary school students: the effects
of L2 caption type and word exposure frequency [101]
Published in: The Australian Educational Researcher (2018)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-­018-­0279-­6
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Australian Association for Research in Education, Inc. 2018
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
28 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Research has emphasized classroom-based learning of
vocabulary knowledge, with growing focus on the potential for using captioned
videos and increased word encounters.”
“The present study investigated the effects of various captioning conditions (i.e.
full captioning, keyword captioning, and no captions), the number of word encoun-
ters (one and three), and the combinations of these two variables on incidental learn-
ing of new words while viewing a video.”
“A total of 257 primary school students learning English as a second language
(ESL) were divided into six groups and randomly assigned to a condition in which
15 target lexical items were included.”
“A post-test, measuring the recognition of word form/meaning and recall of word
meaning, was administered immediately after participants viewed the video.”
“The combination of full captioning and three encounters was most effective for
incidental learning of lexical items.”
“This quasi-experimental study contributes to the literature by providing evi-
dence which suggests that captioned videos coordinate two domains (i.e. auditory
and visual components) and help ESL learners to obtain greater depth of word form
processing, identify meaning by unpacking language chunks, and reinforce the
form-meaning link.”

2.1.8.1 Introduction

“Educators in Australia and worldwide have generally acknowledged the potential

for using captioned videos to enhance primary school learners’ vocabulary develop-
ment, an important part of English language learning that carries long-term implica-
tions for future academic development.”
“Online processing demands pose challenges to vocabulary learning through
audio–visual input [58], exploring whether the various sources of information in
captioned videos can be processed simultaneously for learners’ incidental vocabu-
lary learning is of interest.”
“This limitation suggests a need to investigate the interplay between types of
captions and word exposure frequency for incidental vocabulary learning.”
“The combination of captioned videos and word exposure frequency may pro-
vide theoretical and practical possibilities to enhance incidental vocabulary learning
in primary school students.”

2.1.8.2 Literature Review

“Findings showed a positive effect of captions on the word form learning, but not on
the learning of meaning for the Belgian English learners.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 29

“Rodgers [59] proposed an average correlation (r = 0.30) between word exposure

frequency and incidental vocabulary learning in a vocabulary test administered after
viewing a captioned video.”
“The present study will thus provide substantial insight into incidental vocabu-
lary learning from captions, specifically by addressing the following questions: 1.
To what extent does incidental learning of new words differ between three caption-
ing types—full captioning, keyword captions, and no captions—when the three
conditions include the same number of encounters with target words? 2. To what
extent does incidental learning of new words differ between the two conditions
involving different word occurrence frequencies (i.e. one and three) for each cap-
tioning type? 3. To what extent does incidental learning of new words differ between
specific combinations of word exposure frequency and captioning conditions?”

2.1.8.3 Method

“Considering participants’ vocabulary levels, the author assumed that learners

would not struggle to comprehend videos with 95% of their words assessed at lower
than the 2000-word level [60], allowing them to focus on extracting the meaning of
the target words.”
“Based on a pilot study involving a group of learners with similar proficiency
levels and backgrounds, the 2000-word level was deemed suitable for participants
in this study; the participating teachers also confirmed the suitability of this
instrument.”
“The first part measured receptive form recognition in which the learners were
required to select “yes” if the target word appeared in the clip or “no” if it did not.”
“All students were asked to watch the video and focus on its content without
being aware of the main objective of the experiment (i.e. to assess the effect of cap-
tioning types and the frequency of word occurrences).”

2.1.8.4 Results

“The results showed a significant main effect of type of captioning on the three test
parts [Wilk’s lambda F(3, 254) = 19.20, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.08].”
“The analysis also revealed a significant main effect of word exposure frequency
on the three test parts [Wilk’s lambda F(3, 254) = 18.20, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.07].”
“A significant interaction effect was not detected between type of captioning and
word exposure frequency [Wilk’s lambda [F(3, 254) = 18.26, p > 0.05].”
“Irrespective of test types, learners who encountered words thrice in the full
captioning condition significantly outperformed those who encountered words only
once in the full captioning (p < 0.05), keyword captioning (p < 0.05), and no cap-
tions conditions (p < 0.001).”
30 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.8.5 Discussion

“Word exposure frequency appears to help learners focus on word form (i.e. pro-
nunciation and spelling) along with the available cues in audio–visual input that can
lead to meaning identification, encouraging more effective incidental vocabulary
learning.”
“Montero Perez et al. [61], learners recognized only 10.47 out of 18 (58.1%)
word forms in the full captioning condition, but the effect of word exposure fre-
quency on the full captioning condition further improved incidental word learning
in the present study.”
“Learners in the present study who encountered a word once could only recall
the meaning of 4.57, 2.01, and 0.14 words out of 15 in the full captioning, keyword
captioning, and no-captioning conditions, respectively.”
“Providing different kinds of information through captioning possibly enhanced
the students’ incidental learning of word forms but overwhelmed their capacity to
recall word meaning.”

2.1.8.6 Concluding Remarks

“The findings of the present study indicate that primary school ESL learners can
indeed learn new words by watching a video in English with full captions.”
“When designing conditions for vocabulary learning in future studies, ESL
teachers need to consider learners’ varying trajectories in learning the different
components of a word.”
“Previous studies measuring the effects of captions on L2 learning used different
types of videos, such as television reports [62], television programs [63], and docu-
mentary videos [64], whereas the present study solely used storytelling videos for
young learners.”
“Despite these limitations, the present study is the first to investigate different
combinations of captioning types and word exposure frequency in ESL learning.”
“A brief intervention combining three occurrences of target words encounters
with a full-captioning condition resulted in positive incidental vocabulary learning
among primary school ESL students.”

2.1.9 Knowledge Building and Vocabulary Growth Over

2 Years, Grades 3 and 4 [102]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Sun, Yanqing; Zhang, Jianwei; Scardamalia, Marlene: Knowledge building and
vocabulary growth over 2 years, Grades 3 and 4 [102]
Published in: Instructional Science (2008)
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 31

Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-­008-­9082-­5

Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Productive knowledge work and high-level literacy are
essential for engagement in a Knowledge society.”
“In the research reported in this article, students were engaged in sustained col-
laborative knowledge building in science and social studies.”
“The vocabulary growth of 22 students over Grades 3 and 4 was traced, based on
their entries to Knowledge Forum—a knowledge building environment used as an
integral part of classroom work.”
“High correlations between student engagement in knowledge building and
vocabulary growth suggest that productive vocabulary can be developed through
sustained knowledge building in subject areas.”

2.1.9.1 Introduction

“In the present study, we used Lexical Frequency Profile to measure students’
growth of productive written vocabulary in knowledge building discourse.”
“Community knowledge building across curriculum areas provides an authentic
context in which students can encounter, make sense of, and repeatedly use aca-
demic and domain-specific vocabulary in the service of the goal of idea advancement.”
“The present study examines students’ vocabulary growth, productive written
words in particular, as a result of their sustained knowledge building in various cur-
riculum areas over two school years: Grade 3 and then Grade 4.”
“To provide a more detailed account of students’ vocabulary use and growth in
their knowledge building practice, this study further analyzes a specific inquiry con-
ducted in Grade 4, focusing on student use of domain-specific terms in written dis-
course and their conceptual understanding.”

2.1.9.2 Method

“The teacher helped integrate online and offline discourse by referring to Knowledge
Forum notes during face-to-face discussions and encouraging students to record
their questions, theories, and findings from face-to-face discourse in the database.
(b) Collective responsibility for knowledge building and language use: Members in
a knowledge building community share collective responsibility for communal
knowledge advancement [65, 66].”
32 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

“When writing notes in Knowledge Forum, students were invited to elaborate

their ideas and explain new terms so that others could understand their notes.”
“In their four-month inquiry on optics in Grade 4, the students made 55 annota-
tions in Knowledge Forum concerning language and rhetorical issues in peers’
notes (e.g., “You missed the word…” “… does not make sense.”
“Issues noticed in student writing in Knowledge Forum (e.g., spelling, word
usage, grammar, writing organization) often became the focus of the Language Arts
lessons.”

2.1.9.3 Results

“In their Knowledge Forum notes, the students wrote about questions they were
curious about, candidate explanations to be examined, related facts collected from
experiments and observations, new information from reading material, responses to
existing ideas as well as ways they were presented, improvements of thoughts,
reflective syntheses of what they had understood and what they still needed to know,
and inquiry plans to achieve their new goals.”
“To examine the relationships between student participation in knowledge build-
ing discourse and their literacy performance, we analyzed the correlations between
students’ spelling, vocabulary, and reading scores and the percent of notes read and
the total number of words written in online discourse over the two school years.”
“The complexity level of students’ ideas was significantly correlated with the
number of total words (Pearson r = 0.49, p < 0.05) as well as the total occurrences
of domain-specific words (Pearson r = 0.54, p < 0.05) and academic words (Pearson
r = 0.55, p < 0.01) in students’ notes written for the optical inquiry.”

2.1.9.4 Discussion

“To examine the impact of extended, collaborative knowledge building on students’

vocabulary growth, this study traced students’ vocabulary use in online knowledge
building discourse over two school years, and investigated the relationships between
vocabulary use and the level of understanding achieved through inquiry.”
“The extended knowledge building practice provides an effective means for
enlarging students’ vocabulary size, deepening their vocabulary knowledge, and
bringing more words into productive use.”
“The knowledge building practice brings about rich opportunities for developing
students’ academic vocabulary, which previous research suggests is hard to learn
and use, and mainly developed through secondary and higher education [67].”
“The analyses of the word “opaque” and other terms in student writing suggested
an incremental and interactive process of vocabulary learning through knowledge
building.”
“The idea-focused, progressive discourse brings students into contact with a
variety of knowledge resources that involve new vocabulary use.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 33

2.1.9.5 Conclusions

“This study investigated students’ literacy engagement during their sustained, col-
laborative knowledge building in various subject areas.”
“Student engagement in significant and sustained knowledge building was
reflected in increasing numbers of notes written and read in Knowledge Forum.”
“Students’ use of general, domain-specific, and academic words were closely
correlated to the level of understanding they achieved through knowledge building,
as reflected in the qualitative evaluation of their portfolio notes.”
“There were significant correlations between student engagement in knowledge
building and literacy gains on the standard test.”
“To better understand the complex picture of student literacy engagement in
knowledge building, we will further examine vocabulary growth in relation to other
literacy indicators such as syntactic complexity, writing organization, and dialogic
contribution; and extend analyses to classes with more diverse student populations
and greater literacy challenges.”

2.1.10 The Effects of Science Instruction on Young Children’s

Vocabulary Learning: A Research Synthesis [103]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Guo, Ying; Wang, Shanshan; Hall, Anna H.; Breit-Smith, Allison; Busch, Jamie:
The Effects of Science Instruction on Young Children’s Vocabulary Learning: A
Research Synthesis [103]
Published in: Early Childhood Education Journal (2015)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-­015-­0721-­6
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This article synthesized science instruction studies with pre-
school and kindergarten children to understand the magnitude of science instruc-
tion’s impact on young children’s vocabulary outcomes.”
“The overall mean effect size was moderate (0.66), suggesting that a focus on
science increased young children’s vocabulary outcomes.”
“Educational implications of these findings suggest that there is support for using
science instruction to increase the vocabulary performance of young children.”
34 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.10.1 Introduction

“Compared with the other approaches to teach vocabulary (e.g., storybook reading),
science instruction provides numerous ways for teachers to address both conceptual
knowledge and vocabulary, such as mapping particular vocabulary onto children’s
mental representation about concepts [68, 69].”
“Science instruction can provide multiple contexts, including discussion, dem-
onstration, hands-on activities (e.g., center activities), and informational or story
book reading, in which children can learn and use new vocabulary.”
“Typical approaches to teach vocabulary, such as storybook reading, primarily
focus on improving children’s knowledge of Tier 2 vocabulary words, rather than
Tier 3 vocabulary words (e.g., Justice and others [70]).”
“Science lessons can be hands-on science activities and/or informational book
reading which may provide children with structured opportunities to apply their
knowledge of the language that they were learning during the vocabulary instruc-
tion and internalize the science language [71].”

2.1.10.2 The Present Study

“The National Research Council (NRC) has developed A Framework for K-12
Science Instruction: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, & Core Ideas [72] for teach-
ing science content to school age children.”
“Although current efforts are promising, there are limited science instruction
studies in the early years and the full effects of science instruction on young chil-
dren’s vocabulary remain unknown.”
“This article presents the findings of a synthesis conducted to determine the
outcome of science instruction on vocabulary of children in preschool and
kindergarten.”
“The research question addressed is: What are the effects of science instruction
in enhancing vocabulary outcomes for children in preschool and kindergarten?”

2.1.10.3 Method

“To be included in the present systematic review, studies had to meet the following
criteria: (a) involve a training, intervention, or particular technique for teaching sci-
ence in order to promote vocabulary learning for children; (b) include preschool and
kindergarten aged children with no mental, physical, or sensory disabilities; (c) con-
tain outcome variables that were standardized or researcher-developed measures of
expressive and/or receptive vocabulary; (d) involve a (quasi-)experimental design
that included a control group; (e) report sufficient statistical information to calculate
effect size (e.g., means, standard deviations, t- and p-values); and (f) be reported
in English.”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 35

“We excluded studies if the intervention did not include science component.”
“Some studies were excluded because the intervention involved children with
learning disabilities.”
“We adapted Marulis and Neuman’s [73] coding framework to code all relevant
studies at three levels: (a) study characteristics, (b) intervention features, and (c)
intervention outcomes.”

2.1.10.4 Results

“To reporting the overall mean effect size, we also grouped studies by the two
approaches to increasing young children’s vocabulary through science instruction
(i.e., science intervention including vocabulary instruction, vocabulary intervention
with a focus on science) in order to facilitate the interpretations of the results.”
“There were three studies that examined the effects of science interventions on
young children’s vocabulary learning [68, 69, 74].”
“Key components comprising the intervention included 32 science books (11
informational texts and 11 storybooks) and 14 social studies books (7 informational
texts and 7 storybooks), 59 science and 35 social studies vocabulary words selected
for instruction (all of which were Tier 2 and Tier 3 words), and explicit vocabulary
instruction before, during, and after book reading.”
“Results demonstrated that preschool children who received content-focused
shared book reading intervention outperformed their peers who received “business
as usual” shared book reading on the vocabulary outcomes with a medium effect
size (0.40).”

2.1.10.5 Discussion

“This synthesis sought to determine the effects of science instruction in enhancing

vocabulary outcomes for preschool and kindergarten children.”
“Three science intervention studies showed a medium to large effect size and
concentrated on increasing children’s general receptive vocabulary [78] and domain-­
specific vocabulary [68, 69].”
“These findings are promising, because they suggest that young children can
learn the complex vocabulary when shared book reading relates vocabulary to larger
science concepts, provides multiple opportunities to interact with vocabulary,
includes informational texts, and incorporates retelling and hands-on science
activities.”
“Two studies examined the effects of vocabulary intervention which includes
multiple instructional components for vocabulary and incorporates the science
follow-­up lesson and showed small to large effect sizes [75, 76].”
“This synthesis provides preliminary evidence that science can be used to sup-
port vocabulary goals with children in preschool though kindergarten and recom-
mends several instructional approaches to using science to teach vocabulary.”
36 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

2.1.11 Supporting Young Children’s Vocabulary Growth:

The Challenges, the Benefits, and Evidence-Based
Strategies [104]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Jalongo, Mary Renck; Sobolak, Michelle J.: Supporting Young Children’s
Vocabulary Growth: The Challenges, the Benefits, and Evidence-Based
Strategies [104]
Published in: Early Childhood Education Journal (2010)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-­010-­0433-­x
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The complexity of words makes vocabulary development a
multi-faceted process that presents challenges to early childhood educators, offers
benefits to young learners, and must be supported through evidence-based
strategies.”
“All students, regardless of socio-economic status or background, need to make
significant gains in receptive and expressive vocabulary at home and at school each
year in order to support their growth in literacy.”
“The most effective way for early childhood educators to enhance the vocabulary
development of all students is to implement evidence-based strategies for teaching
vocabulary.”
“In light of the trend in the research data that links the child’s vocabulary level to
gains in reading comprehension, early childhood educators have a special obliga-
tion to teach vocabulary more effectively.”

2.1.11.1 Defining Vocabulary

“A highly educated adult has a listening/speaking vocabulary of about 10,000 words

but likely knows nearly 10 times as many words in reading and writing, or about
100,000 words [77].”
“What may be less familiar—and particularly helpful—is the three-tier concep-
tualization of vocabulary [78].”
“Words that fit into Tier 1 include labels such as door, table, computer, and hip-
popotamus because these words are either already known or can be pictured, thus
vocabulary instructional time is minimal.”
“Tier 2 words have high utility for mature language users’ listening, speaking,
reading, and writing [78].”
2.1 Machine Generated Summaries 37

“Vocabulary researchers agree that Tier 2 words should be the main focus when
instructional time is limited [79, 80].”
“While these words will require some vocabulary instructional time within the
content area, they are not worthy of extensive teaching time because they are not
high-utility [78].”

2.1.11.2 Challenges in Acquiring the Concept of a Word

“Many of children’s most charming language errors have to do with semantics, or

word meaning.”
“They sometimes turn to words they already know—for example, “vanilla”
paper for “manilla” paper or “chickenpops” for “chickenpox.”“.
“Even when children apparently know a word, their understandings can be rather
superficial.”
“Multiple meaning words are often very challenging for young children.”
“To really know a word’s meaning is to know what a word represents and to
begin to understand the network of concepts that goes with it [81].”

2.1.11.3 Benefits of Vocabulary Instruction

“Researchers have long acknowledged a relationship between vocabulary knowl-

edge and reading comprehension [50, 82–85].”
“Students who begin school with more vocabulary knowledge tend to compre-
hend the texts they read and, as their reading comprehension increases, their vocab-
ulary knowledge expands accordingly.”
“Students who begin school with limited vocabulary knowledge may struggle
with reading comprehension and that struggle will limit their vocabulary growth.”
“Even in the very young years of a child’s life, vocabulary instruction can influ-
ence that child’s reading ability across the various subjects and throughout their
school careers [80, 86–88].”
“Research suggests that there is the possibility of reducing the problem of low
vocabulary knowledge and offers a wide array of research-based instructional tech-
niques that can support all students in developing receptive and expressive vocabu-
lary [89].”
“Possibly the most common method of vocabulary instruction in schools is to
focus on words in the texts students read.”

2.1.11.4 Research-Based Strategies to Support Vocabulary Growth

“In order for children to become proficient readers, they need to learn five to six new
words per day, 38 words per week, 2000 new words a year, and 10,000 by age 6,
vocabulary instruction is a must [77].”
38 2 Vocabulary and Acquisition

“The prop boxes contain three to five storybooks, concrete objects that represent
the vocabulary words the children will learn, a little book that contains pictures of
the objects in the prop boxes, and a “Big Book” version of the same book [90].”
“In the Handbook of Reading Research (1991), there is discussion that students
with high and low achievement show huge differences in vocabulary and that some
differences are associated with socioeconomic level.”
“It is important to consider what is causing the differences in vocabulary levels
between children of lower and higher socioeconomic households.”

2.1.11.5 Conclusion: An Agenda for Reform in Vocabulary Instruction

“Given the current research on differences in the vocabulary levels of students from
varying socioeconomic levels and the critical role that vocabulary knowledge plays
in reading comprehension, it is essential that early childhood educators make a con-
certed effort to build young children’s storehouse of words.”
“Utilizing dialogic reading, active involvement, and meaningful repetition of
words should be a part of every classroom’s vocabulary routine to ensure that all
students make adequate vocabulary gains.”
“As this research review has documented, high-quality vocabulary instruction is
essential for all students but it is even more so for students who confront a wide
variety of linguistic challenges [91].”
“Early childhood educators are charged with the responsibility of becoming
familiar with the challenges that students from diverse backgrounds face in terms of
improving vocabulary development and making every effort to ensure that all stu-
dents make adequate vocabulary gains through the use of research-based instruction.”

2.1.11.6 [Section 6]

“Each of these children has language strengths and areas for growth and each of
them needs a teacher who understands vocabulary development and ways to
support it.”
“In the case of the 3-year-old twins, some misguided educators would assume
that their language would develop effortlessly because they are economically advan-
taged when the research indicates that it is the language environment both at home
and at school –particularly before third grade—that is the major influence [92, 93].”
“The research indicates that children from special populations need appropriate
opportunities to learn new words and intensive instruction in vocabulary if they are
expected to succeed [93].”
“The purpose of this article is to provide early childhood educators with the
latest, research-based evidence on effective ways to build the vocabulary of young
children.”
Bibliography 39

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Chapter 3
Vocabulary Teaching and Learning
Strategies

3.1 Machine Generated Summaries

Disclaimer: The summaries in this chapter were generated from Springer Nature
publications using extractive AI auto-summarization: An extraction-based summa-
rizer aims to identify the most important sentences of a text using an algorithm and
uses those original sentences to create the auto-summary (unlike generative AI).
As the constituted sentences are machine selected, they may not fully reflect the
body of the work, so we strongly advise that the original content is read and cited.
The auto generated summaries were curated by the editor to meet Springer Nature
publication standards. To cite this content, please refer to the original papers.
Machine generated keywords: inference, lexical inference, user, strategy, efl,
learn strategy, vl, target word, selfefficacy, technique, experimental group, lexical,
system, experimental, question.

3.1.1 Collaborative Filtering for Expansion of Learner’s

Background Knowledge in Online Language Learning:
Does “Top-Down” Processing Improve Vocabulary
Proficiency? [73]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Yamada, Masanori; Kitamura, Satoshi; Matsukawa, Hideya; Misono, Tadashi;
Kitani, Noriko; Yamauchi, Yuhei: Collaborative filtering for expansion of
learner’s background knowledge in online language learning: does “top-down”
processing improve vocabulary proficiency? [73]
Published in: Educational technology research and development (2014)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 45

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_3
46 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-­014-­9344-­7

Copyright of the summarized publication:
Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2014
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This study aims to develop and evaluate an online English
vocabulary learning system using collaborative filtering that allows learners to learn
English vocabulary while expanding their interests.”
“The online learning environment recommends English news articles using
information obtained from other users with similar interests.”
“The learner then studies these recommended articles as a method of learning
English.”

3.1.1.1 Introduction

“As the amount of information available on the Internet is increasing at a tremen-

dous rate, recommendation algorithms have become important tools for users seek-
ing to retrieve focused information, and have thus been applied to various online
services.”
“A recommendation algorithm is one that predicts a user’s attributions, such as
ability and preference, and suggests information that corresponds with these data.”
“Collaborative filtering is a recommendation algorithm that predicts an active
user’s preferences and presents suggested material by using the preferences of users
who appear similar to the active user according to their rating data.”
“By previous research (e.g., Herlocker et al. [1]; Resnick et al. [2]), recommen-
dation algorithms aim to determine a user’s preferences and suggest optimized
information according to that determination.”

3.1.1.2 Related Works

“Collaborative filtering works to optimize an exact fit with learners’ preferences and
interests; thus, it supports top-down processing for comprehension in foreign
language learning.”
“This study aims to develop and evaluate the effect of a foreign language learn-
ing support system that uses a collaborative filtering system to recommend news
articles that are close to, rather than an exact fit with, learner preferences, in order
to expand background knowledge to promote top-down processing.”
“This study aims to develop and evaluate an English vocabulary learning support
system with collaborative filtering that recommends English news articles on topics
that are close to learners’ preferences and interests, and to compare this system with
the popular earlier collaborative filtering algorithm known as “GroupLens” [2].”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 47

“This research aims to investigate the effects of the new collaborative filtering
algorithm, which recommends English news article in which learners have some
interest (not strong interest), on perceived appropriateness of recommendation and
learning performance.”

3.1.1.3 System

“On the server side, five functions are implicated: user certification, news articles
distribution, collaborative filtering, a user log function that collects what functions
learners used and when, and a news scraping that regularly collects news article data
from a news article company’s website.”
“The news article recommendation function displays on the main screen a list of
articles that are based on the learner’s interests.”
“2: The system makes data set “Yai” of news articles that are rated positively by
both active user a and user i. 3: The system evaluates the similarity of interest in
news articles between users a and i, according to the rank correlation coefficient ρai
using the rating data from new articles including dataset Yai Herlocker et al. [1]
reported that Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was a higher threshold result-
ing in an accurate fit rate, thus improving the GroupLens algorithm.”

3.1.1.4 Experiment

“The group that studied English news articles recommended by the user-based col-
laborative filtering algorithm developed for this study will be called the experimen-
tal group, and the group that studied English news articles recommended by the
basic user-based collaborative filtering algorithm will be called the control group.”
“There were no differences between the control and experiment groups in terms
of the function of the system except for the collaborative filtering algorithm.”
“For 1 month, the experimental group studied from recommendations made with
the user-based collaborative filtering algorithm developed in this study, while the
control group continued with recommendations made by the algorithm of Resnick
et al. [2].”
“During this time, learners completed a post-questionnaire and took an 80-item
English vocabulary test based on JACET 8000; this was the same test they took
before the experiment began.”

3.1.1.5 Results

“We examined the difference in number of dropped-out learners between the experi-
mental and control groups, including the subjects who had a pre-test score of
over 50.”
48 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“The comparison of the average number of rated articles by category also showed
no significant difference between the experimental and control groups.”
“As the t-test results for the total and each category’s numbers for learners’ inter-
est ratings in the news articles show, we did not confirm a significant difference
between the experiment and control groups.”
“These results show that the experimental group had overall higher scores in the
English vocabulary test category when compared to the control group.”
“d = .17), the average scores on the JACET 8000 English vocabulary post-test
showed a significant difference (the experimental group: Mean = 43.83, SD = 9.35;
the control group: Mean = 40.07, SD = 8.85; t(96.87) = 2.04, p < .05, d = .41).”

3.1.1.6 Discussion

“The researchers hypothesized that receiving recommendations from the collabora-

tive filtering algorithm developed in this study allows learners to read a wide range
of English news articles and possibly leads to higher learning results.”
“In order to explain the effects of the collaborative filtering algorithm developed
in this study, we posed four research questions: (1) Is there a difference in the fit rate
of recommendation between the collaborative filtering developed in this research
and GroupLens? (2) Does this collaborative filtering promote diversity in topics of
news articles? (3) Does the system tend to recommend specific topics in order to
promote specific vocabulary acquisition? (4) Overall, does this system contribute to
the improvement of vocabulary test scores?”
“These results indicate that the collaborative filtering developed in this study
contributes to the enhancement of vocabulary proficiency with the support of
“top-­down” processing [3] through learning with news articles closely related to the
learners’ interests.”

3.1.1.7 Conclusion

“This study aims to examine the effect of collaborative filtering that predicts the
degree of learner interest in unread English news articles and compare it to that of
general collaborative filtering, which aims to predict the accurate fit rate of learner
interest.”
“The results of this research reveal that the system developed in this study
allowed learners to read various genres of English news articles and to improve their
vocabulary proficiency even though there was no difference between the collabora-
tive filtering developed in this study and the general filtering system in the perceived
fit rate of recommendations, despite the difference in the simulation test between
the algorithm developed in this study and GroupLens.”
“We focused on vocabulary proficiency levels, although using other parameters
concerning learners’ proficiency levels such as the length of news articles could also
improve the perceived fit rate in terms of learners’ proficiency levels.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 49

3.1.2 The Comparative Effects of Teacher Versus

Peer-­Scaffolding on EFL Learners’ Incidental
Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension:
A Socio-Cultural Perspective [74]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Jamali Kivi, Parivash; Namaziandost, Ehsan; Fakhri Alamdari, Ebrahim; Ryafikovna
Saenko, Natalya; Inga-Arias, Miguel; Fuster-Guillén, Doris; Sirisakpanich,
Dusita; Nasirin, Chairun: The Comparative Effects of Teacher Versus Peer-­
Scaffolding on EFL Learners’ Incidental Vocabulary Learning and Reading
Comprehension: A Socio-Cultural Perspective [74]
Published in: Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-­021-­09800-­4
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC,
part of Springer Nature 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Drawing on sociocultural theory, and multiple empirical
studies conducted on the effectiveness of scaffolding on second or foreign language
learning, the authors investigated the application of various forms of scaffolding
(i.e., teacher versus peer-scaffolding) on EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learn-
ing and reading comprehension performance through a sociocultural perspective.”
“The vocabulary and reading comprehension pre-tests were administered to the
three groups.”
“The vocabulary and reading comprehension post-tests were administered.”
“The results showed that both experimental groups had better performance than
the control group and there was a significant difference between teacher-scaffolding
and peer-scaffolding in both vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension
performance and the peer-scaffolding group had a better performance than the
teacher-scaffolding group.”

3.1.2.1 Introduction

“Despite the existence of numerous scaffolding strategies in this field, very little
research has been done to the best of the researcher’s knowledge to investigate the
comparative effectiveness of question answering and question generating to reveal
the privilege of one strategy over another to improve EFL learners’ reading
comprehension.”
50 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“The effects of various scaffoldings of peer and teacher, such as skimming, scan-
ning, warm-up activities, L1 translation, and their effects on the reading comprehen-
sion development and incidental vocabulary learning of EFL students need to be
investigated.”
“Considering the above-mentioned issues, this study aimed to investigate the
comparative impacts of teacher and peer scaffolding on EFL learners’ incidental
vocabulary learning and reading comprehension through a sociocultural
perspective.”
“Two research questions were formulated: RQ1: Does applying teacher and peer
scaffolding have any significant effects on Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’
incidental vocabulary learning?”

3.1.2.2 Review of the Related Literature

“In a study, Jafari [4] investigated the effectiveness of scaffolding on Iranian EFL
language learners’ vocabulary knowledge.”
“Khajeh Khosravi [5] attempted to find out the effect of symmetrical scaffolding
on advanced learners’ reading comprehension.”
“The findings revealed that symmetrical scaffolding had a significant impact on
EFL learners’ reading comprehension performance.”
“Talebinejad and Akhgar [6] investigated the effects of teacher scaffolding on
Iranian EFL learners’ listening comprehension.”
“Carried out by Izanlu and Feyli [7], they investigated the extent to which two
approaches to scaffolding, namely the Symmetrical and Asymmetrical, contribute
to grammar acquisition among Iranian EFL university students.”
“The data analysis indicated that AS scaffolding was a more effective strategy in
improving EFL learners’ grammar achievement.”
“This study was run to check the impact of teacher versus peer scaffolding on
EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension through a
sociocultural viewpoint.”

3.1.2.3 Methodology

“60 out of 80 EFL learners studying English at private Language Institute in Amol,
Mazandaran Province were selected through administrating an Oxford Placement
Test (OPT).”
“The teacher-made vocabulary test was pilot tested on a similar sample of learn-
ers from a different language institute.”
“Before carrying out the study, a pilot study to examine the reliability of the
vocabulary and reading tests.”
“This study Through administrating an OPT to 80 EFL learners studying English
at a private Language Institute in Amol, Mazandaran, 60 participants who scored ±1
standard deviation above and below the mean was selected as the sample of the
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 51

study and divided into three groups: two experimental groups: GROUP 1: Teacher-­
scaffolding group (N = 20); GROUP 2: Peer-scaffolding group (N = 20); GROUP 3:
Control group (N = 20).”
“The vocabulary and reading comprehension tests as the pretests were adminis-
tered to all three groups.”

3.1.2.4 Results

“The first research question aimed to find out whether teacher and peer scaffolding
have any significant effects on Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ incidental
vocabulary learning or not.”
“Table 7 shows the differences among three groups (Teacher-scaffolding, Peer-­
scaffolding, and the control groups).”
“There was a significant difference between Teacher-scaffolding, Peer-­
scaffolding, and the control group in vocabulary learning.”
“There was a significant difference between the teacher-scaffolding group and
the control group.”
“There was a significant difference between Teacher-scaffolding, Peer-­
scaffolding, and the control group in reading comprehension performance.”
“The findings showed that peer scaffolding outperformed both teacher-­
scaffolding and control groups significantly.”
“There was a significant difference between the teacher-scaffolding group and
the control group.”

3.1.2.5 Discussion

“The main purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of teacher versus
peer scaffolding on EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learning and reading com-
prehension through a socio-cultural perspective.”
“The results related to the first research question revealed that there was a signifi-
cant difference among teacher-scaffolding, peer-scaffolding, and control groups
regarding the vocabulary scores.”
“The results dealing with the second research question showed that there was a
significant difference among the teacher-scaffolding, peer-scaffolding, and control
groups considering learners’ reading comprehension scores in favor of the peer-­
scaffolding group.”
“To improve learners’ cognitive abilities, scaffolding instruction in the context of
classroom learning and student research delivers efficiency.”
“From a sociocultural perspective as used in the present study, both the teacher
and peers have shown to be influential in applying a variety of scaffolding behaviors
to help the students learn vocabulary and enhance reading comprehension to reach
higher states of independence.”
52 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

3.1.2.6 Conclusion

“It is more challenging when it comes to EFL learners with restricted exposure to
language and the opportunity to use learned words in genuine contexts.”
“The number of research studies carried out on finding the most effective vocab-
ulary learning strategies is evidence of the effective role of strategies in word acqui-
sition [8].”
“Since the current study focused on EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learning
and reading comprehension, the obtained result may have been affected by the read-
ing behavior of learners’ L1 reading.”
“The findings of the present study recommend applying more social and coop-
erative techniques in language learning and teaching context.”
“Relying on the outcomes of this study, instructors are advised to use scaffolding
to teach vocabulary in a technology-enhanced setting as an efficient substitute for
traditional training.”
“Upcoming studies can extend the experiment time and examine the effects of
peer and teacher scaffoldings on different skills and subskills in different contexts.”

3.1.3 Promoting Self-Regulation in Vocabulary Learning

Among Chinese EFL Learners: A Needs Analysis [75]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Ping, Aminah Ma; Baranovich, Diana-Lea; Manueli, Maria Khristina; Siraj, Saedah:
Promoting Self-Regulation in Vocabulary Learning among Chinese EFL
Learners: A Needs Analysis [75]
Published in: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (2014)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-­013-­0166-­x
Copyright of the summarized publication:
De La Salle University 2014
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Learning strategies and motivational beliefs (e.g., self-­
efficacy) are the key, interrelated factors of self-regulated learning, which are cru-
cial for learners’ academic performance.”
“This study investigated Chinese English Foreign language (EFL) learners’
needs in terms of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use, as well as their percep-
tions and knowledge in vocabulary learning.”
“It also indicated that learners’ low self-efficacy and motivation might be due to
the lack of strategy knowledge, which in turn affects their strategy performance.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 53

“The study suggests that there is a pressing need to enhance learners’ self-­
regulation in learning vocabulary through explicit strategy instruction, which
emphasizes cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of learning.”

3.1.3.1 Introduction

“Along with this domain of research, self-regulated learning (SRL), a multidimen-

sional construct that involves cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and social
aspects of learning, has been theoretically well established.”
“A view of SRL from a social cognitive learning perspective particularly empha-
sizes self-efficacy and strategy use as the two key factors in achieving self-­regulation
in academic learning [9].”
“Most studies on VLS focus on cognitive strategy use, while lack of concern is
given on metacognitive (e.g., goal-setting) and affective factors (e.g., self-efficacy)
in vocabulary learning [10].”
“It is necessary to investigate cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects
of vocabulary learning to provide a more comprehensive view of students’ use of
self-regulatory strategies in learning vocabulary.”

3.1.3.2 Self-Regulated Learning Strategies

“Metacognition involves two aspects: knowledge of cognition (i.e., to know what,

how, when, and why to use strategies) and regulation of cognition (i.e., metacogni-
tive control strategies, such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation)
[11, 12].”
“Students must be motivated and able to self-initiate their efforts to use strategies
during the learning process.”
“The effective use of cognitive learning strategies occurs along with motivational
aspects of learning, such as task interest and self-efficacy [13].”
“Though self-regulation involves all the learning strategies, the emphasis is on
learners’ self-initiation, i.e., learners’ own strategic efforts to manage their own
learning process [14].”
“The teaching of cognitive skills is insufficient to enable learners to manage to
learn on their own; motivational factor (i.e., self-efficacy, task interest) should be
addressed to support and sustain learners’ use of self-regulatory strategies [15].”

3.1.3.3 Vocabulary Learning Strategies

“This definition not only involves both cognitive and metacognitive aspects of
learning but also lays emphasis on using VLS to enhance vocabulary learning.”
“Some researchers have tried to develop a taxonomy of vocabulary learning
strategies.”
54 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“Metacognitive strategies involve selective attention and self-initiation in vocab-

ulary learning; cognitive strategies refer to guessing, dictionary use, note-taking,
rehearsal, encoding, and activation strategies, which are categorized into three
stages of vocabulary learning process: initial handling, consolidation, and
activation.”
“Nation [16] identified learning strategies in terms of planning vocabulary learn-
ing; finding information about words; and establishing vocabulary knowledge.”

3.1.3.4 Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies

“Gu and Johnson [17] who investigated the relationship between VLS and students’
learning outcomes in English learning with 850 Chinese university learners of non-­
English majors revealed that students reported using a number of various VLS and
holding negative beliefs to rote memorization strategies except for oral repetition.”
“This was also confirmed by Fan [18] that more proficient learners acquired
more knowledge by using a variety of strategies and planning their vocabulary
learning.”
“The mixed results of the above research on strategy use behaviour among
Chinese EFL learners indicate that the various factors including personal (i.e., per-
ceptions, language proficiency), educational background and culture affect stu-
dents’ strategy use.”
“It has showed that the Chinese learners hold strong beliefs in memorization and
consistently proved that metacognitive awareness, and strategy use are closely
related to success in learning.”

3.1.3.5 Context of the Study

“The study was conducted in Malaysia, where Chinese students from the Peoples’
Republic of China (PRC) attempt to pursue their studies at the tertiary level in both
public and private universities.”
“International students who do not hold the necessary IELTS or TOEFL results
are required to take the English Language Proficiency Program for International
Students (ELPPIS) before proceeding with their studies at their respective faculties.”
“The ELPPIS provides intensive English courses to prepare students for their
academic study, with five levels ranging from elementary to higher intermediate.”

3.1.3.6 Statement of the Problem

“English in Malaysia is used as a second language (ESL) rather than a Foreign lan-
guage (EFL) in the Chinese context, providing Chinese international students more
exposure to English language learning.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 55

“The variety of academic tasks performed in English in a new learning context is

certainly demanding for these Chinese English learners.”
“It is necessary to investigate the Chinese EFL learners’ use of strategies, as well
as their current vocabulary knowledge and motivational beliefs in vocabulary learn-
ing, and to further provide useful information to direct instructional efforts to
develop students’ self-regulatory ability in learning.”
“This study was conducted as a preliminary study to develop a strategy instruc-
tional program to enhance Chinese EFL learners’ use of self-regulatory strategies.”

3.1.3.7 Methodology

“For the purpose of the study, the existing instruments appropriate for the current
research purposes have been adapted to assess learners’ needs in terms of self-­
regulatory strategy use and motivational beliefs in vocabulary learning, as well as
their current vocabulary knowledge level.”
“A vocabulary level test developed by Nation (1990) was conducted to identify
whether the students have acquired sufficient high- frequency words for their aca-
demic study.”
“Focusing on passive vocabulary knowledge, the diagnostic test assessed whether
learners have acquired sufficient high-frequency words for their study [16].”
“Before the questionnaire was delivered to the target group, a pilot test was con-
ducted to 52 Chinese EFL learners studying the preuniversity English course in
Malaysia to identify the level of reliability of the questions.”
“The structured interview was conducted with the 14 students enrolled in semes-
ter II to obtain information on metacognitive strategy use and motivational beliefs
on vocabulary learning.”

3.1.3.8 Results and Discussion

“With reference to the four main questions, the following presents an analysis of the
data to provide information about (1) learners’ current level of passive vocabulary
knowledge, (2) a profile of learners’ needs in terms of cognitive and metacognitive
control strategy use for vocabulary learning, and (3) the students’ perceptions
toward vocabulary learning.”
“The participants did not report strategies, such as reviewing, grouping, and
word parts while planning strategies in vocabulary learning, which might indicate
the participants’ lack of knowledge of various strategy uses.”
“The results of the strategy survey also showed that students most frequently use
the dictionary to help them with reading comprehension purposes, i.e., to look up
the meaning of a word as the need arises rather than using the dictionary as a
resource to exploit the information about a word to expand their vocabulary
knowledge.”
56 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

3.1.3.9 Summary and Implications

“This study as a preliminary study for developing strategy instruction for Chinese
EFL learners has profiled self-regulatory strategy use, motivational beliefs, and
vocabulary knowledge level of a group of Chinese learners studying at the University
of Malaya.”
“The findings of the study showed that there is a pressing need to enlarge the
students’ vocabulary knowledge to prepare them for university study; moreover,
these learners lack knowledge and strategy use for learning vocabulary, especially
metacognitive control strategy use.”
“The findings of the study point to the need for learners to engage in more cogni-
tive VLS and to enhance their metacognitive awareness and control of strategy use
to improve their perception and motivation in vocabulary learning.”
“The pedagogical implication of the study is that self-regulatory strategies
including cognitive, metacognitive, affective aspects should be taught directly or
indirectly to Chinese EFL learners to increase their strategy use awareness and
effective use of strategies in vocabulary learning.”

3.1.4 Effective Practices to Enhance Immigrant

Kindergarteners’ Second Language Vocabulary Learning
Through Storybook Reading [76]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Chlapana, Elissavet; Tafa, Eufimia: Effective practices to enhance immigrant
kindergarteners’ second language vocabulary learning through storybook
reading [76]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2014)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­014-­9510-­7
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This study examined the impact of direct instruction and
interactive instruction on immigrant kindergarten children’s vocabulary learning
during storybook reading. (In the present study the terms “immigrants” and “second
language learners” are used alternatively meaning kindergarteners from immigrant
families who are in the process of acquiring a second language besides their mother
tongue.) Eighty seven immigrant kindergarten children, aged 4–6 years old
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 57

(mean = 61.68 months, standard deviations = .51) were recruited from 12 public
kindergarten classrooms located in Crete.”
“Target and non-target words were assessed by multiple choice vocabulary
measure before and after the storybook readings.”
“In the first experimental group, children were provided brief explanations of
target words by direct instruction.”
“In the second experimental group, children were involved actively in discussing
target words according to interactive instruction techniques.”
“In the control group stories were read without any explanation of target
vocabulary.”
“Results showed that interactive instruction was more beneficial on target vocab-
ulary learning than direct instruction and the impact was greater for instructed
words than for uninstructed ones.”
“Children’s initial level in Greek receptive vocabulary and target word knowl-
edge had a significant impact on target word learning.”

3.1.4.1 Introduction

“Research studies on second language vocabulary teaching have shown that teach-
ers providing explicit explanations of the target word meanings during story read-
ings contributes to young children’s vocabulary learning [19–23].”
“Conclusions, the purpose of this study was to examine: (a) The impact of two
different teaching practices, direct instruction and interactive instruction, on immi-
grant kindergarteners’ second language vocabulary development. (b) The effective-
ness of direct instruction and interactive instruction when implemented in whole
group settings where monolingual and immigrant children from different nationali-
ties are educated together. (c) If the effect of these two different teaching practices
on vocabulary development is significantly differentiated by children’s gender, age,
cognitive development, and second language vocabulary level. (d) Whether the dif-
ferences of compared practices on kindergartners’ second language vocabulary
learning are maintained in the long term.”

3.1.4.2 Method

“During administration, children were asked to look at the 4 pictures on the page
and point out the picture of the target word.”
“Children in the control group experienced the 56 target words only through their
exposure to the words as the first author read the storybooks.”
“In experimental group 1, the first author taught the target words according to
direct instruction without encouraging children’s verbal participation in the teach-
ing process.”
58 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“In experimental group 2, she taught the target words according to interactive
instruction, using questions and prompts which encouraged children’s active par-
ticipation in the vocabulary teaching process.”
“Pointing: children were asked questions that encouraged them to point at the
word depiction in the book illustrations.”
“Questions: children were asked open-type questions based on word meanings,
book illustration and story plot, to encourage their cognitive involvement in the
discussion of the story.”

3.1.4.3 Results

“When all the non-significant main effects and interactions were removed, results
showed that children’s score improvement in the instructed word measure was sig-
nificantly affected by: (a) the intervention program, F(2, 74) = 29.65, p < .01, (b) the
children’s initial Greek receptive vocabulary level, F(1, 74) = 40.14, p < .01, and
(c) the children’s pretest scores in the instructed words, F(1, 74) = 29.65, p < .01.”
“Children in the direct and interactive instruction groups outperformed children
in the control group with respect to the instructed words, and the differences in
children’s scores were significant.”
“With respect to the significant interaction between the intervention program and
gender, the ANCOVA Model showed that girls in the direct and interactive instruc-
tion groups outperformed boys in the instructed words and the differences between
their scores were significant.”

3.1.4.4 Discussion

“The purpose of the present study was to examine the impact of direct instruction
and interactive instruction practices on immigrant kindergarteners’ second language
vocabulary development, and to show whether the effect of these practices was
significantly differentiated by children’s gender, age, cognitive skills, and second
language vocabulary level.”
“The results of the present study which showed the effect of immigrant chil-
dren’s initial Greek receptive vocabulary level on instructed word learning are also
significant.”
“With regard to the long-term effect of the compared practices, results showed
that children in the interactive instruction group had significantly higher delayed
posttest scores in the instructed words than children either in the direct instruction
or in the control group.”
“It seems than children’s active involvement in the word explanation through
interactive instruction techniques, which encourage them to relate the word defini-
tions to book illustrations, story plot and background knowledge, constitutes a fac-
tor with significant short and long-term effects on vocabulary learning [24].”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 59

3.1.5 Effects of Language Skills and Strategy Use

on Vocabulary Learning Through Lexical Translation
and Inferencing [77]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Alahmadi, Alaa; Foltz, Anouschka: Effects of Language Skills and Strategy Use on
Vocabulary Learning Through Lexical Translation and Inferencing [77]
Published in: Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (2020)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-­020-­09720-­9
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s) 2020
License: OpenAccess CC BY 4.0
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in
any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and
indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s
Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission
directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This study explores how vocabulary learning strategy usage
and skills in the four language domains relate to participants’ increase in vocabulary
size and to the learning of specific vocabulary items over a certain period of time.”
“Sixty-one advanced L1 Arabic L2 learners of English read target words in semi-­
authentic reading materials and were instructed to either guess the meaning from
context or consult a dictionary.”
“Pre- and delayed post-tests assessed vocabulary size and knowledge of the
target vocabulary items.”

3.1.5.1 Introduction

“We use a longitudinal design to investigate how learners’ self-reported use of VLS
and self-reported proficiency and language skills relate to their overall vocabulary
size as well as the vocabulary learning that occurs over a certain period of time
through lexical inferencing (guessing meaning from context) and lexical translation
(looking words up in a dictionary).”
60 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“Alahmadi [25], Alahmadi et al. [26] and Alsaif [27] found a statistically signifi-
cant positive relationship between the strategy of guessing a word’s meaning from
the provided context and English vocabulary knowledge in terms of breadth in
Saudi participants across a range of educational levels.”
“Alqurashi [28] found that determination strategies, which include using monol-
igual or bililingual dictionaries and inferring meaning from context, showed the
highest contribution (44%) to learners’ vocabulary size, followed by social strate-
gies (37%).”

3.1.5.2 Current Study

“We investigate how VLS usage and language skills in the four domains relate to
participants’ increase in vocabulary size and to how many words participants
learned through guessing and dictionary use over the course of the study.”
“The current study aims to answer the following research questions (RQs): RQ1:
Is participants’ VLS usage related to their vocabulary size in general and to the
increase in their vocabulary knowledge over the course of the study?”
“RQ2: Is participants’ VLS usage related to how well they learn the words
through guessing or dictionary use throughout the duration of the study?”
“RQ3: Are participants’ self-assessed English language skills related to their
vocabulary size in general and to the increase in their vocabulary knowledge over
the course of the study?”
“RQ4: Are participants’ self-assessed English language skills related to how well
they learn the words through guessing or dictionary use throughout the duration of
the study?”

3.1.5.3 Methodology

“Participants translated 24 target and 24 control words.”

“Difficulty levels were sufficiently high to allow for learning, with participants
in the norming study correctly translating only a minority of both target and
control words.”
“After giving informed consent, which included access to students’ academic
Grade Point Average (GPA), participants completed the English language self-­
assessment questionnaire, the word translation task, and finally the XK_Lex vocab-
ulary breadth size test (cf. Alahmadi and Foltz, under revision, for more detailed
information).”
“Prior to training, participants were distributed into a low and high proficiency
group based on their GPA, their vocabulary size, and the word translation task.”
“Participants again completed the word translation task and the XK_Lex vocabu-
lary size test.”
“Participants first completed the word translation task, then the XK_Lex vocabu-
lary size test, and finally the VLS questionnaire.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 61

3.1.5.4 Results

“The final model revealed a significant main effect of bilingual dictionary use on
overall vocabulary gain (estimate = 333.4; SE = 114.6; t = 2.91; p = 0.005), indicat-
ing that learners who reported using a bilingual dictionary more often increased
their vocabulary knowledge more over the course of the study than learners who
reported using a bilingual dictionary less often.”
“The final model for the inferencing condition revealed a significant main effect
of guessing from context on learning words through inferencing during training
(estimate = 0.197; SE = 0.086; t = 2.28; p = 0.026), such that participants who
reported using the lexical inferencing from context strategy more often learned
more words when asked to engage in inferencing during the study than participants
who reported using this strategy less regularly.”

3.1.5.5 Discussion

“The second finding is consistent with various previous studies, such as Alahmadi
et al. [26], Alsaif [27] and Al Qahtani [29], who found a significant positive relation-
ship between participants’ inferencing strategy use and their vocabulary size for
learners of various proficiency levels.”
“The third finding is consistent with studies that find a positive relationship
between bilingual dictionary use or determination strategies more generally and
vocabulary size [30, 31].”
“The current study goes beyond these previous results in showing that frequent
self-reported use of a bilingual dictionary contributed to learners’ vocabulary size
increase over a certain period of time.”
“We found no evidence for Hamzah et al. [31] claim that the relationship between
bilingual dictionary use and vocabulary size in previous studies is due to learners’
inadequate knowledge of other VLS.”
“Our third result finds that learners who engaged in note taking more regularly
increased their vocabulary size less over the course of the study than participants
who reported using this strategy less frequently.”

3.1.5.6 Conclusion

“The current results highlight that vocabulary acquisition through inferencing, but
not through dictionary look-up, depends on learners’ familiarity with this strategy.”
“Interventions that familiarize learners with inferencing strategies may therefore
positively impact word learning in a foreign language.”
“We suggest that familiarity with inferencing strategies can benefit learners and
that the relationship between note taking and vocabulary acquisition warrants
further investigation.”
62 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

3.1.6 The Effectiveness of L2 Vocabulary Instruction:

A Meta-Analysis [78]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Yousefi, Mohammad Hossein; Biria, Reza: The effectiveness of L2 vocabulary
instruction: a meta-analysis [78]
Published in: Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language
Education (2018)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-­018-­0062-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s) 2018
License: OpenAccess CC BY 4.0
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which per-
mits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The purpose of the present meta-analysis is to the investi-
gate the overall effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction and to find the moderator
variables affecting its effectiveness.”
“After conducting Q test of heterogeneity, a number of moderator variables were
examined; context of instruction, publication type, age and L2 learners’ profi-
ciency level.”
“That (a) studies conducted in foreign language contexts generated larger effect
sizes than ones conducted in SL contexts. (b)intermediated learners show a larger
effect size than advanced and elementary students. (c) child learners were better
than adult learners in Learning L2 vocabulary. (d) Published studies generated
larger effect size than doctoral dissertations. (e) employing “posters” for teaching
L2 vocabulary items generated higher effect size than reading activities, CALL, and
songs. (f) abstract words generated higher effect size than concrete ones.”

3.1.6.1 Introduction

“A number of studies have provided evidence that glosses are effective in helping
learners learn new lexical items in a second language [32, 33], for example, the
results of [34] indicated that glossing had a positive effect on L2 vocabulary
learning.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 63

“Computer-assisted language learning in L2 vocabulary was shown to have posi-

tive effects with a medium effect size (d = 0.745, p = 0.000).The results of Abraham’s
meta-analysis [35] showed that computer-mediated glosses had an overall medium
effect on second language reading comprehension and a large effect on incidental
vocabulary learning.”
“Although the meta-analyses on L2 vocabulary teaching have highly contributed
to the field of instructed L2 vocabulary learning, the effectiveness of receptive L2
vocabulary learning remains a relatively under-researched line of inquiry in the
literature.”
“The study attempts to evaluate the moderator variables such as context of
instruction, publication type, the age of the participants, and the L2 learners’ profi-
ciency level on the L2 vocabulary learning, type of technology, word type.”

3.1.6.2 Methodology

“The criteria stipulated for the inclusion of the studies for the current meta-analysis
were as follows; 1) Dependent variable, in this meta-analysis, is second or foreign
language vocabulary acquisition.”
“2) Studies included for the current meta-analysis should be experimental or
quasi-experimental.”
“5) The current meta-analysis included both published and unpublished studies.”
“Among unpublished studies, doctoral dissertations will be included in the cur-
rent meta-analysis to the exclusions of the proceedings of the conferences.”
“Studies published before 2004 were excluded from the present meta-analysis.”
“Coding measurement procedures and research settings would enable the
reviewer to assess whether effect size estimates had been affected by the choice of
instrument or the location of the study [36].”
“For the present meta-analysis, the coding scheme was constructed by reviewing
previously published meta-analyses and based on the research questions that guided
the present study.”

3.1.6.3 Results

“The second research question asked, “To what extent the effect sizes varied across
studies?”“.
“It indicated that the null hypothesis should be rejected, Q (16) = 59.94, p < .01,
finding that effect sizes varied significantly across studies.”
“The answer to the second research question is that there is sizable variation of
effect sizes across studies.”
“This type of distribution would reflect the tendency for smaller studies with
larger than average effect sizes, making them more likely to achieve statistical sig-
nificance, to be published [37].”
64 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“When publication bias is not present, the studies should be distributed sym-
metrically around the average effect size because of random sampling error.”
“Studies with larger sample sizes appear towards the upper portion of the funnel
and are relatively evenly distributed about the mean, with the graph indicating that
medium and larger scale studies with medium effect sizes were well represented.”

3.1.6.4 Moderator Variable Analysis

“A small to medium effect (d = 0.53) for Second language contexts and large effect
for foreign language settings (d = 0.96) were obtained.”
“The difference between foreign language and second language contexts was not
statistically significant (Q = 3.02, df = 1, P = 0.08).”
“Ten primary studies were conducted targeting intermediate l2 learners and 5
studies included participants in elementary level of L2 proficiency.”
“With respect to L2 proficiency level, small effect size (d = 0.53) was obtained
for both advanced and elementary levels (d = 0.54).”
“Large effect size (d = 0.95) was gained for intermediate L2 learners.”
“CALL technology produced the effect size of (d = 0.68, k = 7).”
“The smallest effect size was gained for studies that employed song to teach the
target words (d = 0.47, k = 0.47).”

3.1.6.5 General Discussion

“The mean effect size associated with the studies conducted in FL contexts was
larger than those conducted in SL contexts, indicating that L2 vocabulary instruc-
tion was more effective in FL contexts than in SL ones (d = 0.96 vs. d = 0.53).”
“The results of Huang’s [38] meta-analysis showed that the vocabulary learning
of language learners with low proficiency levels and vocabulary sizes may benefit
more from L1 textual glosses than those who have higher proficiency levels and
larger vocabulary sizes.”
“Future research should examine other potential moderators, including setting
(e.g., instructed vs. naturalistic setting), instructional variables (e.g., instructional
tasks and activities), teacher orientation (e.g., beliefs and attitudes), and L2 learner
variables (e.g., type of motivation, cognitive style, and learning strategies) that may
influence the effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction.”

3.1.6.6 Conclusion

“The research synthesis indicates that l2 vocabulary instruction was effective and
given the significance of vocabulary, L2 vocabulary teaching should be incorpo-
rated as indispensable part of L2 syllabus.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 65

“What remains unresolved, here, is the question of what factors and variables
enhance L2 vocabulary development more effectively than the other variables.”
“To gain such an insight, we call for constructing L2 vocabulary models and
hypotheses that provide syllabus designers and language teachers with cost-­effective
techniques of teaching L2 vocabulary items.”

3.1.7 Music as a Mnemonic Device for Foreign Vocabulary

Learning [79]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Chen, I-Shan Jenny: Music as a Mnemonic Device for Foreign Vocabulary
Learning [79]
Published in: English Teaching & Learning (2020)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42321-­020-­00049-­z
Copyright of the summarized publication:
National Taiwan Normal University 2020
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “It is of value to determine whether it is beneficial to incorpo-
rate music when young EFL (English as a foreign language) learners acquire new
vocabulary.”
“The research attempted to determine whether music can help young EFL learn-
ers with vocabulary acquisition and if so, which pedagogical practice leads to the
optimal gains.”
“Results found in this study proved that the better acquisition of novel vocabu-
lary in EFL learning could be achieved with the help of familiar melodies, with
“chanting” and “music video with caption” methods being the most effective and
lead to immediate and prolonged learning.”

3.1.7.1 Introduction

“Of neuroimaging studies (e.g., [39–42]), researchers have provided empirical evi-
dence that areas of the brains underlying the processing of music and language are
interconnected; incongruities in a piece of music are found to be processed in the
Broca area—the same area responsible for language processing.”
“In recent years, researchers and practitioners have empirically established that
music can effectively serve as a platform for various aspects of language learning,
66 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

including enhancing students’ motivation and attention (e.g., [43]) and learning
novel words (e.g., [44, 45]).”
“Researches have indicated that language learners seem to retain textual infor-
mation longer when accompanied with melody than just learning the text without
music [45–49].”
“Existing research on music and language learning is predominantly based on
first language (L1) and second language (L2) learners, who continue to have access
to native input beyond the study settings (e.g., [39, 45, 49–51]).”

3.1.7.2 Literature Review

“To substantiate the above view, Wallace [49] conducted another experiment in
which the learners were assigned to two music conditions: (1) familiar tune condi-
tion, where the learners learned a novel ballad sung to the same melody condition
three times; and (2) unfamiliar tune condition, where the learners learned the same
ballad sung with three different melodies.”
“The finding, thus, provided affirmative evidence for the facilitative role of
familiar tunes in retaining the novel’s lexical and textual information; music only
became effective retrieval cues for the target linguistic materials when the melody
or tune is sufficiently learned and/or is familiar to the learners.”
“It remains unclear if familiar music tunes/songs can be used to facilitate lan-
guage learning and retention of words of different nature: novel vs. partially learned
(unfamiliar) words.”
“Of the immediate test, the researchers posited that music with a familiar
tune or melody was an effective mnemonic device for short-term retention of
novel words.”

3.1.7.3 Methodology

“Under the “chanting” condition, with the help of a tambourine, the teacher guided
the participants to chant the lyrics of the song with no melody (similar to the prac-
tice of Jazz Chants); the music treatment was mainly administered to students
through singular (audio-only) modality.”
“The participants under the no intervention condition were taught the vocabulary
at the beginning and simply tested at the end with no music intervention.”
“Despite the aforementioned differences in how the input was provided, the par-
ticipants in the four interventional groups (conditions 1–4) received comparable
length of music treatment every week (20 min every week).”
“Only the 18 target words were the focus of the study; a point was awarded to
each participant for correct answer of each target word, yielding the highest possi-
ble score of 18 points for the multiple-choice test.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 67

3.1.7.4 Results

“After undergoing the treatment conditions under investigation, the participants’

mean scores on the immediate vocabulary test in groups of chanting, singing, music-­
video-­only, music-video-plus-caption, and control are 7.14, 7.65, 6.39, 7.2, and 6.5,
respectively.”
“With regard to the delayed vocabulary test, the descriptive statistics showed that
the participants assigned to the “chanting group” received the highest mean raw
score (mean = 8.18); the participants assigned to the “music-video-plus-caption”
group also had comparable (satisfying) performance, as indicated by their mean raw
score on the delayed vocabulary test (mean = 7.55)—a result reminiscent of the
scenario observed in the immediate vocabulary test.”
“In light of this, Tukey’s HSD test was performed and showed that there was a
significant difference in the participants’ performance between the “chanting” and
the control groups (t = 4.29, p < .005), and between the “music-video plus-caption”
and the control groups (t = 3.16, p < .05).”

3.1.7.5 Discussion

“Examinations of the participants’ data from the immediate and delayed tests
revealed that rhythm (as provided by the “chanting” condition) and melody (as pro-
vided by the “singing” and “music-video-plus-caption” conditions) did not seem to
provide the same memory scaffold for the target vocabulary, with the former (rhythm
as provided under the chanting condition) playing a more effective role in retaining
the observed vocabulary gain.”
“Another alternative desirable (i.e., second best) music-based treatment is the
“music-video-plus-caption” condition; its positive impact is captured in all immedi-
ate and delayed vocabulary measures, thus establishing the facilitative role of mul-
timodal input as provided by the use of multimedia.”
“Although the most desirable music-based treatment conditions for immediate
and delayed vocabulary gains are not exactly the same (“singing” and “chanting”
for immediate and delayed gains, respectively), this study argues that chanting may
be a better option based on Peretz et al. [52] account noted above.”

3.1.7.6 Conclusion

“While it is common practice to use music in children’s EFL classrooms, there are
many different forms.”
“In this day and age, new devices and technologies are being utilized in
classrooms; however, are they necessary and do they necessarily result in better
learning?”
68 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“Even chanting, with the absence of a melody, an even more basic practice, pro-
duced surprisingly exceptional results in the receptive form-meaning vocabulary
knowledge.”

3.1.8 An English Vocabulary Learning Support System

for the Learner’s Sustainable Motivation [80]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Hasegawa, Tatsuhito; Koshino, Makoto; Ban, Hiromi: An English vocabulary learn-
ing support system for the learner’s sustainable motivation [80]
Published in: SpringerPlus (2015)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-­015-­0792-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Hasegawa et al.; licensee Springer. 2015
License: OpenAccess CC BY 4.0
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which per-
mits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium
or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes
were made.
Copyright comment: This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative
Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/pub-
licdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless oth-
erwise stated.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “In English vocabulary learning, continuation is an important
factor; however, many learners are not good at continuing learning because they
tend to prefer amusement or rest.”
“We especially focused on English vocabulary learning, and described an
approach for learners who have difficulty with continuing learning.”

3.1.8.1 Introduction

“Considering an e-learning environment where mobile devices are used, the term
“mobile learning,” or m-learning, is also focused on [53].”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 69

“We considered that using a smartphone is effective for independent learning

such as English vocabulary memorization because a learner can use the smartphone
anytime and anywhere when the learner has only a little time.”
“In English vocabulary learning, continuation is an important factor, although,
many learners are not good at continuing learning.”
“Focusing on [2] learners, we developed an English vocabulary learning applica-
tion for the learner’s sustainable motivation by gamification and cloud intelligent
techniques utilizing characteristics of smartphones.”

3.1.8.2 Related Works

“E-learning has an advantage that a learner can learn alone anytime and anywhere;
however, it also has a disadvantage that it is difficult for the learner to maintain his/
her motivation.”
“We clarify a position and a characteristic of our study, through considerations of
related works which enhance the learners’ motivation in the e-learning
environment.”
“In order to maintain the learners’ motivation, we focused on gamification
techniques.”
“We considered that utilizing gamification techniques in e-learning has a positive
influence on the user’s learning motivation.”
“We considered that difficulty settings of questions are also important to main-
tain the learner’s motivation.”
“Focusing on the independent learning of English vocabulary memorization, we
developed an m-learning application utilizing gamification techniques for keeping
the learner’s motivation.”

3.1.8.3 Proposal System Design

“Task is a question or problem in the game to help learners to absorb the learning
content (i.e., English word questions in this case), and it should be designed with
different levels.”
“This idea may be effective for learners who have little motivation to learn; how-
ever, the game with a few learning features has disadvantages for our concept as
follows: (1) it increases wasteful time for learning; (2) learners will get tired of
learning if the learners get tired of the video game; (3) the pain of learning in itself
is not decreased; therefore, in our application, we selected simple English vocabu-
lary learning in a repetition style with some gamification factors.”
“This application shows a learner’s efforts such as the number of answered ques-
tions, the number of correct answers, and the difficulty of learned questions.”
70 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

3.1.8.4 Question Selection by Estimating Learner’s Skills

“We propose a new method that estimates whether the learner has already mastered
a word; accordingly, setting a suitable percentage of mastered words and unmas-
tered words improves the learner’s motivation.”
“Rounding V a l u e(u,w) to the nearest whole number, when the rounded value
is 1, it means that the learner u has already mastered the word w. S i m i l a r i t y(u,v)
means the degree of similarity between the learner u and v. These are calculated as
follows, where u is a learner about whom we estimate whether a word w has already
been mastered, V′ is a group of 10 learners’ who have the highest degree of similar-
ity of all learners, rvw is the latest answer for the word w by the learner v (True is 1
and False is 0), and |W′| is the number of words which the learner u has already
learned.”

3.1.8.5 Our Application Evaluation

“We considered that the learners felt that time trial challenge was more characteris-
tic than weak point learning because the number of answers of “Neither agree nor
disagree” in the time trial challenge was significantly fewer than that in the weak
point learning.”
“About content no.11, the ratio of “Agree” was 73.1% which was the highest
ratio of all; therefore, most learners are especially interested in the clear points and
ranking function.”
“About content no.13 and no.14, both these contents have a lower ratio of
“Agree”; further, the ratio of “Disagree” in no.14 was 61.5% which was the highest
ratio of all; therefore, most learners were not interested in submitting their score to
SNS services, and they thought that the SNS function did not affect their motivation
in this case.”

3.1.8.6 Conclusion

“Focusing on motivated learners who cannot continue learning, we developed an

English vocabulary learning support system for sustainable motivation.”
“This application is equipped with the necessary functions for English vocabu-
lary learning.”
“We believe that we have succeeded in making an application that supports the
growth of self-sufficient learners in the following steps: (1) learner who cannot
continue learning; (2) learner who enjoys our application in terms of gamification;
(3) learner who is interested in self-growth; (4) self-sufficient learner.”
“As future efforts, we will evaluate the degree of continuation using our
application.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 71

3.1.9 The Effects of Vocabulary Enhancement Exercises

and Group Dynamic Assessment on Word Learning
Through Lexical Inferencing [81]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Bahramlou, Khosro; Esmaeili, Adel: The Effects of Vocabulary Enhancement
Exercises and Group Dynamic Assessment on Word Learning Through Lexical
Inferencing [81]
Published in: Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (2019)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-­019-­09638-­x
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The study aimed to explore the effect of group dynamic
assessment on word learning through lexical inferencing and to compare it to that of
vocabulary enhancement exercises.”
“Of each treatment session, the first group engaged in lexical inferencing of the
underlined words within group dynamic assessment framework.”
“The second group did two vocabulary exercises for each target word.”
“The third group engaged in lexical inferencing of target words through group
dynamic assessment framework and also did one vocabulary exercise for each tar-
get word.”
“The results showed that in terms of gains in depth and size of vocabulary knowl-
edge the first and the second groups were not significantly different.”
“It was concluded that group dynamic assessment is as effective as vocabulary
exercises in enhancing word learning through lexical inferencing and that the com-
bination of group dynamic assessment and vocabulary exercises could enhance
word learning through lexical inferencing even more.”

3.1.9.1 Introduction

“In Wesche and Paribakht’s [54] view, lexical inferencing is primarily a reading
comprehension strategy through which some words might be learnt as a byproduct.”
“In naturalistic lexical inferencing studies, the learners are not informed of the
presence of unfamiliar words within the texts.”
“To improve word learning through lexical inferencing, interventionist lexical
inferencing studies were developed.”
72 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“Another hypothesis was forwarded to improve word learning through lexical

inferencing.”
“The current study aimed to explore the effects of VE exercises and GDA on the
amount of word learning through lexical inferencing.”
“Among VE exercises, GDA, and GDA plus VE exercises, which condition
would lead to more word learning through lexical inferencing?”

3.1.9.2 Theoretical Background

“The instructor could intervene in the inferencing process and offer mediational
hints to the learners who cannot independently infer the meanings of unfamil-
iar words.”
“A two-way interactive relationship would be developed between the teacher and
the learner in which the learner could also initiate questions, seek feedback on his/
her inferences, and ask for more explicit mediational hints if needed.”
“GDA aims to co-construct the ZPD of a group of learners in learning tasks
which are beyond the independent control of all individual members of the group.”
“The teacher may interact with individual learners; however, he/she would
quickly shift from these primary interactants to secondary interactants to keep the
task aligned with the ZPD of the whole group.”
“In cumulative GDA, the teacher engages in a sequence of one-to-one interac-
tions with individual members of the group to help the whole group to gain mastery
over the task objective.”

3.1.9.3 Review of Literature

“A number of interventionist lexical inferencing studies have shown that directing

learners’ attention toward the unfamiliar words through annotations, marginal
glosses, production tasks, use of bilingual dictionaries, or VE activities could sub-
stantially enhance word learning through lexical inferencing [55–64].”
“Regarding the effect of DA on word learning through lexical inferencing, Hayes
[65] conducted a lexical inferencing study with 28 fourth grade L1 learners.”
“She began with the first unfamiliar word of the text and asked the learner to
provide its meaning.”
“When the provided meaning was incorrect, the researcher provided the first
mediational prompt by pointing to the word in the text and asked the learner to give
the word meaning.”
“In their experiment group which received CDA treatment, when the selected
option was incorrect, the program drew on the text and presented four successive
mediational hints arranged from the most implicit to the most explicit until the
learner inferred the word meaning correctly or the meaning was provided by the
program.”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 73

3.1.9.4 Method

“This range of vocabulary knowledge was selected so that some of the texts’ words
would be unfamiliar to the learners.”
“At least 95% of the text’s words should be familiar to the learner.”
“The words for which contextual clues could be located in the text or in the
knowledge of the intended learners were selected as lexical inferencing targets.”
“Of each session, in the GDA group the teacher required one learner to read
aloud the paragraph which contained the first target word.”
“Of each session, in the VE group each learner received a sheet of paper which
contained two exercises for each of the text’s target words.”
“After a 5-min break, each member of the ‘GDA + VE’ group received a sheet of
paper which contained one exercise for each of the text’s target words.”

3.1.9.5 Results

“Test of between-subjects effects showed that on the dependent variables, group

means were significantly different: FLearning(2, 42) = 4.70, p < 0.014; partial η2 = 0.18;
FRetention(2, 42) = 7.22, p < 0.002; partial η2 = 0.25.”
“The mean scores of GDA and VE groups on learning and retention variables did
not differ significantly: GDA-VE mean difference on learning variable = 0.67,
p < 0.797; GDA-VE mean difference on retention variable = 1.40, p < 0.392.”
“The mean scores of ‘GDA + VE’ group were significantly higher than those of
the GDA and VE groups: GDAVE-GDA mean difference on learning variable = 6.00,
p < 0.025; GDAVE-VE mean difference on learning variable = 6.67, p < 0.013;
GDAVE-GDA mean difference on retention variable = 7.80, p < 0.000; GDAVE-VE
mean difference on retention variable = 6.40, p < 0.000.”

3.1.9.6 Discussion and Conclusion

“This study investigated the effect of GDA on word learning through lexical infer-
encing and compared it to that of VE exercises.”
“In the GDA and VE groups, mean gains in size of vocabulary knowledge (learn-
ing posttest) amounted to 53.32% and 51.54% of the target words, respectively.”
“To naturalistic lexical inferencing studies which reported less than 20% gains in
knowledge of target words in immediate posttests [66–72], VE exercises and GDA
lead to substantially more vocabulary learning.”
“Since vocabulary gains in GDA and VE groups of this study were not signifi-
cantly different, it could be concluded that, just like VE exercises, GDA could
enhance word learning through lexical inferencing.”
“This measure helped promote the learners’ developing lexical inferencing abil-
ity and enhance word learning through this strategy.”
“DA procedures helped promote developing inferencing abilities and VE exer-
cises enhanced the salience and cognitive processing of the target words.”
74 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

3.1.10 Vocabulary Learning from Reading: Examining

Interactions Between Task and Learner Related
Variables [82]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Wu, Xiaoli; Lowyck, Joost; Sercu, Lies; Elen, Jan: Vocabulary learning from read-
ing: examining interactions between task and learner related variables [82]
Published in: European Journal of Psychology of Education (2012)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-­012-­0113-­x
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal and Springer
Science+Business Media BV 2012
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “In the field of second and foreign language learning, how
various task characteristics affect language learning has been the focus of many
recent studies.”
“Much of this research examined the relationship between task characteristics
and task performance without fully taking into account learner related variables.”
“The present study aimed to assess task complexity and sequence in relation to
the learner related variables drawn from the social cognitive perspective of self-­
regulated learning, i.e. self-efficacy beliefs and frequency of learning strategy use,
as they were applied to two versions of vocabulary learning from reading tasks.”
“Results reveal a significant effect of task sequence on vocabulary learning self-­
efficacy beliefs, frequency of learning strategy use and task performance, and a
significant interaction effect of sequence with task complexity.”

3.1.10.1 Introduction

“The theoretical and empirical literature on information processing (such as the

cognitive complexity dimension of the task), as well as the literature on social cog-
nitive constructs from mainstream educational psychology (such as self-efficacy
beliefs), have not produced substantial progress in the domain of L2 vocabulary
learning.”
“It is reasonable to expect that tasks at varying levels of complexity may affect
learners’ self-efficacy beliefs and demand different cognitive learning strategies.”
“What effect does the designed task at different levels of complexity have on
learners’ self-efficacy beliefs, learning strategy use and task performance?”
3.1 Machine Generated Summaries 75

“We were also interested to know if there was a main effect of task sequence
and/or an interaction effect of task complexity and task sequence on learners’
self-­efficacy beliefs, use of learning strategies and task performance.”

3.1.10.2 Method

“The vocabulary learning from reading task required participants to read a text pas-
sage, understand the content of the text, learn the target words from the provided
text and answer true or false comprehension questions.”
“A vocabulary learning self-efficacy scale was also developed to elicit partici-
pants’ judgements of their confidence that they possess the skills appropriate for
performing vocabulary learning tasks from reading.”
“Participants were asked to rate their self-efficacy for these aspects of vocabulary
learning for each task version.”
“Participants were asked to complete both the task self-efficacy and vocabulary
learning self-efficacy scales on this task.”
“In order to examine if there was a main effect on self-efficacy beliefs, learning
strategies and vocabulary post-tests for text, task complexity and the possible inter-
action effect for the between-subject variables task sequence and task complexity,
MANOVA was used as the main statistical procedure in the data analysis.”

3.1.10.3 Results

“The text variable did not have any effect on task self-efficacy, vocabulary learning
self-efficacy, learning strategy use and post-test score.”
“With regard to the effect of task complexity on self-efficacy beliefs, learning
strategy use and task performance, univariate tests showed only a significant effect
on learning strategy use [F(1, 275) = 31.83, p < 0.001, partial eta squared is 0.10].”
“The main analyses reveal a substantial effect of task complexity on learning
strategy use; however, we did not find a significant effect of task complexity on self-­
efficacy beliefs and performance measures.”
“With regard to the effect of sequence on the dependent variables, the results
showed significant effects on vocabulary learning self-efficacy F(1, 275) = 3.80,
p < 0.05, learning strategy use F(1, 275) = 4.43, p < 0.05, and task performance
F(1, 275) = 21.79, p < 0.001.”

3.1.10.4 Discussion and Conclusion

“The current study examined the effect of task complexity and the possible interac-
tion effect of task complexity and task sequence on students’ self-efficacy beliefs,
learning strategy use and task performance with two versions of vocabulary learn-
ing from reading tasks that were manipulated along the complexity dimension +/−
single task demand.”
76 3 Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Strategies

“Regarding the first main research question on the effect of task complexity on
the learner related variables, contrary to our hypotheses, no significant effect from
task complexity was found for students’ task self-efficacy beliefs, vocabulary learn-
ing self-efficacy beliefs and task performance; a significant negative effect of task
complexity was only found for learning strategy use.”
“Results from the current study showed a significant main effect of task sequence
and a significant interaction effect of task complexity and task sequence on stu-
dents’ vocabulary learning self-efficacy beliefs, frequency of learning strategy use
and task performance.”

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Chapter 4
ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1 Machine Generated Summaries

Disclaimer: The summaries in this chapter were generated from Springer Nature
publications using extractive AI auto-summarization: An extraction-based summa-
rizer aims to identify the most important sentences of a text using an algorithm and
uses those original sentences to create the auto-summary (unlike generative AI).
As the constituted sentences are machine selected, they may not fully reflect the
body of the work, so we strongly advise that the original content is read and cited.
The auto generated summaries were curated by the editor to meet Springer Nature
publication standards. To cite this content, please refer to the original papers.
Machine generated keywords: gloss, flashcard, multimedia, glossary, paper,
electronic, hypermedia, electronic gloss, glossing, paper flashcard, online, esl,
digital, glossary information, mobile.

4.1.1 The Effects of Electronic Glossing Types on Foreign

Language Vocabulary Learning: Different Types
of Format and Glossary Information [65]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Lee, Hansol; Lee, Jang Ho: The Effects of Electronic Glossing Types on Foreign
Language Vocabulary Learning: Different Types of Format and Glossary
Information [65]
Published in: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (2014)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-­014-­0204-­3

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 81

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_4
82 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

Copyright of the summarized publication:

De La Salle University 2014
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This study investigated the effects of three different types of
electronic textual glosses, tooltip-type glossing, frame-type glossing, and concor-
dance glossing on foreign language vocabulary learning.”
“While the first two glossing types provide the definitions of glossed words, with
the only difference being their user interface designs, the third type provides authen-
tic concordance sentences for glossed words.”
“The results showed that the intermediate EFL learners were affected not by a
difference in terms of glossing formats, but by the type of information provided,
with tooltip-type and frame-type glosses bringing about more positive learning
outcomes.”
“While the three groups all experienced a similar cognitive load, the findings
further revealed that the tooltip-type and frame-type groups made greater gains of
target vocabulary than their concordance counterpart.”

4.1.1.1 Introduction

“The present study was driven by Nation’s [1] introduction to the different types of
glossing available for enhancing FL vocabulary learning in computer-assisted learn-
ing environments.”
“Nation [1] and Al-Seghayer’s [2] descriptions of different types of glossing
have recently engaged the interest of FL vocabulary researchers, with one strand of
research examining different glossing formats and another investigating different
types of glossary information.”
“The aim of the present study is to compare the effects of three different
electronic glossing types—namely tooltip-type, frame-type, and concordance
glosses—which have attracted increasing attention in recent studies (e.g., Nation
[1]; AbuSeileek [3]; Poole [4]), but which have not been compared systematically in
one empirical study in terms of their effects on FL vocabulary learning.”

4.1.1.2 Literature Review

“While previous studies have uncovered significant evidence in favor of the positive
effects of electronic glossing, research inquiries into which glossing format and
type of information would facilitate vocabulary acquisition have only recently
gained attention from researchers, which will be discussed in what follows.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 83

“In this line of research, Yeung [5] examined the effects of two different glossing
formats in a paper-based reading context—(1) an integrated format of glossing
where vocabulary definition was given right above the glossed word and (2) a sepa-
rated format which referred to a list of target words and their definitions given at the
end of the text, in terms of the reading comprehension, vocabulary learning, and
imposed cognitive load on learners with different FL proficiencies.”
“The present study aims to extend Poole’s study by exposing learners to authen-
tic concordance sentences, and comparing their effect with the two different formats
of glossing mentioned in the previous section.”

4.1.1.3 Research Questions

“Hypothesis 1a: The gains of the group assigned to the concordance glossing condi-
tion will be lower than those of the groups assigned to the definition-type of gloss-
ing conditions.”
“Hypothesis 1b: The gains of the group assigned to the tooltip-type glossing will
be higher than those of the group assigned to the frame-type glossing. (2) Do EFL
adult learners assigned to different glossing types in hypermedia reading environ-
ments show differences in their self-perceived amount of cognitive load and in their
perception of the usefulness of the respective glossing types they encounter?”
“Hypothesis 2a: In view of their level of English language proficiency, the
group assigned to the concordance glossing condition and the other two groups
assigned to definition-type glossing will experience a similar amount of
cognitive load.”

4.1.1.4 Research Design

“Adapting the questionnaire in Yeung [5], the authors developed an online post-­
reading questionnaire which asked about the participants’ perception of the diffi-
culty of the reading text and target vocabulary, which was in turn operationalized as
the mental effort (i.e., cognitive load) involved in dealing with them via the respec-
tive glossing devices.”
“The participants were all given the pre-test of vocabulary, which consisted of 30
words found in the target text.”
“The results of a one-way ANOVA on the participants’ TOEIC scores and the
pre-test of vocabulary did not reach a statistical significance (F (2, 80) = 0.12,
p = 0.89 for TOEIC and F (2, 80) = 0.23, p = 0.79 for the pre-test), indicating that
there was no significant difference among the three groups in their general English
proficiency and their knowledge of the target words prior to reading at the outset of
the study.”
84 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.1.5 Results

“This means that the participants from the three groups did not perform in a parallel
manner across the three testing points, and this statistical significance appears to be
caused by the fact that the mean score of the CG group on the post-test did not
increase as sharply as those of the FG and TG groups.”
“Comparisons using a post-hoc test confirmed that the mean scores of the FG
and TG groups were significantly higher than that of the CG group, but the differ-
ence in the mean scores of the FG and TG groups did not reach statistical
significance.”
“A similar result was found with the delayed test, with the results of ANOVA
again revealing the statistical significance of the differences among the groups
(F (2, 80) = 8.64, p = 0.001).”

4.1.1.6 Discussion and Conclusion

“In light of the general findings from previous glossing research that glossing almost
without exception results in better learning than the lack thereof, it can be suggested
that the three glossing types in the present study enhanced the participants’ vocabu-
lary knowledge.”
“Regarding the differences among the three glossing types in the post-test and
delayed tests, the results showed that those who read the text with definitions of
target vocabulary in tooltip-type and frame-type glosses fared better than those who
had to infer the meaning of glossed words from authentic concordance sentences;
thus, the authors’ hypothesis regarding the relative effectiveness of concordance
glossing and definition-based glossing was supported.”
“The findings of the present study, along with previous studies that have exam-
ined the effects of corpora use (but not in a glossing format) have hinted that provid-
ing concordance lines only may not be the most effective route in terms of learning
the meaning of target vocabulary.”

4.1.2 Multimedia-Assisted Self-Learning Materials:

The Benefits of E-flashcards for Vocabulary Learning
in Chinese as a Foreign Language [66]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Li, Jui-Teng; Tong, Fuhui: Multimedia-assisted self-learning materials: the benefits
of E-flashcards for vocabulary learning in Chinese as a foreign language [66]
Published in: Reading and Writing (2018)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-­018-­9906-­x
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 85

Copyright of the summarized publication:

Springer Nature B.V. 2018
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “We examined the effects of E-flashcards and paper flash-
cards on Chinese vocabulary learning and learning attitudes among students learn-
ing Chinese as a foreign language.”
“One hundred fourth and fifth grade English-speaking students participated in
two groups, E-flashcards (n = 50) and paper flashcards (n = 50), to learn 20 new
Chinese words.”
“Students who used E-flashcards demonstrated more positive learning attitudes
toward Chinese word learning than those who used paper flashcards.”

4.1.2.1 Introduction

“E-flashcards (or digital flashcards), one type of multimedia-assisted vocabulary

learning material, have been found to positively impact second language (L2) learn-
ers’ word attainment [6, 7], as well as their learning attitudes [7–10].”
“Little research has been conducted on the difference between paper flashcards
and E-flashcards on Chinese word learning and recall when measured by reading
and listening tests among elementary English-speaking students.”
“To address such limitation, in this current study we: (a) compared the effects of
E-flashcards versus paper flashcards on elementary Chinese language learners’
word learning and recall as measured by reading and listening tests; (b) discovered
learners’ attitudes toward the use of E-flashcards on Chinese word learning; and
(c) discussed the pedagogy of multimedia-assisted vocabulary learning in the
context of Chinese as a foreign language.”
“We developed E-flashcards on iPads with three features: (a) audio (the sound of
target Chinese words); (b) verbal (the written form of Chinese words); and (c) visual
(a corresponding picture), so as to make the materials more accessible to students’
Chinese learning.”

4.1.2.2 Theoretical Framework

“The framework of this study is derived from the cognitive theory of multimedia
learning [11].”
“Mayer [11] defined multimedia learning as the idea that new knowledge can be
learned through electronic instructional materials presented in both verbal and
visual forms.”
86 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“Mayer proposed three assumptions of cognitive theory in multimedia learning:

dual channels, limited capacity, and active processing.”
“The assumption of limited capacity is that through each channel human beings
can process a limited amount of information.”

4.1.2.3 Literature Review

“Chuang and Ku [7] and Low et al. [10] reported that Chinese language learners
exhibited positive attitudes toward the use of E-flashcards to learn Chinese vocabu-
lary words; moreover, they felt more motivated to concentrate on vocabulary word
learning.”
“Given the nature of the Chinese language, E-flashcards with multiple modalities
(i.e., visual, verbal, and audio) are expected to have a stronger effect on Chinese
word learning than do paper flashcards.”
“There have been no peer-reviewed studies examining elementary Chinese lan-
guage learners’ attitudes toward technology-enhanced materials such as E-flashcards
embedded with audio (the sound of the Chinese words), visual (the picture of the
words), and verbal (the written words) support on Chinese word recall as measured
by reading and listening tests.”
“We created E-flashcards with multiple modalities exclusively for use on iPads;
in our study, we explored the effects of these self-learning E-flashcards on Chinese
language learners’ attitudes, as well as on their Chinese word recall.”

4.1.2.4 Method

“Because these 20 target Chinese words were identified as unfamiliar words to all
students, pre-test scores of two groups (e-flashcard and paper flashcard) were not
statistically different from one another for both reading t(98) = .218, p > .05, and
listening t(98) = .883, p > .05.”
“On the first Friday, 25 fourth graders received a set of 20 E-flashcards and self-­
learned the 20 target words; the other 25 fourth graders received a set of 20 paper
flashcards with the same 20 words.”
“On the second Friday, 25 fifth graders received a set of 20 E-flashcards and self-­
learned the 20 target words which were different from the words the fourth graders
learned.”
“No teacher-led vocabulary instruction was given to the participants, and stu-
dents were encouraged to pronounce each target word while they used E-flashcards
and paper flashcards.”
“Students began using E-flashcards to learn words.”
“Students began using flashcards to learn words.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 87

4.1.2.5 Results

“Post-hoc comparison revealed that students in E-flashcard group statistically out-

performed students in paper flashcard group on the immediate post-test, F(1,
98) = 51.946, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 1.44.”
“Regarding within-subject effect of test occasion on both E-flashcard approach
and paper flashcard approaches, post hoc test showed that students’ vocabulary
scores were the highest on immediate post-test, followed by on 1-week delayed test,
and pre-test.”
“Post-hoc comparison revealed that students in E-flashcard group statistically
outperformed students in paper flashcard group on the immediate post-test, F(1,
98) = 543.017, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 4.6, as well as on the 1-week delayed test, F(1,
98) = 96.795, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 1.94.”
“The third research question was to discover if there was a significant difference
between the use of E-flashcards and paper flashcards on students’ attitudes toward
Chinese vocabulary word learning.”

4.1.2.6 Discussion

“The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of self-learning E-flashcards
and paper flashcards on Chinese language learners’ Chinese word learning and
recall, as well as their learning attitudes.”
“We found that compared to novice Chinese language learners who used paper
flashcards, learners who used E-flashcards demonstrated higher levels of attention,
relevance, confidence, and satisfaction in Chinese word learning.”
“Further, E-flashcards with multiple inputs provided the students with more
opportunities to explore useful and meaningful information, which assisted them in
learning and memorizing Chinese words.”
“Given the limited prior research about E-flashcards on Chinese word learning,
this study contributes to the field by providing empirical evidence on the integration
of paper flashcards with multimedia sources to create E-flashcards and to address
learners’ attitudes in learning Chinese as a foreign language among elementary
English-speaking students.”

4.1.2.7 Limitations and Future Directions

“The participants were fourth and fifth grade native English speakers; therefore,
results of this study cannot be generalized beyond the grade level of students who
are novice Chinese language learners.”
“The use of iPads could be a confounding variable on students’ learning attitudes
as they are generally interested in the device.”
88 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“Further, given the purpose of this study which is to investigate how self-learning
Chinese word flashcards can be made to be more meaningful and accessible through
the use of multimedia to young Chinese language learners, we did not focus on the
comparison between the modality.”
“We are currently conducting a study to compare students’ Chinese word learn-
ing between groups with and without the audio input on iPads.”

4.1.3 The Effects of Online Glossary Quizzes and Student

Autonomy on Domain Vocabulary Learning in Business
Law [67]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Lee, Eunbae; Harris, R. Lainie Wilson: The effects of online glossary quizzes and
student autonomy on domain vocabulary learning in business law [67]
Published in: Journal of Computing in Higher Education (2018)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-­018-­9183-­3
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Undergraduate business law students (n = 209) took weekly
online glossary quizzes via a learning management system before coming to
the class.”
“Students were divided into two groups where (a) glossary quizzes were required
and graded and (b) optional and not graded.”
“While both groups valued the glossary quiz as a helpful learning activity, stu-
dents in the required group made more attempts at quizzes (t = 17.029, p < .01),
received higher scores (t = 2.841, p < .01), and demonstrated higher perceived com-
petence (t = 5.544, p < .01) in their command of vocabularies than students in the
optional group.”
“Findings suggest required glossary quizzes enhance student engagement with
quizzes and further improves content learning.”
“The use of glossary quizzes proved effective only when students actually com-
pleted these numerous times.”
“Educators are recommended to encourage repeated attempts at glossary quizzes
where unfamiliar vocabularies are crucial to content understanding and professional
practice.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 89

4.1.3.1 Introduction

“The goal of teaching the domain specific terminology is two-fold: first, it provides
students with a foundational understanding of the discipline.”
“Domain specific vocabularies are also an important part of college coursework
because these offer a primary source of the nature and distinct characteristics of the
discipline.”
“In Business Law, discipline-specific vocabularies introduced in content areas
often have many of these everyday meanings that may distract and confuse stu-
dents [12].”
“It is important to understand the relationship between the competency of
discipline-­specific vocabulary and overall performance on the subject in order to
adequately support students in its mastery.”
“This study sheds light on the impact learning domain vocabularies using online
glossary quizzes may have on student academic performance and engagement in the
context of Business Law.”
“This study informs the role of autonomy and perceived competence in student
engagement with glossary quizzes, and its extended effect on student academic
performance.”

4.1.3.2 Theoretical Framework

“Self-determination theory suggests that humans have innate needs of autonomy

and perceived competence [13].”
“Autonomy, when applied to learning, is defined as a perceived control over
learning environments: what, when, where, and how students will engage in learn-
ing activities and how their needs and interests are respected by instructors and
other stakeholders [14].”
“Perceived competence refers to student beliefs about their ability to do well in
an academic environment [15].”
“In the context of jargon-heavy disciplines, perceived competence is particularly
important because perceived competence in language proficiency is reportedly a
significant predictor of performance and engagement with the academic tasks [16].”
“In language learning settings, instructional activities should be designed with
research based evidence to foster a student’s innate need for perceived autonomy
and competence, capturing the learner’s desire to succeed despite growing levels of
difficulty [17].”

4.1.3.3 Literature Review

“In stage five, advanced language proficiency students have knowledge of some
specialized vocabulary and can speak [the second language] comparable to same-­
age native speakers [18].”
90 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“The teacher bore all responsibility for educating students in the classroom,
but Yang [18] suggests the student and teacher should share this responsibility in a
second language learning classroom.”
“In a Turkish university where courses were conducted in English, their non-­
native language, students’ perceived competence in their English language profi-
ciency was a significant predictor of academic performance and engagement with
academic tasks [16].”
“Previous research suggested that students’ autonomous motivation and per-
ceived competence affect student engagement and performances [13].”
“Little is known about the connection between students’ autonomous academic
motivation and content language learning, particularly when supported by online
glossary quiz.”
“This study examines the role of autonomy and perceived competence in student
performance on and engagement with the glossary quiz.”

4.1.3.4 Methods

“After the course ended, glossary quiz scores, the number of attempts at each quiz,
and final grade were collected.”
“In both groups, students took weekly glossary quizzes online through the uni-
versity’s learning management system at their convenience.”
“After the course ended, the followings are collected: the glossary quiz scores,
the number of attempts at each quiz, and final course grades.”
“The presurvey served three purposes: (1) it solicited demographic information
of the participants, (2) it assessed participant’s initial perceived competence in their
command of terms and definitions using a Perceived Competence for Learning
(PCL), and (3) it identified student motivation to enroll in the course using the
Learning Self-Regulation Questionnaire (LSRQ).”
“IMI jointly assessed students’ levels of engagement in the areas of enjoyment/
interest, effort, perceived choice, value/usefulness, and perceived competence on
the glossary quizzes.”
“Postsurvey also included open-ended questions on whether students would
recommend future students make use of course glossary quizzes.”

4.1.3.5 Findings

“It appeared that the required group exhibited more autonomous motivation overall
shown in IMI scores while the optional group perceived slightly higher choice in
taking the glossary quizzes shown in LSRQ scores.”
“The two groups significantly differed in their engagement (t = 3.306, p < .01)
with the glossary quizzes in the areas of perceived competence (t = 5.544, p < .01),
enjoyment (t = 3.636, p < .01), and effort (t = 3.341, p < .01).”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 91

“When asked why they would recommend taking the glossary quiz to future
students, among 29 respondents of the required group, 20 stated the helpful aspect
of the quizzes and seven recommended quizzes only for the grade, and two men-
tioned both the grade and helpfulness.”
“No statistical significance was observed between students’ final grade or quiz
performances and whether students viewed the glossary quizzes positively or
negatively.”

4.1.3.6 Discussion

“Even though final course grades were not significantly different between the
groups, there was merit in requiring glossary quizzes in terms of student compe-
tence in legal terms and engagement with the glossary tool.”
“While the glossary quizzes in our study were generally well-received by stu-
dents and described as being helpful for learning in the course, there was still a lack
of a strong statistical correlation between use of the quizzes and improved overall
grades.”
“The autonomy support scores collected in this study (shown in LCQ) indicated
that while the instructor’s interaction with students remained consistent across the
groups, having the option to take or not take glossary quizzes was not interpreted as
autonomy support.”
“While perceived competence played a significant role in students engaging with
the glossary quizzes, it did not lead to high course grades.”

4.1.3.7 Implications and Conclusion

“This study was conducted in order to learn how to better help students master terms
necessary for grasping the concepts of business law We also examined the role of
autonomy and perceived competence in students’ engagement with glossary quiz-
zes and the relationship between interaction with quizzes and overall course
performance.”
“Encouraging students to see the real world value of academic tasks beyond the
classroom assessment enhances student autonomous motivation and engagement.”
“Helping students set personalized goals for task completion and follow through
can help students more actively engage in the language-learning academic
tasks [17].”
“Student engagement with domain-specific terms isolated from a real world con-
text may not have the desired instructional impact.”
“The review of student comments noted that many students would encourage
future classmates to utilize glossary quizzes for the exact reason these were created:
because quizzes were helpful in understanding the material.”
92 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.4 Augmented Reality as Multimedia: The Case for Situated

Vocabulary Learning [68]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Santos, Marc Ericson C.; Lübke, Arno in Wolde; Taketomi, Takafumi; Yamamoto,
Goshiro; Rodrigo, Ma. Mercedes T.; Sandor, Christian; Kato, Hirokazu:
Augmented reality as multimedia: the case for situated vocabulary learning [68]
Published in: Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning (2016)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-­016-­0028-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s) 2016
License: OpenAccess CC BY 4.0
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which per-
mits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “We treat AR as a type of multimedia that is situated in
authentic environments and apply multimedia learning theory as a framework for
developing our educational applications.”
“We share our experiences in developing a handheld AR system and one specific
use case, namely, situated vocabulary learning.”
“Results of our evaluations show that we are able to create AR applications with
good system usability.”

4.1.4.1 Introduction

“Few research works have been conducted to substantiate AR’s benefits to learn-
ing [19].”
“Dede [20] explains that AR is useful for supporting ubiquitous learning in
authentic environments.”
“The role of AR in ubiquitous learning is to present the information onto the real
environment thereby creating a stronger connection between the digital content and
the real environment.”
“In a review conducted in 2013, Santos et al. [21] found only seven research
articles reporting evidence of AR’s effectiveness in improving learning outcomes.”
“We apply AR to the task of memorizing vocabulary words and test AR’s effect
on both learning and student motivation.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 93

“Because there is little literature substantiating the benefits of AR to learning, we

test AR’s effectiveness as a platform for a memorization task and examine its impact
on student motivation.”

4.1.4.2 Augmented Reality for Learning

“People use some AR browsers to see virtual labels and symbols integrated with a
live video feed of the real environment.”
“One important work is Construct3D [22, 23] which uses AR to teach students
mathematics and geometry concepts.”
“Although Construct3D take advantage of embodied cognition and collaborative
learning, these applications do not use AR for displaying the relationship of the
virtual contents to the real environment.”
“In our work, we exploit such AR features by teaching vocabulary through the
relationship between virtual objects and the real environment.”
“AR running on handheld devices can be used for displaying content in big
environments.”
“Billinghurst and Duenser [24] call for more interdisciplinary research to ground
AR applications in learning theories.”
“For our experiments, we designed AR applications for learning Filipino and
German words by applying the principles of multimedia learning theory [25] and its
related research.”

4.1.4.3 Vocabulary Learning Systems

“Context is important to vocabulary learning because students can use it for

forming stronger associations between the new word and the objects in the real
world [26].”
“Researchers have used personalized learning systems that tailor-fit the
vocabulary content to students’ internal context, i.e., their current level of
competence [27].”
“Systems for situated vocabulary learning take advantage of situated cognition
by selecting words that are associated with the environment and teaching only the
words that are useful.”
“In situated vocabulary learning, the words are learned in the context of its use
thus facilitating knowledge transfer.”
“Aside from presenting information related to the user’s current environment, the
tagged added learning object (TANGO) system uses RFID to tag the objects in the
environment to present vocabulary words relevant to an object.”
“The most important feature of situated vocabulary learning is the presentation
of useful vocabulary words relevant to the current environment.”
94 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.4.4 Multimedia Learning Applied to Augmented Reality

“Learning only takes place if the learner actively processes incoming information
by connecting it to prior knowledge.”
“Integrating information with prior knowledge Situated vocabulary learning
leverages on the prior knowledge of places.”
“Situated multimedia aids in the cognitive process of integrating incoming infor-
mation with prior knowledge.”
“In the case of AR, the environment is a given and authors of AR learning con-
tents must make use of the environment creatively.”
“They did not find any significant differences in vocabulary recognition nor in
any interaction between multimedia modes and learning style preferences of the
students.”
“Based on these works, we implemented features in our AR system that allow
users to access text, audio, and pictures during the learning scenario.”
“In a separate study with 121 senior high school students, Lin and Hsiao [28]
studied the effects of the use of still images against simple animations in vocabulary
learning.”

4.1.4.5 Practical Considerations in Applying Augmented Reality

“Cuendet et al. [29] shares five design principles for adopting AR for classroom use.”
“The five design principles are integrating AR to other class activities, empower-
ing the teacher, providing the teacher awareness of the state of students, flexibility
to adapt the activities to evolving scenarios, and minimizing functionalities to what
is required at a given time.”
“Based on a survey with teachers and students in Malaysia, Sumadio and Rambli
[30] observed that although most of them experienced AR for the first time, they
perceived that the demonstrations presented to them are useful for educational
practice.”
“Teachers and students expressed that bringing AR to educational use would
make the learning process more enjoyable.”
“Based on interviews with teachers in the Philippines [31, 32], AR is perceived
to be useful because it offers learning by experiencing some activity that cannot be
done now in the classroom.”

4.1.4.6 Design Goals

“What we discussed so far, we list the following design goals based on multimedia
learning, past works on situated vocabulary learning, and some practical consider-
ations for future adoption to educational settings: 1.”
“Support cognitive processes of selecting, organizing, and integrating infor-
mation 3.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 95

“Allow interactions with the environment and objects in the environment 4.”
“Present multimodal information, namely, texts, images, and sounds 5.”

4.1.4.7 System Design and Implementation

“We created a handheld AR system that can display any combination of multimedia
including image, animation, sound, and text on a real environment.”
“We accomplished this by simply filling the handheld AR system with content
for the situated vocabulary learning of Filipino and German words.”
“The Controller receives the marker ID and camera view matrix from the Tracker
and uses these information to specify the behavior of the on-screen display.”
“Fiducial markers in the video feed were located using the ARToolKit, which
also outputs the marker’s ID and the matrix representing the current view of the
camera.”
“The images are transformed depending on the camera view and are inserted in
the video feed to suggest 3D registration, that is, to give an impression that the
graphics co-exist with the real objects.”
“We used the AR system to construct two situated vocabulary learning systems:
one for 30 Filipino words and the other for 10 German words.”

4.1.4.8 User Studies

“We compared the AR applications to a non-AR version which is a tablet applica-

tion that mimics flash card interaction.”
“Advising the students who use the AR application to view all the content several
times will interrupt their natural learning style.”
“Students will perform worse on a delayed post-test with non-AR compared with
the immediate post-test.”
“Students will perform worse on a delayed post-test with AR compared with the
immediate post-test.”
“Students will perform better in an immediate post-test with non-AR.”
“Students will perform better in a delayed post-test with AR.”
“Both AR and non-AR applications logged time-stamped button pushes, words
studied, and tablet acceleration and orientation based on the built-in sensors.”
“We adapted a within-subjects design with 14 participants (8 male, 6 female,
aged 17–20, Filipino undergraduate students) to test the application for learning 20
German words (10 for AR and 10 for non-AR).”

4.1.4.9 Results and Discussion

“We observed significant decrease in immediate to delayed post-test scores with

non-AR but not for AR, suggesting that students who learned via AR retained more
vocabulary.”
96 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“No significant differences were observed in learning outcomes between using

AR and non-AR applications for vocabulary learning.”
“In the immediate post-test, the non-AR group scored significantly higher with a
moderate effect (d = 0.75) compared with the AR group, thus supporting
hypothesis 3.”
“That implementation quality was a factor affecting the learning of the students,
we could do fairer comparisons of post-test scores if both AR and non-AR applica-
tions have almost the same SUS score.”
“Marginally significant differences were observed in the test scores of AR and
non-AR groups for the immediate post-tests.”
“There was no significant difference between the recognition test between using
AR (M = 94%, SD = 8%) and using non-AR (M = 95%, SD = 8%) for vocabulary
learning.”

4.1.4.10 Conclusions

“In our work, we discussed our experience in developing and evaluating an AR

application for learning experiences based on an authentic environment.”
“As a use case of the AR system, we filled the system with Filipino and German
vocabulary contents, thereby creating two AR applications for situated vocabulary
learning.”
“We observed differences in immediate post-tests wherein students who used the
non-AR application performed better than those who used AR.”
“We observed a larger difference between immediate post-test and delayed
post-­test for the students who used the non-AR application.”
“Aside from differences in post-tests, the potential of AR lies in the difference in
the learning experience, more specifically, reducing cognitive load, improving
attention, and increasing satisfaction.”
“For future work, experiments with bigger sample size must be used to explore
deeper into how students can learn better with AR.”

4.1.5 Effects of Multimedia Annotations on Incidental

Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension
of Advanced Learners of English as a Foreign
Language [69]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Akbulut, Yavuz: Effects of multimedia annotations on incidental vocabulary learn-
ing and reading comprehension of advanced learners of english as a foreign lan-
guage [69]
Published in: Instructional Science (2007)
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 97

Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-­007-­9016-­7

Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2007
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The study investigates immediate and delayed effects of dif-
ferent hypermedia glosses on incidental vocabulary learning and reading compre-
hension of advanced foreign language learners.”
“The data were collected through a vocabulary pre-test, a vocabulary post-test, a
delayed vocabulary test as well as a reading comprehension test.”
“No differences were observed on the reading comprehension test.”
“The qualitative data revealed that hypermedia reading had positive impact on
participants’ attitudes towards foreign language reading and vocabulary learning.”

4.1.5.1 Introduction

“These applications provide tools to incorporate glosses into authentic texts, thus
making them more comprehensible for L2 learners and facilitating learning new
words while the focus is on reading, i.e., incidental vocabulary learning.”
“Since glosses in a hypermedia environment can be provided not only in the
form of text, but also audio, picture, video, and sound, it has become crucial to
investigate whether multimodal glosses or annotations are effective in facilitating
reading comprehension and vocabulary learning.”
“The present study explores the effects of multimedia annotations, particularly
pictures and videos, on vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of advanced
learners of English as a foreign language.”
“These studies suggest that multimedia annotations with word definitions and
visuals (e.g., pictures and videos) help learners learn vocabulary more efficiently
than annotations with word definitions alone.”

4.1.5.2 Experimental Design

“A hardcopy version of the original text was piloted with 20 senior students who did
not participate in the original study in order to determine the words to be annotated.”
“This test included a checklist in which students were asked to indicate the words
they remembered from the text.”
“The first section of the test took 6.5 min to complete in the pilot group, so the
time on task was determined as 7 min.”
“In the pilot study, junior students were asked to read the hardcopy version of the
text, since the development of the software was not completed yet.”
98 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“The pilot group, 22 junior students, completed the test in 14 min.”

“Eleven days before the administration of the software, students were given
two sections of the vocabulary test (i.e., meaning recognition and meaning
production).”

4.1.5.3 Results

“In order to determine whether these differences were statistically significant, a 3

(Annotation type) × 2 (Time: Post-test and delayed post-test) mixed-design ANOVA
was conducted.”
“In order to determine whether these differences were statistically significant,
a 3 (Annotation type) × 3 (Time: Pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test)
mixed-­design ANOVA was conducted.”
“The interaction between time and annotation type was significant on the imme-
diate post-test (FImmediate = 4.797, p < .01); the video group got the highest scores, the
picture group ranked second and the definition group got the lowest scores.”
“To determine whether these differences were statistically significant, a 3
(Annotation type) × 3 (Time: Pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test) mixed design
ANOVA was conducted.”
“The interaction between time and annotation type was significant on both the
immediate and delayed post-tests (FImmediate = 7.022, p < .002; FDelayed = 12.318,
p < .001).”

4.1.5.4 Discussion

“Findings of the study suggest that combining definitions of words with associated
visuals regardless of the type of visual used is more effective in facilitating vocabu-
lary learning than providing only definitions of words.”
“The availability of visual annotations along with word meanings helped L2
learners perform better on vocabulary tests than a single type of textual annotation.”
“As for L2 reading comprehension, the results of this study confirm Ariew and
Erçetin’s [33] findings, which suggested no relationship between annotation use and
reading comprehension for advanced L2 learners.”
“This study provided evidence for facilitative effects of multimedia annotations
for L2 incidental vocabulary learning.”
“Findings of the study suggest important pedagogical implications for the use of
hypermedia in L2 vocabulary learning and reading.”
“The qualitative data suggested that subjects found hypermedia highly useful for
their reading comprehension and vocabulary learning regardless of the type of
annotation they were exposed to.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 99

4.1.5.5 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research

“The target population of the study consisted of advanced level language learners
attending an English-medium Turkish university to learn English for academic
purposes.”
“This study should be replicated in other learning contexts with students from
different proficiency levels to generalize findings to a larger target population and to
different learning environments.”
“The results cannot be generalized to people who are not pre-tested.”
“In order to eliminate the interaction of pre-testing and the experimental instru-
ment, a Solomon Four-group Design may be employed in a further study.”
“Employing on-screen tests where visual elements are incorporated would be
more suitable for use in hypermedia environments.”
“Besides, reading and vocabulary learning strategies employed at different profi-
ciency levels should be examined.”

4.1.6 Evaluation of Electronic and Paper Textual Glosses

on Second Language Vocabulary Learning and Reading
Comprehension [70]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Lee, Ho; Lee, Hansol; Lee, Jang Ho: Evaluation of Electronic and Paper Textual
Glosses on Second Language Vocabulary Learning and Reading
Comprehension [70]
Published in: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (2015)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-­015-­0270-­1
Copyright of the summarized publication:
De La Salle University 2015
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “We examined the effectiveness of electronic and paper tex-
tual glosses on second language vocabulary learning and reading comprehension
within a cognitive load theory framework.”
“We adopted an experimental design using Korean undergraduate learners of
English as a foreign language, who read a target text under one of the three reading
conditions: electronic gloss, paper gloss, and no gloss.”
100 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“The results showed that the electronic glossing condition resulted in the greatest
gains of vocabulary.”
“The electronic glossing condition was also the most efficient in light of the
cognitive load framework, showing the highest instructional efficiency.”

4.1.6.1 Introduction

“Glossing, an instructional method of providing meaning for a selected word in a

text, has gained much attention from researchers in the field of second language
(L2) studies (e.g., Hulstijn et al. [35]; Jacobs et al. [36]).”
“Studies regarding the relative effects of electronic glosses and their pen-and-­
paper counterpart (paper glosses, henceforth) are rare.”
“Electronic glosses have not yet been shown to be more effective than paper
glosses.”
“In light of this gap, in the present study we compared the effects of electronic
and paper glosses on vocabulary learning and reading comprehension in a sample of
Korean learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at the university level
using an experimental design.”

4.1.6.2 Study Background

“A review of the literature on glossing in L2 reading shows that providing glossary

information for target words contributes to vocabulary learning, whereas it may not
enhance L2 reading comprehension.”
“We propose a more comprehensive methodology, recruiting intermediate-level
L2 learners (the largest group across proficiency levels), investigating reading com-
prehension and vocabulary acquisition, including target lexical items (TLIs) selected
from a wide range of frequency bands (e.g., TLIs fell between the first 5 and 10 k
word families, most of which were not familiar to our participants), and providing
L2 definitions as glossary information (e.g., intermediate-level L2 learners are not
expected to have comprehension problems with L2 glosses; Nation [34]).”
“Yeung [5] administered seven-point Likert scale items regarding participants’
perception of difficulty of target vocabulary in printed paper reading contexts, and
compared the effect of two different glossing formats on reading comprehension
and vocabulary learning.”

4.1.6.3 Methods

“After replacing some of the words in the original passage with low-frequency
words, we gave a vocabulary test consisting of 50 lexical items drawn from the tar-
get text to eight students who had similar profiles to those in the main study.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 101

“The reading comprehension test consisted of ten multiple choice items, with the
questions assessing whether test-takers accurately understood the information
described in the target text or not.”
“At the outset of the study, the participants were given a vocabulary pre-test,
which consisted of 30 English lexical items from the target reading text.”
“Of this pre-test, ten lexical items that were found to be unfamiliar to more than
90% of the participants were selected as the final set of target lexical items to be
glossed in the present study, because no lexical items were unknown to the entire
group of participants.”

4.1.6.4 Results

“Simple regression analysis showed that the differences among the three groups for
reading comprehension test scores did not reach statistical significance (b = 0.44,
p > 0.10).”
“These findings indicate that the differences in reading conditions did not lead to
any significant differences in reading when the density rate of unfamiliar words in
the target text was low (approximately 5%).”
“All groups made significant gains on the post-test, which was taken immedi-
ately after the reading activity, and these gains were retained for another
2 weeks.”
“The results of one-way ANOVA showed that there were significant effects of
reading conditions in terms of instructional efficiency, both for the post-test
F(2, 75) = 4.80, p < 0.05 and for the delayed test, F(2, 75) = 4.12, p < 0.05.”

4.1.6.5 Discussion and Conclusion

“With regard to vocabulary learning, the participants in the electronic glossing con-
dition group fared better than the paper-based glossing group as well as the control
group, and this difference was maintained 2 weeks after the reading task.”
“Based on our findings, we suggest that the participants in the present study, who
were reportedly competent users of computers and intermediate-level L2 learners,
adapted well to computer-assisted reading environments and benefited from the
electronic glosses therein.”
“It is possible that the three reading conditions examined in this study may bring
about differences in learning other aspects of vocabulary knowledge (e.g., form),
and this question should be explored in future research.”
“Another line of research that is worth considering is the effects of electronic
glosses and computer-assisted environments on learners with different levels of
computer literacy and different amounts of experience with electronic glossing and
computer-assisted reading.”
102 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.7 Self-Directed Learning of Core Vocabulary in English by

EFL Learners: Comparing the Outcomes from Paper
and Mobile Application Flashcards [71]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Xodabande, Ismail; Pourhassan, Asqar (Aydin); Valizadeh, Mohammadreza:
Self-­directed learning of core vocabulary in English by EFL learners: comparing
the outcomes from paper and mobile application flashcards [71]
Published in: Journal of Computers in Education (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-­021-­00197-­6
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Beijing Normal University 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Within this line of inquiry, the current study explored vocab-
ulary learning outcomes from paper and mobile application flashcards.”
“The study used a repeated measures design, by exposing the participants (55
high-school students) to different learning conditions and testing their receptive
knowledge of core vocabulary in English in three junctures of time over a year.”
“The participants were asked to use digital or paper flashcards for vocabulary
learning, and two standard measures of vocabulary knowledge in pre- and post-tests
were used to compare vocabulary gains.”
“The findings underscore the long-term impacts of mobile-assisted vocabulary
learning, and the affordances provided by such platforms for learning a consider-
able number of words by EFL learners.”

4.1.7.1 Introduction

“Although research investigating the use of various mobile applications for lan-
guage and vocabulary learning is gaining increased attention, most studies were
conducted in short-term interventions which makes it difficult to understand long-­
term impacts of mobile devices on language development [37, 38].”
“The current study aimed to fill part of this gap and investigated the long-term
impacts of using a mobile phone flashcard application (i.e., Lexilize) and traditional
paper flashcards on vocabulary learning of 55 EFL high-school students over a
period of 12 months.”
“The study adds to the growing body of literature on mobile-assisted vocabulary
learning and sheds some light on the affordances provided by flashcard applications
for developing vocabulary knowledge among EFL learners.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 103

“By employing these tests, the current study investigated the contribution of
mobile-assisted vocabulary learning on second-language knowledge development
among EFL learners, which makes it possible to compare the results across different
learning contexts.”

4.1.7.2 Method

“Based on smartphone device ownership and also participants’ preferences for

using different materials for learning essential English vocabulary, they were
divided into an experimental (N = 36) and a control (N = 19) group.”
“In order to learn the items in this vocabulary list, the participants in the control
group were given a list of NGSL words and their translations in their first language
(L1), and relevant flashcards printed on paper (an English word on the one side and
L1 translation on the other side of the cards).”
“This was followed by assigning the participants into the experimental and
control groups and giving them different materials for learning core English
vocabulary.”
“In order to assess the learning gains, receptive vocabulary knowledge of the
participants was tested again in six-month intervals using the NGSLT and the differ-
ent versions of the updated VLT.”

4.1.7.3 Results

“As for the pre-tests, the mean values for the scores on NGSLT were 46.56
(SD = 5.07) and 49.16 (SD = 5.19) for the experimental and control groups,
respectively.”
“Regarding the post-tests, the mean values for the NGSLT were 63.61 (SD = 6.06)
and 54.32 (SD = 6.24) for the experimental and control groups.”
“With regard to the second post-tests, the experimental group had mean values
of 71.64 (SD = 7.56) for scores on NGSLT, and 81.69 (SD = 6.89) for VLT
(version A).”
“From the first post-test to the second post-test (time 3), obtained scores on
NGSLT followed a similar pattern for both groups, and all participants improved
their vocabulary knowledge.”
“This indicate significant differences in the scores obtained by the experimental
and control groups on NGSLT and VLT measures.”

4.1.7.4 Discussion

“The current study provided empirical evidence for the effectiveness of mobile
application flashcards in learning core vocabulary in English.”
104 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“One reason for the observed differences might be the motivational profile of the
learners, as the participants in the current study were highly motivated to improve
their English vocabulary, and motivation is among the most important factors that
impacts learning outcomes [39–41].”
“The flashcard application used in this study also employed the gaming features
that contributed to increased use of the digital flashcards for vocabulary learning.”
“This is also in line with previous studies that investigated the contribution of
mobile applications for learning essential English vocabulary [42, 43].”
“As the participants of this study learned a considerable number (around 25%) of
general service vocabulary over a year, it seems that the use of digital flashcards has
a great potential to shortcut this process.”

4.1.7.5 Conclusion

“In light of the recent developments in mobile-assisted language learning, the use of
mobile applications and digital flashcards for vocabulary learning in gaining
increased attention in language education.”
“The findings revealed a significant main effect for time in the use of mobile
devices for vocabulary learning and pointed the effectiveness of digital flashcards
over traditional materials.”
“The current study was also an attempt to link the findings from corpus-based
study of language and materials development to address the vocabulary learning
needs [44].”
“Although vocabulary knowledge entails different components [45, 46], the cur-
rent study focused only on written receptive knowledge of English words and did
not examine how the use of different interventions result in developments in other
aspects of vocabulary knowledge such as pronunciation, collocations, etc.
Nonetheless, the current study provided empirical evidence for the effectiveness of
mobile-assisted vocabulary learning in general, and digital flashcards applications
in particular.”

4.1.8 Factors Influencing ESL Players’ Use of Vocabulary

Learning Strategies in Massively Multiplayer Online
Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) [72]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Ng, Lee Luan; Rino Sharieful Azizie, None; Chew, Shin Yi: Factors Influencing
ESL Players’ Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies in Massively Multiplayer
Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) [72]
Published in: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-­021-­00578-­6
Copyright of the summarized publication:
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 105

De La Salle University 2021

All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The study investigates the impact of Massively Multiplayer
Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) on players’ application of vocabulary
learning strategies.”
“Apart from identifying the vocabulary learning strategies used by the ESL play-
ers during online gaming, in order to find out how aspects related to MMORPG
influence the use of strategies, data were also obtained from online semi-structured
interviews with these (ESL) players who are involved in Guild Wars 2, a popular
MMORPG computer game.”
“Using Gu and Johnson’s [49] categorisation of vocabulary learning strategies
(VLS), it was found that these ESL players utilise metacognitive, cognitive, mem-
ory and activation strategies in order to learn game-related vocabulary during the
MMORPG game-play sessions.”

4.1.8.1 Introduction

“There is insufficient research that have looked into the use of digital games for
educational purposes such as for language learning purposes.”
“It is also important to explore the potential of digital games for educational
purposes as it could pave way for more enhanced and innovative language learning
environment for ESL players.”
“Despite the growing popularity of MMORPGs, there is still a lack of studies
that have explored its potential for learners such as the vocabulary language learn-
ing strategies used by gamers during online game-play sessions as they have to
understand game instructions that are mostly in English.”
“There is a need to investigate how English language learning takes place in
online digital gaming platform such as in MMORPGs.”

4.1.8.2 Literature Review

“In a study by Mofareh [47] that reviewed the use of technology in English lan-
guage teaching, the findings revealed that: (a) technology allows students to practice
independence in learning language, (b) students actively want to use technology in
language learning, and (c) technology aids students to create strong content knowl-
edge wherever they find it.”
“Based on the research findings of different VLS used by ESL learners during
gameplay sessions, it can be seen that MMORPG can be a potential language learn-
ing platform for gamers to create, select and use different vocabulary learning strat-
egies to enhance or develop their own language learning experience [48].”
106 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“In a study that explored the use of vocabulary learning strategies by Chinese
English learners in MMORPGs, Bytheway [48] observed that the students had
mainly used selective attention and guessing strategies during game-play sessions
where they guessed the meanings of words based on pictures or gestures.”

4.1.8.3 Methodology

“In order to assess participants’ use of vocabulary learning strategies, the online
gaming platform Guild Wars 2, a free-to-play MMORPG was selected.”
“The researcher also simultaneously used an Open Broadcaster Studio (OBS)
software in order to capture video and audio recordings of the 12-h game-play ses-
sions, as well as to conduct semi-structured online interview sessions with the four
participants.”
“Discord is considered as the main communication tool for the study’s online
gaming sessions and online interviews as it facilitated the process of communica-
tion between the researcher and research participants.”
“The researcher had conducted a total of four semi-structured online interviews
with each of the four participants individually in a span of 2 weeks after the last
game session was conducted.”
“Other than applying thematic analysis in investigating the VLS used by the ESL
players, the researcher also adopted the categorisation of VLS from Gu and
Johnson’s [49] framework and mapped the VLS used by participants during the
game-play sessions into their respective categories.”

4.1.8.4 Results and Discussion

“Based on the data gathered using the OBS software and online interviews, these
are four factors that influenced how the learners used vocabulary learning strategies
and they consist of; (a) the role of the MMOPG storyline in enhancing gaming
immersion, (b) freedom to learn while being away from classroom-related rules, (c)
social interaction that enriches players’ learning experience, and (d) the role of col-
laboration among the MMORPG community in enriching players’ learning
experience.”
“Similar to the immersion factor, with the opportunity to simultaneously com-
municate in online games, players are able to incidentally learn language via com-
municating with one another.”
“The results from interviews with the participants were indicative of the fact that
social interaction in the MMORPG community could be effective for ESL players
to learn languages.”
“P1 mentioned that the engaging environment of MMORPG has enabled her to
experience collaborative language learning with other players in the online
community.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 107

4.1.8.5 Conclusion

“The findings of the current study have shown that online games can be integrated
into contemporary teaching and learning processes as a supplementary option that
could enhance students’ learning of English language vocabulary.”
“The findings also suggest that the interaction during online games promotes
authentic communication among players, as they need to communicate effectively
in order to achieve their game-related goals.”
“Future studies are advised to expand the sample size and incorporate measure-
ment of participants’ mastery of vocabulary items using the pre- and post-test meth-
ods in order to determine whether there is an improvement in test scores after
playing online games.”

4.1.9 EmoTan: Enhanced Flashcards for Second Language

Vocabulary Learning with Emotional Binaural
Narration [73]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Fukushima, Shogo: EmoTan: enhanced flashcards for second language vocabulary
learning with emotional binaural narration [73]
Published in: Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning (2019)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-­019-­0109-­0
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s) 2019
License: OpenAccess CC BY 4.0
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which per-
mits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “We report on the design and evaluation of a flashcard appli-
cation, enhanced with emotional binaural narration to support second language (L2)
vocabulary learning.”
“Enhancing textual flashcards with emotional narration in the learner’s native
language can foster the retention of new L2 words in episodic rather than semantic
memory as greater emotive expression reinforces episodic memory retention.”
108 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“We evaluated the effects of binaural emotive narration with traditional textual
flashcards on L2 word retention (immediate and delayed) in laboratory experiments
with native Japanese-speaking English learners.”

4.1.9.1 Introduction

“To learn new English words with these mobile devices, learners generally memo-
rize words while listening to the pronunciation in online dictionaries [50–53] or
flashcard applications [54, 55].”
“Released for smartphones and gaming devices, this application allows learners
to learn a word through sample sentences and voice.”
“The key contributions of the proposed approach are as follows: We designed
narrations to memorize English words in the emotionally rich episodic memory and
not semantic memory, and we described the method of producing the narration.”
“The effectiveness of the narration using flashcard application was evaluated by
comparing our method to the traditional pronunciations of English words.”
“We show that our proposed method could aid in retaining more English words
into long-term memory than traditional pronunciation by applying our method to a
general English learning style, in which the learners freely memorize words using a
typical flashcard application on a tablet until they are satisfied.”

4.1.9.2 Related Work

“To apply the memory retention effect of emotion to vocabulary learning, it is better
to use this retention effect not only for emotive words, such as in the study of
Kensinger and Corkin [56], but also for non-emotive words.”
“An insufficient number of sounds or sound effects exist compared to the size of
the English vocabulary, making it difficult to find enough emotional stimuli that
match the meaning of English words.”
“There has been no methodology introduced yet for applying this binaural emo-
tional technology to English vocabulary learning.”
“To acquire vocabulary in long-term memory, it is important to deeply under-
stand the meaning of a word and repetitively learn the word to memorize it.”
“We describe a method of producing the audio contents that represent the mean-
ing of the English words and evoke emotion at the same time.”

4.1.9.3 Narration Design

“To create impressive emotional narrations, expressive voice actors were adopted as
narrators under the supervision of English native speakers (supervisors) with
English teaching experience.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 109

“According to their meanings, 100 words were grouped into ten categories:
person, emotion, contact, communication, food, object, social, environment,
impression, and sound effect.”
“In the case of the word “swig” (expression category 1), for example, the back-
ground music of a bar is played, with the voice of the actor saying “Cheers!”“.
“In the case of the word “prank” (expression category 3), the voice actor
approached the listener from behind and said “BOO!”
“In the case of the word “maraud” (expression category 4), the sound effect of an
approaching bike was played and the actor stated, “Argh!”
“In the case of the word “grotto” (expression category 6), the sound effect of
dripping water in a cave was played along with a voice stating, “Wow!”

4.1.9.4 Prototype Flashcard Application

“A flashcard is a card on which a word is written, depending on its purpose.”

“To employ it for introducing English words, English and Japanese word pairs
were displayed on the front side, while the narration was played.”
“The user can save words and narrations on his/her personal computer in advance
and input correspondences between words and sounds using Excel.”
“By synchronizing it with Dropbox, words and sounds are displayed on the tab-
let in a flashcard format.”

4.1.9.5 Experiment 1: Memorize Under a Controlled Environment

“The next ten words were learned using the proposed method, and the participants
immediately took a memorization test as well.”
“The participants first memorized ten English words by the baseline or proposed
methods.”
“This suggested that the participants were able to memorize and retain
more English language words with the proposed method than the baseline
method (RQ2).”
“According to a feedback form completed after the delayed test, many positive
comments were communicated by the participants: “The retention rate is remark-
ably different between the actor’s voice and the conventional voice”; “I remember
the story from the beginning to the end, and I can reproduce the story”; “The actor’s
voice is remarkably impressive compared to the conventional one, but it might be
difficult to completely memorize English word pairs with one memorization”;
“I would like to use it for learning English words if the application is released”;
“I remembered vividly that the sound source moved from the left to the right of
the headphones, and I also remember I felt a chilling sensation at this point.””.
110 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.9.6 Experiment 2: Memorize Under a Freeform

Learning Environment

“The same participant experienced both the baseline and proposed methods, and we
compared the number of words forgotten among the methods.”
“The participants first learned ten words by the baseline approach and then per-
formed an immediate review for converting the experience into knowledge.”
“Under both methods, the scores of the immediate test were higher than those in
experiment 1, which suggests that the participants could better memorize words in
this experimental environment.”
“This suggested that the participants were able to memorize and retain more
English language words with the proposed method than the baseline method in the
freeform learning environment.”
“Although the number of forgotten words decreased compared to experiment 1,
some participants still forgot the spelling of the English words similar to exper-
iment 1.”
“The time length of the memorization phase of all participants are controlled at
300 s, so statistically the result could not be calculated.”

4.1.9.7 Conclusion and Future Work

“We proposed a voice-enhanced emotional flashcard application for mobile phones

through which a learner can perceive the meaning of English words.”
“Emotional binaural voice narrations were used to enhance L2 vocabulary
learning.”
“Comparing the memory enhancement effects of the voice in the proposed
method with a typical voice in the baseline approach, it was found that learning by
the proposed voice makes it significantly easier to remember the English word and
its translation.”
“Works, we will employ audio content design theory and an attention induction
method to reinforce memory retention.”
“Expanding the participant demographics and generalizing the results to women
is also important and should be addressed in future works.”
“This paper suggests that emotive story-based binaural narration promotes the
memory retention of English words.”

4.1.10 Theoretical Trends of Research on Technology and L2

Vocabulary Learning: A Systematic Review [74]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Yang, Xinyuan; Kuo, Li-Jen; Eslami, Zohreh R.; Moody, Stephanie M.: Theoretical
trends of research on technology and L2 vocabulary learning: A systematic
review [74]
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 111

Published in: Journal of Computers in Education (2021)

Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-­021-­00187-­8
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Beijing Normal University 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Vocabulary development is critical for second language (L2)
learners in both English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) contexts.”
“A large body of research has been dedicated to how computer-assisted language
learning (CALL) and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) can facilitate
vocabulary knowledge in L2 learners in both EFL and ESL settings.”
“Missing from the existing research is an in-depth examination of the theories
underlying vocabulary learning within technological programs.”
“Understanding theoretical foundations of vocabulary learning is critical for
both researchers and educators who seek to improve vocabulary development in L2
learners.”
“The current study aims to close these gaps by investigating research on the use
of technology for L2 vocabulary learning for learners in PreK-12 between 2011
and 2020.”
“These findings suggest that research on technology-mediated vocabulary learn-
ing for Prek-12 L2 learners should be conducted from more diverse and explicit
theoretical perspectives.”

4.1.10.1 Introduction

“Vocabulary learning has been one of the most widely-investigated areas in

technology-­mediated second language acquisition (SLA) research [57–59].”
“Previous research syntheses on technology-mediated L2 learning have shown
that most existing empirical studies fail to be supported by a clear theoretical
approach (e.g. [58; Handley, 2014; Viberg & Gronlund, 2013).”
“Theory is a fundamental component of both research design and instructional
practice, more research is needed to systematically examine what theoretical frame-
works support the integration of technology in L2 vocabulary learning.”
“Technology-mediated vocabulary learning has substantial potential to posi-
tively impact the vocabulary development of school-aged L2 learners.”
“The purpose of the present study is to provide a comprehensive review of the
theoretical trends of research on technology-mediated L2 vocabulary learning for
PreK-12 L2 Learners between 2011 and 2020.”
112 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

4.1.10.2 Review of Literature

“They found evidence of studies rooted in a variety of theories such as constructiv-

ism, situated learning theory, seamless language learning approach, activity theory,
sociocultural theory, and theories of multimedia learning (e.g. cognitive load theory,
DCT, technology acceptance model).”
“These theories were the most commonly referenced among the reviewed stud-
ies. (2) multimedia design and learning approaches, such as DCT, cognitive theory
of multimedia learning, cognitive load media design principles, learning memory
cycle; and (3) technology-oriented approaches, such as technology acceptance
model, unified theory of acceptance and use of technology.”
“Learning theories and models such as Finally, in a systematic review of CALL
for vocabulary instruction among young L2 learners, Handley (2014) found that
DCT, spaced learning theory, sociocultural theories, and various reading theories
were the most common underlying theories.”
“The purpose of the present study is to systematically examine the theoretical
trends in research on the use of technology in L2 vocabulary learning among
PreK-12 ELLs between 2011 and 2020.”

4.1.10.3 Methods

“Titles and abstracts were then screened, upon which 240 articles were removed for
one or more of the following reasons: (1) they did not target vocabulary learning
(87); (2) the studies did not focus on the use of technology (52); (3) the studies
examined languages other than English (12); (4) the studies were not empirical,
such as literature reviews, commentaries, or book reviews (67); or, (5) the studies
targeted university students and/or adults.”
“The remaining articles were subject to a full review and were included if: (1) L2
vocabulary development was one of the primary outcomes; (2) the study incorpo-
rated at least one type of technology to assist L2 vocabulary learning; and (3) the
study focused on PreK-12 learners of English.”
“The 80 included studies were coded for the following variables: vocabulary
knowledge, affordances of technology, and theoretical framework of the study.”

4.1.10.4 Results

“These tools also offered students the opportunity to develop their productive
vocabulary knowledge through recording their own pronunciation and receiving
feedback from the instructor, or through transcribing target words [60, 61].”
“The use of captions while watching videos was emphasized to facilitate the
understanding of target word meaning for EFL students [He, 2019; 62].”
“Across studies, technology was used to develop receptive vocabulary knowl-
edge through word recognition or understanding of meaning.”
4.1 Machine Generated Summaries 113

“Technology was also used to facilitate learners’ productive knowledge by

encouraging them to use the target words for authentic purposes.”

4.1.10.5 Research Question 2: What Affordances Did Technology Offer

in L2 Vocabulary Learning?

“More than half of the studies (53%, n = 42) focused on multimodal learning as one
of the main affordances of technology.”
“Many EFL studies examined collaborative learning (n = 14) and learning moti-
vation (n = 13) because of using technology, neither of which were emphasized in
ESL contexts.”
“Active knowledge making and ubiquitous learning was emphasized in studies
that primarily targeted the K-5 population.”
“This indicates that the portability and flexibility of mobile technology facili-
tated active learning, making it favorable to researchers and teachers of K-5 ELLs.”

4.1.10.6 Research Question 3: What Theoretical Frameworks Have Been

Used by Researchers in Technology-Integrated L2
Vocabulary Learning?

“Eighteen studies explicitly cited theories based on information/cognitive process-

ing, such as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory
to guide the design of the technology-integrated vocabulary activities.”
“When the reviewed studies employed sociocognitive theories, the references
were mostly implicit and emphasized learner motivation, engagement, and self-­
regulated vocabulary learning.”
“To enhance the self-regulated vocabulary learning of fourth grade EFL students,
Chen and Lee [63] incorporated data visualization and color-coded warnings into
their program.”
“To encourage students to practice productive vocabulary, Young and Wang [61]
incorporated a game-based activity in their vocabulary learning program.”
“Most of the reviewed studies reported that students had positive attitudes
towards language learning upon program completion, which served as a critical
indicator of the technology’s success (e.g. Young & Wang [61]; Nova et al. [64]).”

4.1.10.7 Discussion

“The current study examined theoretical trends of technology-integrated L2 vocab-

ulary learning for PreK-12 ELLs between 2011 and 2020.”
“It is important, as indicated in the reviewed studies, that effort has been invested
in developing technology that facilitates the acquisition of productive vocabulary
alongside receptive vocabulary.”
114 4 ICT for Vocabulary Learning

“The various types of technology used in the selected studies have mainly pro-
vided multimodal presentations of information, promoted collaboration and interac-
tion among students, and enhanced language learning motivation as well as
self-regulated learning.”
“The prevalence of information/cognitive theories as primary supporting theo-
ries in the current review suggests that the multimodality affordance of language
learning technology is perhaps the most widely known and used by researchers and
teachers.”
“Many of the reviewed studies also relied on sociocognitive theories, emphasiz-
ing the influence of affective factors in the language learning process, including the
need for engaging multimedia programs.”

4.1.10.8 Conclusion

“This study aimed to systematically review the theoretical trends in technology-­

integrated L2 vocabulary learning research published between 2011 and 2020 with
PreK-12 L2 learners.”
“The current study fills the gap by examining studies that have utilized technol-
ogy for the vocabulary learning of young L2 learners.”
“This review indicates that recent studies have explored the use of technology to
facilitate L2 vocabulary learning from multiple perspectives.”
“The current systematic review also uncovered theoretical issues in the existing
research on technology-integrated vocabulary learning for young L2 learners, which
point to implications for future research.”
“Future research could explore the potential of technology for L2 vocabulary
learning from more diverse theoretical perspectives, extending on the multimodal
features that have been widely studied and applied so far.”

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Chapter 5
Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

5.1 Machine Generated Summaries

Disclaimer: The summaries in this chapter were generated from Springer Nature
publications using extractive AI auto-summarization: An extraction-based summa-
rizer aims to identify the most important sentences of a text using an algorithm and
uses those original sentences to create the auto-summary (unlike generative AI). As
the constituted sentences are machine selected, they may not fully reflect the body
of the work, so we strongly advise that the original content is read and cited. The
auto generated summaries were curated by the editor to meet Springer Nature pub-
lication standards. To cite this content, please refer to the original papers.
Machine generated keywords: corpus, list, corpus linguistic, verb, american,
analysis, japanese, discourse, speech, interface, textbook, states, united, united
states, bilingual.

5.1.1 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Lists for Language Learners

for Nine Languages [50]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Kilgarriff, Adam; Charalabopoulou, Frieda; Gavrilidou, Maria; Johannessen, Janne
Bondi; Khalil, Saussan; Johansson Kokkinakis, Sofie; Lew, Robert; Sharoff,
Serge; Vadlapudi, Ravikiran; Volodina, Elena: Corpus-based vocabulary lists for
language learners for nine languages [50]
Published in: Language Resources and Evaluation (2013)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-­013-­9251-­2
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s) 2013

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 119

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_5
120 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

License: OpenAccess CC BY 2.0

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author(s) and the source are credited.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The KELLY project and its work on developing monolin-
gual and bilingual word lists for language learning, using corpus methods, for nine
languages and thirty-six language pairs.”
“The focus of the paper is thus twofold, covering pedagogical and methodologi-
cal aspects of the lists’ construction, and linguistic aspects of the by-product of the
project, the KELLY database.”

5.1.1.1 Introduction

“Word lists are much-used resources in many disciplines, from language learning to
psycholinguistics.”
“A natural way to develop a word list is from a corpus.”
“We explore a substantial effort to generate word lists for nine languages, as far
as possible in a corpus-driven, principled way, but with the overriding priority of
creating lists which are as useful as possible for language learners.”
“The KELLY procedure for preparing the list for each language was as follows:
Identify the corpus Generate a frequency list (the ‘Monolingual 1’ or ‘M1’ list)
Clean up the list, and compare it with lists from other corpora and other wordlists
Make adjustments to give the ‘M2’ list Translate each item into all the other KELLY
languages (the ‘Translation 1’ or ‘T1’ list) Use the ‘back translations’ to identify
items for addition or deletion Make further adjustments to give the final, M3 list.”
“and “What word sets of three or more words (all of different languages) are
there where all words are in symmetric pairs with all others?”.”

5.1.1.2 Word Lists

“Systems that use word lists in areas relating to language learning include automatic
rating of good corpus examples where the vocabulary is checked for being common
(frequent) versus rare (infrequent) [1–3], and readability analysis where texts are
analyzed for their lexical frequency profiles [4, 5].”
“In language teaching, word frequency lists are used among other things for:
defining a syllabus building graded readers deciding which words are used in:
learning-­to-read books for children textbooks for second language (L2) learners
dictionaries language tests for L2 learners Vocabulary learning is an essential part of
mastering a second language (L2).”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 121

“In terms of language pedagogy, there are two generally accepted approaches to
vocabulary learning: intentional, where activities are aimed directly at learning lexi-
cal items, such as using word lists and cards; and incidental, where learning vocabu-
lary is a by-product of activities not primarily focused on the systematic learning of
words, such as reading [6].”

5.1.1.3 Preparing the KELLY Lists

“For each language, we took the 6000 most frequent lemma + word-class pairs, and
this was the M1 list, as the input to the next process. (This number is lower than the
target 9000 because we expected the next steps to add many more items than they
deleted, as they largely did.) This step consisted of a series of procedures to ‘clean
up’ the list, delete anomalies, correct errors (in particular word class errors) and to
check against other lists for omissions.”
“Various lemmatisation errors were identified, for example the entry ty, which
turned out to be an incorrect formation from ties, which should have been tie
Checking unexpected verb uses which are more usefully coded as adjectives, e.g.
English neighbouring rather than the verb neighbour or Polish zróżnicowany (‘vari-
ous’) which was lemmatized as the verb zróżnicować (‘vary’) Amalgamating vari-
ant spellings such as organise and organize, and the Greek αυγό and αβγό (‘egg’),
so that their frequency is not distorted by being divided Merging and splitting, as
necessary, aspectual variants of verbs and reflexive verbs, often mis-lemmatised,
such as Polish opłacać się (‘be worthwhile’) versus opłacić (‘pay for’) To promote
consistency between language teams, a list of word types for inclusion was drawn
up at the outset.”

5.1.1.4 The KELLY Database

“This is a pair of words,, of two different languages A and B, such that a translates
to b and b translates to a. An example of a symmetric pair is English–Swedish and
Swedish–English.”
“Non-sympair-source (NSS) The other case is where b is in the source list for
B. An example of an NSS is Swe–Eng: publish is in the English source list but gets
the Swedish translation publicera.”
“Homography across word classes, where a1 in language A is translated as b in
language B, which is back-translated as a2 in A, and b is based on the same
lemma/root though representing different headwords, an example of such case is
Swe–Eng.”
“The second subgroup relates to structural differences between languages:
Word-­building alternatives may give rise to a number of translation variants for the
same source item.”
122 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

5.1.1.5 Summary and Outlook

“We have described its work on developing word lists, monolingual and bilingual,
for language learning, using corpus methods, for nine languages and 72 lan-
guage pairs.”
“The vocabulary has been selected firstly using objective, statistical criteria,
namely the monolingual frequency lists initially generated for each language; sec-
ondly, by translating all lists into all eight other languages and investigating the
network of translations in all directions to identify omissions and anomalies; thirdly,
using any other corpora and wordlists that were available; and fourthly, the scrutiny
of linguists.”
“We investigated a sample of cases where translations were not symmetrical,
and found a number of recurring patterns involving differences in the corpora, list
construction methods, culture, and linguistics.”
“We shall be making the case for adoption of KELLY lists (or, in all likelihood,
their successors) to the language-teaching institutions of several KELLY countries.”

5.1.2 To Use or Not to Use the Shorter Forms: A Corpus-Based

Analysis of the Apologetic Expressions “Sorry and I’m
Sorry” in American Spoken English Discourse [51]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Arizavi, Saleh; Choubsaz, Yazdan: To Use or Not to Use the Shorter Forms:
A Corpus-­Based Analysis of the Apologetic Expressions “Sorry and I’m sorry”
in American Spoken English Discourse [51]
Published in: Corpus Pragmatics (2018)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41701-­018-­0045-­z
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This corpus-based study explores how linguistic and socio-
cognitive factors designate when, why, and how speakers say sorry and I’m sorry in
two corpora of American spoken English; namely, Michigan Corpus of Academic
Spoken English and Corpus of Contemporary American English.”
“This study tries to cast some light on the shades of differences between sorry
and I’m sorry, which seem to be taken for granted by non-native speakers of English,
through analyzing one academic and one non-academic corpora.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 123

“The results of the functional analysis suggest that most instances of the word
sorry were used to indicate interruption, self-repair, and expressing regret, whereas
I’m sorry was chiefly exploited to express regret and apology.”

5.1.2.1 Introduction

“This requirement means that, in a corpus, only those phenomena can fully be
studied whose lexical form(s) and pragmatic function(s) display a straightforward
one-­to-­one relationship.”
“To the predicament of form–function incongruities, the problem of using rela-
tively similar expressions or some expressions and their truncated forms (e.g., sorry
for I’m sorry or fine for I’m fine), which are thought to be not of much value for
many speakers, might bring about different reactions if the speaker makes the wrong
choice.”
“What makes this study worth conducting is the meticulous concentration on the
word sorry and elucidating its discourse features.”
“No study has been concerned with the functions, linguistic distribution, and
co-­textual environment of the word sorry in one single study.”
“The aim of this study is to both address the linguistic and sociocognitive
bearings of the co-text in the vicinity of sorry and I’m sorry.”

5.1.2.2 Backgrounds

“There are a number of studies that combine both corpus and discourse analysis,
such as corpus-based discourse analyses [7], recent sociolinguistic research (e.g.,
Holmes & Schnurr [8]), studies in critical discourse analysis [9–12] two-pronged
approach (explained later in the text).”
“What follows is a review of studies on speech acts under the banner of
corpus-­discourse analysis.”
“Another study motivated by the notion of ‘face’ [13], is Diani’s [14] corpus
analysis of COBUILD/Birmingham spoken corpus to explore the interpretation of
the formulaic I don’t know with a view of the effect of intonational patterns, identify
its various meanings and functions, and study the collocational patterns occurring
with a number of discourse markers that influence the functions of I don’t know.”
“To round up this section, the present study sets out to combine the findings from
corpus analysis with those from discourse analysis in the light of pragmatic and
sociocognitive dimensions, hoping to secure a safe haven for bridging corpus
linguistics and discourse analysis.”

5.1.2.3 Method

“Our data were taken from n-grams of Corpus of Contemporary American English
(COCA) and the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE).”
124 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“The n-grams were independent of the MICASE and were accessible from the
online COCA, which is the largest publicly-available, genre-balanced corpus of
English—containing 520 million words.”
“Are the categories of the corpus based on speech events and speech acts which
pave the way for further analysis in the current study.”
“In a pilot study, 25% of the corpora was extracted and manually analyzed by the
first author to identify the main function played by sorry and I’m sorry and reveal
the co-textual features accompanying them.”
“Taking up Dörnyei’s call, the current study presents a quantitative/qualitative
analysis of a corpus of American spoken English, exploring the differences between
distribution and collocational patterning of the expressions sorry and I’m sorry.”

5.1.2.4 Results and Discussion

“The frequencies and functions of these constructions are tabulated at the end of this
section. (a) Sorrycomplement [that-clause] (b) Sorrycomplement [for/about prepositional
phrase] (c) Sorrycomplement [to-infinitive phrase] (d) Sorrycomplement [causative adverbial
clause] (e) Sorrycomplement [a clause prefaced by a contrastive conjunction like but] (f)
Sorrycomplement [an inserted turn] (g) Sorrycomplement [a proper name] Were it followed
by a that-clause, sorry would serve as a marker for refusal, self-repair, reporting,
and compensation (see examples 24–27, respectively).”
“Apart from those functions identified in the previous analysis based on
Deutschmann’s [15] classifications of apology, it was found that most instances of
sorry in the three aforementioned categories were used to perform an act of self-­
repair, interrupting others’ talk, indicating a slip of the tongue, expression of regret,
introduction to a reason, expressing sympathy, as well as polite redirection and
strategic rejection, whereas I’m sorry was chiefly used to suggest gaining the floor
and/or maintaining one’s turn in the conversation, mitigating one’s wrongdoing or
creating a sense of intimacy, and expressing regret.”

5.1.2.5 Conclusion

“This study set out to find out how corpus linguistics can contribute to functional
analysis of larger stretches of discourse like speech acts.”
“As typical linguistic realizations of apology speech act, sorry and I’m sorry
were chosen for the purpose of the study.”
“The findings enabled the authors to conclude that the level of formality induces
particular functions to the target forms sorry and I’m sorry.”
“We have presented arguments to demonstrate that sorry and I’m sorry realize
significantly different functions, based on frequency counts, depending on the
preceding and sequential environments.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 125

“The present study does not claim to be exhaustive, not only because it does not
exclude the idea that sorry and I’m sorry are also germane in other exchanges that
the corpus has not highlighted, but also because it is hard to provide clear-cut dis-
tinctions between different functions.”

5.1.3 A Corpus-Based Study of Phrasal Verbs with Key

Meanings in TED Talks [52]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Liou, Hsien-Chin; Tseng, Yun-Pei: A Corpus-Based Study of Phrasal Verbs with
Key Meanings in TED Talks [52]
Published in: English Teaching & Learning (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42321-­021-­00101-­6
Copyright of the summarized publication:
National Taiwan Normal University 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Abstract While TED talks with their video format are
popular teaching materials, limited corpus studies have been conducted to provide
systematic evidence on their linguistic features.”
“Following Liu and Myers’ approach (2020), this study characterized the most
common meaning senses of 150 PVs (Garnier and Schmitt, Language Teaching
Research, 19, 645–666, 2015) among 500 TED talk transcripts based on corpus
analyses with their frequency information of meaning senses.”
“With contrasting analyses of PV semantic information between the TED corpus
and COCA sub-corpora, we found that PVs in the TED corpus are not similar to
either the COCA spoken or academic writing register (contrasted in Liu and
Myers).”
“A frequency-based TED PV list was compiled as a pedagogical reference to
facilitate vocabulary learning via watching TED Talks.”

5.1.3.1 Introduction

“While several researchers have conducted corpus investigations into TED tran-
scripts of video talks to help students improve their English learning, very limited
studies have characterized their multi-word units using corpus analysis, especially
concerning their phrasal verbs (PVs).”
126 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“Based on two sub-corpora in COCA: spoken and academic writing (about

230 million word tokens), Liu and Myers identified and contrasted their
respective meaning senses of PVs in the two registers and devised the S & AW
PHaVE list.”
“The purpose of this study is to conduct corpus analyses and develop a specific
TED PV list based on the different key meanings of PVs.”
“What are the disparities between our TED PV list and the S & AW PHaVE list
concerning meaning senses of PVs which commonly appeared in the spoken or
academic writing register?”

5.1.3.2 Materials and Methods of the Study

“As an extension of Liu and Myers’ research and their S & AW PHaVE list (2020),
we aimed to provide the most common 150 PVs (the identical set in the S & AW
list) in the TED corpus with their meaning senses, meaning sense percentages as
well as orders, and example sentences from our 500 TED talks.”
“After automatic locating possible PVs by AntConc processing, three raters were
involved to verify and compare the meaning sense of each possible PV token we
located in the TED corpus against those in the S & AW PHaVE list [16] or other
references.”
“After three raters examined all possible PVs retrieved from TED transcripts,
the PV meaning sense agreement rates among the three raters were calculated by
following the formula below.”
“After the TED PV list was compiled, we compared our results with those in the
two registers of the S & AW PHaVE list [16], which shows meaning sense orders
and percentages of each PV under either the (COCA) spoken or academic writing
register.”

5.1.3.3 Results

“We compared and contrasted the PV sense orders and percentages of our TED
corpus with their findings in the spoken and academic writing registers respectively
of the S & AW PHaVE list [16], and then classified the findings into three groups
(in each division: TED-COCA spoken and TED-COCA academic writing) as
defined by the same grouping method used by Liu and Myers.”
“We aimed to find whether the overall PV usage concerning all their meaning
sense percentages and orders in our TED corpus was closer to either the COCA
spoken or its academic writing register as included in the S & AW list.”
“The PV list contains 148 PV types (different phrase) based on the token
(number) of meaning senses and their orders in the 500 TED talks.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 127

5.1.3.4 Discussions

“As an extension of the S & AW PHaVE list, our TED PV list yielded a slightly dif-
ferent top frequency-based ten PVs concerning meaning frequency and order.”
“The PV meaning senses in the S & AW PHaVE list had 90.8% coverage of all
meaning senses in 148 PVs as found in our TED corpus.”
“To make a PV list more specific and concise for English learners (as a second or
foreign language, ESL/EFL) who may desire to acquire PV knowledge via watch-
ing TED videos, we organized the meaning senses that have occurred in the 500
TED talks by frequency and provided authentic TED sentences below each PV
sense type in the TED PV list.”
“Like those in the S & AW PHaVE list, the order of each meaning type for all the
PVs is based on their frequency (percentage); the more often one PV occurs with its
sense tokens in the TED corpus, the earlier in the order of the list where this PV is
arranged.”

5.1.3.5 Conclusions

“Antconc, a computer program, was adopted to locate sentences in the TED Talks
that contained possible PV tokens (a lexical verb plus a particle) of 150 common
PVs, same as those in the S & AW PHaVE list [16].”
“A TED PV list was compiled based on the frequency and order of meaning
senses of those 148 PVs to provide ESL/EFL learners an appropriate list to look up
when they use TED as English-learning materials for implicit or explicit learning.”
“Like the application of the S & AW PHaVE list, our frequency-based TED PV
list can be consulted by ESL/EFL learners when they watch TED talks and feel
unsure of the meaning of common PVs, or by teachers or curriculum designers who
desire to plan priority of instructing or assessing particular PVs over the other less
common ones.”

5.1.4 From Corpora to Experiments: Methodological

Triangulation in the Study of Word Order
at the Interfaces in Adult Late Bilinguals (L2
Learners) [53]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Mendikoetxea, Amaya; Lozano, Cristóbal: From Corpora to Experiments:
Methodological Triangulation in the Study of Word Order at the Interfaces in
Adult Late Bilinguals (L2 learners) [53]
128 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

Published in: Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (2018)

Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-­018-­9560-­0
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “This paper shows the need to triangulate different approaches
in Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research to fully under-
stand late bilinguals’ interlanguage grammars.”
“We follow a recent line in psycholinguistic approaches to Bilingualism and
SLA research (Interface Hypothesis, Sorace in Linguist Approaches Biling
1(1):1–33, 17).”
“We argue that it is precisely this multi-faceted interface approach (corpus and
experimental data, core syntax and the interfaces, representational and processing
models) that provides a deeper understanding of (i) the factors that favour inversion
in L2 acquisition in particular and (ii) interlanguage grammars in general.”

5.1.4.1 Introduction: Interfaces in Bilingualism and SLA

“While L2 learners can successfully acquire narrow syntax properties, i.e., purely
syntactic properties pertaining to the computational system, the external interfaces
are highly problematic, leading to optionality, variability, and fossilization, as
reported in a variety of acquisitional contexts for both child and adult bilinguals and
learners with different L1-L2 combinations ([17–19] for overviews).”
“Convergence at the theoretical level can also be found in the attention given to
conditions imposed on the language faculty by external interfaces, called third-­
factor principles in language design (which interact with the other two factors:
genetic endowment and experience) within what is known as the biolinguistic
approach (see Chomsky [20]).”
“The recent emphasis on the role of linguistic interfaces both in theoretical
linguistics and bilingualism/SLA points towards some degrees of conceptual
convergence amongst different cognitively-oriented models.”

5.1.4.2 Gathering Data for SLA Purposes

“As Myles [21: 374] states “the language produced by learners, whether spontane-
ously or through various elicitation procedures, remains a central source of evi-
dence for these mental processes, and the success of SLA research therefore relies
on having access to good quality data”.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 129

“Findings in SLA research are thus highly dependent on data collection methods.”
“Relatively little use has been made of these corpora in SLA research ([21–24]
for discussions).”
“SLA researchers have rightly complained that LCR is not always fully informed
by SLA research [21, 23] and that large learner corpora have not been used in main-
stream formal approaches to SLA [25].”
“Corpora are an invaluable tool for SLA research and researchers have recently
argued for the triangulation of corpus and experimental data (e.g., Lozano and
Mendikoetxea [26]; Callies [27]; Gilquin and Gries [28]; Meunier and Littre [29]).”

5.1.4.3 Combining Corpus and Experimental Data in L2: S–V/

V–S Order

“The corpus data showed that learners produced XP-V–S order with unaccusatives
only, in accordance to the UH experimental results, but, crucially, as we will see in
the following section “The Corpus Study”, the corpus data revealed previously
unnoticed phenomena, namely that (i) unaccusativity is a necessary but not a suffi-
cient condition for V–S order: S must be focus and heavy [30, 31] and that (ii) a full
account of V–S structures must necessarily consider the preverbal field (XP).”
“While our initial motivation for the corpus study [31] was to test the UH in L2
grammars as manifested in previous studies and illustrated in (1), our hypotheses
were not restricted to the study of the V at the lexicon-syntax interface, but focused
on S at the syntax-discourse and syntax-phonology interface to fully understand the
role of the interfaces in the production of Ss in postverbal ((XP-)V–S) position vs.
preverbal position (S–V) in L1 Spanish–L2 English.”

5.1.4.4 Discussion

“It could be argued that overproduction of it in the corpus, in contexts where we find
there in native English, may be due to the high frequency of it in the input because
it corresponds to different types of S: referential pronoun, expletive in weather
verbs/passives/raising constructions, and anticipatory expletive in extraposed
clausal Ss.”
“If production of Ø with unaccusatives were an L1 transfer phenomenon, then (i)
unaccusative Ø rates would be expected to be the highest, but are low across all
levels and also at A1 level, when learners would be expected to transfer more; (ii) Ø
rates would be predicted to be the highest for unergatives too, since heavy and
focused Ss in V–S constructions appear in sentence-final position in native Spanish,
independently of V type (cf. “The Corpus Study”); (iii) unaccusative Ø rates would
be expected to be higher than it rates, since only the former is allowed in Spanish,
but learners treat both Ø and it similarly across levels.”
130 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

5.1.4.5 Conclusion

“We have shown that Bilingualism, and particularly, SLA research and LCR can
benefit from two areas of convergence: (i) the triangulation of corpus and experi-
mental data to study the same linguistic phenomenon (S–V/V–S order in L1
Spanish–L2 English); (ii) the study of how the syntactic module interfaces with
other cognitive modules internal to the language faculty (lexicon-syntax interface)
and external to it (syntax-discourse and syntax-phonology interfaces).”
“Though this issue has not been developed here, we pointed out in section
“Introduction: Interfaces in Bilingualism and SLA” that, on the basis of third-factor
principles (e.g. principles involved in language processing), convergence between
two cognitive theoretical approaches (representational/generative vs. usage-based/
functional) is crucial to better understand interlanguage grammars.”
“While our corpus data indicate that speakers of L1 Spanish–L2 English produce
XP-V–S structures under the same interface conditions as native English speakers,
future research needs to determine more precisely the ultimate cause for the diffi-
culties encountered by learners in the syntactic encoding of XP.”

5.1.5 A Corpus-Based Study of Modal Verbs in the Uniform

Commercial Code of the USA [54]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Wu, Xinyu; Li, Jian: A Corpus-Based Study of Modal Verbs in the Uniform
Commercial Code of the USA [54]
Published in: International Journal for the Semiotics of Law – Revue internationale
de Sémiotique juridique (2019)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-­019-­09620-­9
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Nature B.V. 2019
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The study specifically studies the features of modal verbs in
the UCC through the comparison with the United States Code (hereinafter referred
to as the USC) and Frown.”
“The results show that there are significant differences between the three sets of
corpora and the three main features of modal verbs in the UCC are: the high fre-
quency use of may, the relatively lower frequency use of legal modal verb shall, and
the much higher frequency of must and may not.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 131

“With both the quantitative and qualitative analysis combining the examples, the
study hopes to shed light on the related legal translation and further enhance the
understanding of the modal verbs in the UCC as well as legal discourse in a more
general context.”

5.1.5.1 Introduction

“In the deeper economic reform, the legal language and spirit of the Uniform
Commercial Code (hereinafter referred to as the UCC) of the USA is also worth
learning from and it will be significant for further developing the most suitable eco-
nomic regulating system for the socialism with Chinese characteristics.”
“The UCC is a model code, it is enacted integrally or partially within 50 states
with the goal of harmonizing the law of sales and commercial transactions across
the states.”
“As an important law in commercial domain in the USA, the UCC basically
eliminates the barriers caused by different states’ regulations on interstate transac-
tion and greatly promotes the development of American industry and commerce.”
“Many writers and editors have devoted continuous effort to revise and exhibit
the UCC to the different audience in the USA, which illustrates the importance of
this Code.”

5.1.5.2 Modality

“As for deontic modality in Chinese legislation, scholars tended to compare the
Chinese characters “ying(gai)”, “(bi)xu”, “ke(yi)” in legal documents to modal
verbs like shall and may [32–35].”
“Cao [32] studied Chinese equivalence of modal verbs shall, may and their nega-
tion form may not or shall not in legal Chinese as a way to perform obligations,
permissions, and prohibitions under the illocutionary acts theory to compare the
pragmatic differences of the Chinese legal language used in Chinese mainland and
Chinese Taiwan’s the statutory laws.”
“In Chinese legal documents, modal verbs shall and may have the highest
frequency [36].”
“Further respective comparison of the modal verbs’ positive and negative forms
has been done by using China and Hong Kong’s laws and regulations parallel cor-
pus [37], which indicated that shall and may not were overused and misused in
Chinese legal register.”

5.1.5.3 Method

“This study employed quantitative and qualitative approaches to analyze the modal
verbs in the Uniform Commercial Code of the USA.”
132 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“The study first chose and built up the corpora separately and carefully: Uniform
Commercial Code of the USA, the other English legal documents chosen from the
United States Code, and the common English language corpus Frown.”
“Based on reorganization of different corpora’s frequency of modal verbs, a fur-
ther comparison was made between the legislations and Frown as well as between
the UCC and the USC.”
“The main features of the usages of the modal verbs of the Uniform Commercial
Code of the USA were analyzed.”

5.1.5.4 Results

“The differences between the modal verbs in three corpora will be analyzed from
two levels, between the legal documents and the Frown as well as between the UCC
and the USC.”
“Comparing the modal verbs in legal documents, the UCC and the USC with
Frown which including daily expressions, it can be noticed that can, could, might,
should, need all are used more frequently in daily expression than in legal
documents.”
“The UCC has the highest low modal value at 59% for the high-frequently used
modal verb may, even higher than the daily expression in Frown, which may indi-
cate a more free and open context.”

5.1.5.5 Discussion

“When discussing the usage features of modal verbs in the UCC, the regions and
fields of legislation, the background of social relations and development must be
considered.”
“Since modal verb shall indicates an order, command, obligations rather than
rights [33, 35, 38] and the commercial law focuses more on the rights of the com-
mon merchants and consumers, modal verb may is more suitable for illustrating the
permission of a business act.”
“Within the discourse domain of the UCC, besides the jurisprudential pursue of
the major legal realists participated in the drafting of the UCC, the seemingly con-
tradictory usages of different modal verbs also can be seen as a struggle and a strike
for the balance between vagueness and clarity in law As Bellis [39]‘s research which
testified the perfect clarity in legal writing to be illusory, he concluded that we could
only achieve the relative clarity by sufficient contexts under the directive thoughts
of Plato, Isadore, Descartes, Locke.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 133

5.1.5.6 Conclusion

“Since the studies on legal document are booming and legal language has its own
typical features, the present study of modal verbs in the UCC, which provides an
important analysis of the specific use of the modal verbs in the English commerce
law in the US from sociosemiotic perspective, will undoubtedly contribute to the
further understanding of modality within the legal contexts.”
“The three main features of the modal verbs usages of the UCC are found: the
high frequency use of may, the relatively lower frequency use of legal modal verb
shall, and the much higher frequency of must and may not.”
“The usages of modal verbs in the UCC may also provide a legal text as a
dynamic balance between the social reality and law to explore the relative obscurity
and clarity in legal language.”
“The present study provides sociosemiotic interpretation of modal verbs within
the context the UCC particularly.”

5.1.6 Sentiment Analysis of Japanese Text and Vocabulary

Learning Based on Natural Language Processing
and SVM [55]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Song, Gang: Sentiment analysis of Japanese text and vocabulary learning based on
natural language processing and SVM [55]
Published in: Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-­021-­03040-­z
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of
Springer Nature 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “In order to improve the effect of text sentiment classifica-
tion, this study combines intelligent machine algorithms to study Japanese text sen-
timent classification, which provides a theoretical reference for subsequent natural
language research.”
“This study combines the TF-IDF algorithm with SVM to construct a Japanese
text sentiment classification model and proposes a chi-square statistic that combines
word frequency factor, inter-class concentration coefficient, and correction
coefficient.”
134 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“Through various comparative analysis, it shows that the research model has
good comprehensive performance, meets the needs of sentiment classification
system, and can provide theoretical reference for related research.”

5.1.6.1 Introduction

“We can extract distinguishing feature words to form feature vectors to distinguish
texts with different contents.”
“Before classifying Japanese text, we first need to perform word segmenting.”
“It is particularly critical to find effective feature dimensionality reduction meth-
ods to further improve the accuracy and efficiency of text classification.”
“In text classification, the method we generally use is to construct an evaluation
function to score each feature item in the original feature space, and then arrange the
scores of all feature items in ascending order to select a predetermined number of
best features or set a threshold to retain those features with scores above the
threshold.”
“The appearance of new words reduces the accuracy of text classification, so
combining new words to study text classification has practical significance [40].”

5.1.6.2 Related Work

“This is the first time sentiment has been introduced in the field of information
science research.”
“Sentiment computing has become a hot research field at home and abroad,
mainly including sentiment feature analysis, sentiment recognition and sentiment
simulation.”
“The research first obtained various behavior and physiological characteristic
signals caused by human emotions through various sensors, and then established an
“emotional model” of the relationship between different emotions and related fea-
ture information.”
“At home, the country lists “theoretical research on emotional computing in a
harmonious human–machine environment” as a key project of the National Natural
Science Foundation of China.”
“The decision layer fusion uses different types of sensors to observe and acquire
various data for the same target, and it completes the basic processing of the target
information locally through each sensor.”

5.1.6.3 Feature Selection Method

“It is often used in large-scale corpora, and it can remove low-frequency words that
are irrelevant to categories and improve the efficiency of feature selection and the
accuracy of classification.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 135

“When the feature word has nothing to do with the category, the value of MI is 0.”
“The information gain value of a feature word is used to measure the difference
between the information entropy of the feature item before and after the feature
word appears.”
“When the feature word does not appear, its contribution to the text is less than
its interference.”
“When the distribution of classes and feature items is uneven, the information
gain will tend to select feature words that do not appear frequently, which will result
in poor classification effects.”
“The greater the influence of feature items on the distribution of text categories,
the greater the expected cross-entropy value [41].”

5.1.6.4 Chi-Square Statistical Algorithm

“The chi-square values of all feature words are calculated, sorted from largest to
smallest, and then a certain number of words are selected as feature items.”
“The disadvantage of chi-square statistics is that when there are 100 texts in a
type, if the feature word appears only once in each article in this type of text set and
another feature word appears 10 times in 99 articles in this type, the score calculated
by the chi-square formula for the latter feature word is less than the former.”
“Because the calculation formula of chi-square statistics is based on the number
of texts whose feature items appear in the category, the former will be preferentially
selected when sorting features, which is why low-frequency words are ignored in
chi-square statistics.”
“The feature word may also be selected as a feature item, and this feature word
will only appear in other categories and hardly appear in its own category.”

5.1.6.5 Improvement of Chi-Square Statistics

“In order to solve the problems of chi-square statistics on low-frequency word

defects, uneven distribution of classes, poor classification, negative correlation
between feature items and categories.”
“The idea of the inter-class concentration coefficient means that the number of
texts A appearing in this feature item is mostly concentrated in this category.”
“When the feature item concentration degree and dispersion degree increase, the
greater the correlation between the feature item and the category, the greater the
number B of texts in the concentration degree.”
“It can be seen that the distinguishing ability between the feature item and
the category increases with the increase of A, and decreases with the increase of the
number of texts B and C. The following formula is obtained by comprehensively
considering A, B, and C through the correction coefficient.”
136 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“The improved method can select feature words with high frequency of feature
words appearing in the text, good dispersion degree within the class, and concen-
trated distribution in a certain class as feature items.”

5.1.6.6 TFIDF Method Combining in-Class Information Entropy

“The information distribution entropy of the feature items between categories is:
When the feature item is evenly distributed within the class, the value of the infor-
mation entropy among the classes reaches the maximum, and its formula is: When
the feature items are more evenly distributed in each category text, the distribution
of feature items between categories is inversely proportional to the contribution of
feature items to the classification.”
“Combining the information distribution entropy parameters within and between
classes can accurately reflect the distribution of texts in inter-class and intra-class.”
“The concept of entropy is introduced to characterize the distribution of feature
items in intra-class.”

5.1.6.7 Model Construction and Performance Analysis

“This study compares the performance of TF-IDF with BPNN model and
CNN model.”
“Analysis, it can be seen that the models proposed in this study have higher
scores, all exceeding 95 points, which is much higher than the BPNN model and
CNN model.”
“In order to further verify the performance of the model, the accuracy of the
Japanese text sentiment analysis is verified on the model.”
“This shows that the model proposed in this study has a high recognition accu-
racy and can meet the performance requirements of the system.”

5.1.6.8 Conclusion

“The traditional text sentiment classification mainly relies on some domain experts
to classify text sentiment according to their knowledge, which is time-consuming
and laborious.”
“The vast majority of text sentiment classification methods use machine learning
methods.”
“This study combines the TF-IDF algorithm with SVM to construct a Japanese
text sentiment classification model and proposes a chi-square statistic that combines
word frequency factor, inter-class concentration coefficient, and correction
co-efficient.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 137

“Through various comparative analysis, it shows that the research model has
good comprehensive performance, meets the needs of sentiment classification sys-
tem, and can provide theoretical reference for related research.”

5.1.7 Gender Construction in the Indonesian

Government-­Distributed English Textbook: Combining
Critical Discourse Analysis and Corpus Linguistics [56]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Suwarno, None; Triyono, Sulis; Ashadi, None; Sahayu, Wening: Gender
Construction in the Indonesian Government-Distributed English Textbook:
Combining Critical Discourse Analysis and Corpus Linguistics [56]
Published in: Sexuality & Culture (2021)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-­021-­09870-­5
Copyright of the summarized publication:
The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC,
part of Springer Nature 2021
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “Many studies on gender in English language textbooks have
been much reported under the umbrella of critical discourse studies.”
“In response to this gap, the present discourse study adopted corpus linguistics
and critical micro-semiotic analysis to investigate the representation of gender in
the English as a foreign language (EFL) textbook used in Indonesian junior high
schools [9].”
“Based on the corpus linguistic analysis, findings showed that the textbook writ-
ers constructed gender fairness by including gender-neutral vocabularies in both
verbal and visual texts in order to avoid gender-marked words.”
“The practical implication of the present study is that English teachers and lan-
guage textbook designers should be fully aware of the interplay between language
and gender issues to minimise gender misconceptions when writing language
textbooks.”

5.1.7.1 Introduction

“Adopting a corpus linguistic study, Lee [42] reported the representation of gender
in written texts of four EFL textbooks series geared for Japanese high school stu-
dents published in 2011.”
138 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“Another Indonesian discourse study [42] explored the portrayal of women in

gendered visual and textual discourses in EFL textbooks taught to senior high
schools students (Grades 10–12).”
“A recent critical discourse study of gender in English textbooks for junior high
schools in Indonesia (Grades 7 and 8) was undertaken to investigate the female
representation [42].”
“The present study addresses the following specific research questions: (1) What
is the proportion of males and females both textually and visually represented in the
selected textbook? (2) Are there gender equality constructions in verbal and visual
texts of the selected textbook? (3) Are there gender stereotypes depicted through
textual and visual illustrations in the textbook examined?”

5.1.7.2 The Study

“The present study aims to elucidate how gendered discourses of written texts and
visual illustrations were constructed in an EFL textbook currently taught to the
Indonesian junior high school students.”
“This allows for a more comprehensive analysis of gendered discourses in the
textbook examined in terms of both lexical and visual choices.”
“Drawing on an open corpus search software tool, AntConc [43] was employed
to undertake computational analysis of gendered lexes presented in the selected
textbook.”
“Critical micro-semiotic analysis was used to examine verbal and pictorial texts
containing a myriad values, including gender stereotyping or mainstreaming [44].”
“We also adopted van Leeuwen’s [42] theory regarding the aspects of social
practices to identify and analyse the gendered discourses in verbal and visual
illustrations.”
“Discursive analysis was undertaken to examine the portrayal of gender multi-
modally presented in the selected textbook.”

5.1.7.3 Findings and Discussion

“The analyses began by calculating male and female vocabularies in terms of gen-
dered characters and pronouns.”
“Further, grounded in Law and Chan [42], the proportion of female and male
characters in visual images was categorised into five types: male-monopolised
(portrayed with men only), female-monopolised (portrayed with women only),
male-dominated (depicted more men), female-dominated (depicted more women),
and gender-shared (men and women are equally represented).”
“It might be intended to avoid a gender-marked word by replacing the proper
names of male and female who play the role of students.”
5.1 Machine Generated Summaries 139

“The present empirical evidence demonstrates a traditional stereotype that

domestic chores as social practices are considered to feminine work as well as
echoes earlier gender-based discourse studies [42, 45].”
“The empirical evidence indicates that the textbook authors constructed gender
stereotypes in terms of sports and reading.”

5.1.7.4 Conclusion

“Regarding the frequency of gendered textual and visual discourses and the best
words choice in order to achieve gender fairness, the findings show that the authors
are fully aware of minimising gender inequality.”
“The selected textbook contains visual artifacts that show gender equity perti-
nent to the number of male and female characters that appear together in a picture.”
“Regarding, the frequency of gendered words occurrences, though the degree of
female domination appeared in the textbook, the overall ratio was relatively
balanced.”
“Further, it is expected that the present findings could provide curriculum design-
ers, textbook authors, and English teachers with a better understanding of the inter-
play between language and gender in order to minimise gender misconceptions.”
“We suggest that any language textbooks should promote gender fairness.”

5.1.8 Suggestions for Vocabulary Focused Reading Lessons

for Mainstream Classrooms Addressing Both L1 and L2
Learners [57]

This is a machine-generated summary of:

Seifert, Susanne; Kulmhofer, Andrea; Paleczek, Lisa; Schwab, Susanne; Gasteiger-­
Klicpera, Barbara: Suggestions for Vocabulary Focused Reading Lessons for
Mainstream Classrooms Addressing Both L1 and L2 Learners [57]
Published in: Early Childhood Education Journal (2016)
Link to original: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-­015-­0762-­x
Copyright of the summarized publication:
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
All rights reserved.
If you want to cite the papers, please refer to the original.
For technical reasons we could not place the page where the original quote is
coming from.
Abstract-Summary “The increasing number of second language learners in class-
rooms all around the world has required teachers to adapt their teaching methods
and materials to the various learners’ needs.”
140 5 Corpus-Based Vocabulary Studies

“Language learners in particular need specific learning strategies, which not only
aim at helping them understand the linguistic structure of the language of instruc-
tion, but also enable them to remember and comprehend the many different words
in this “foreign” language.”
“For second language learners, developing reading skills and improving lan-
guage abilities need to go hand in hand independent of the language.”
“This article presents suggestions for reading lessons emphasizing vocabulary
for both first and second language learners of various linguistic backgrounds.”

5.1.8.1 Introduction

“Vocabulary knowledge has a greater impact on the reading development of L2

learners than on readers who acquire reading competencies in their L1 [46].”
“Nation [47] sees insufficient vocabulary knowledge as one of the major barriers
to reading acquisition for L2 learners.”
“Reading teachers can support L2 learners in their process of learning to read
through vocabulary building.”
“Vocabulary building represents one of the main pillars reading lessons should
be based on—not only for L2 learners, but also for L1 children, particularly when
they come from families of low socioeconomic backgrounds [48, 49].”
“This article provides suggestions for vocabulary focused reading lessons appro-
priate for classrooms with L1 and L2 learners independent of the language of
instruction.”
“Twelve classrooms with a comparable amount of L2 learners receiving tradi-
tional reading instruction served as a control group.”

5.1.8.2 Organizing Vocabulary Building Around Topics

“During the process, the teacher needs to pay attention whether all the vocabulary
words chosen for the topic have been mentioned by the students.”
“If not all the vocabulary words were mentioned by the students, the teacher can
then introduce them by describing what they mean and by highlighting the corre-
sponding scene in the topic picture.”
“Such programs and applications can be quite helpful for vocabulary learning as
they allow the students to enter the relevant vocabulary words and practice them in
various contexts not only in school, but also at home.”
“Clues for the missing vocabulary words must be found in the original version of
the text the student read.”
“The student needs to think about the vocabulary words, needs to re-read if
unsure which word is missing and at the same time write the word.”
“For some L2 learners, the texts might contain more difficult words than can be
covered by the topic-related vocabulary.”
Bibliography 141

5.1.8.3 Summary

“To face these challenges, teachers need tools that support them in adapting reading
lessons to the various learners’ needs.”
“Integrating vocabulary building and providing rich and robust vocabulary
instruction in reading classes is one essential approach to address the learning needs
of both L1 and L2 learners.”
“For teaching reading to L2 learners, vocabulary building is even more important
because these students need to increase their L2 vocabulary to keep pace with their
native speaking peers.”

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Chapter 6
Conclusion

Vocabulary learning has long been considered as one of the essential components
for developing language learning, Many strategies are integrated to enhance vocab-
ulary acquisition. Subsequently, the current volume presents research that investi-
gates vocabulary acquisition and the strategies employed by teachers and learners.
The teaching process can be motivating and interesting with the help of ICT as it
offers a helping hand in different domains of ELT. In addition, the discussions also
remind current researchers that more attention and effort should be paid to ICT and
CALL studies, along with Corpus.
The relationship between corpus and L2 teaching is an emerging field of applied
corpus linguistics and sketches avenues for future research activities that may posi-
tively impact L2 teaching. We hope to have shown that corpus resources and meth-
ods have great potential to improve pedagogical practise and that corpora can be
used in a number of ways, indirectly to inform teaching materials and reference
works and directly as language learning tools and repositories for the design of data-­
intensive teaching activities. I have also tried to make it clear that a lot still remains
to be done in research and practise before corpora will eventually arrive in the class-
room. There needs to be a lot more communication between corpus researchers and
practitioners so that teachers and students get the help they need in future.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 145

Switzerland AG 2024
M. Udaya, C. R. Reddy (eds.), Vocabulary, Corpus and Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45986-3_6