Math2070 Algebraic Structures B and C

2023-2024
HW6
Charles Li
Due: April 8th 2024, Mon, 11:59pm
Instructions

1. Hand in your work through Gradescope before the deadline. No late HW will be accepted. You
must match the question number with page number.
2. You have to answer all the questions. Show your steps unless otherwise stated.

3. The scores for each part may be adjusted without further notification. The total score is 100.
Questions
√ √
1. Let R = Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z} be endowed with the operations of real number addition +
and real number multiplication ×.
You can use the fact that (R, +, ×) is a commutative ring without proof.
Determine whether the following subsets are ideals of R:
√
(a) I1 = {a + b 2 ∈ R : a is even};
√
(b) I2 = {a + b 2 ∈ R : b is even}.
If yes, prove it. If not, provide explicit examples that violate the definition of an ideal.

Answer.

(a) for showing that√I1 + I1 ⊆ I1 . 1pt

√ for knowing to check the condition.
For α = a1 + b1 2, β = a2 + b2 2 ∈ I1 , then a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ Z, a1 , a2 are even.
√ √ √
a1 + b1 2 + a2 + b2 2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) 2.
Because a1 , a2 are even, a1 + a2 is also even. So

α + β ∈ I.

√ RI1 ⊆ I1 . 1pt for

for showing that √ knowing to check the condition.
For ρ = r + s 2 ∈ R, α = a + b 2 ∈ I1 . Then r, s, a, b ∈ Z and a is even
√
ρα = (ra − 2sb) + (sa + rb) 2.

Because 2|a, 2|ra. Therefore 2|(ra − 2sb). Thus ρα ∈ I1 .

These conclude that I is an ideal in R.
(b) For given an explicit number examples.
for checking the √2 ⊆ I2 .
√ example fails RI
For ρ = r + s 2 ∈ R, α = a + b 2 ∈ I2 . Then r, s, a, b ∈ Z and b is even.
√
ρα = (ra − 2sb) + (sa + rb) 2.

Another example of s, a begin odd gives a counter example: as

as + rb ≡ 1 × 1 + r × 0 ≡ 1 (mod 2).

So ρα ∈
/ I2 . Example:
√
ρ= 2, α = 1.

1
2. Recall that Q[x] is the set of rational polynomials. Let R = (Q[x], +, ×).
Determine whether the followings sets are ideals of R. If yes, prove it. If not, provide explicit
examples that violate the definition of ideal.
(a) I1 = {f (x) ∈ Q[x] : f (1) = 0, f (3) = 0}
(b) I2 = {f (x) ∈ Q[x] : there exists an odd integer n such that f (n) = 0}.
(c) I3 = {f (x) ∈ Q[x] : f (x) is an even function, i.e. f (−x) = f (x)}.
(d) I4 = {f (x) ∈ Q[x] : x2 − x + 1 is a factor of f (x)}.
(e) I5 = {f (x) ∈ R[x] : f (x) has a real root or is the zero polynomial}.
Answer.
Note that R is commutative, so ar = ra for a ∈ I and r ∈ R. We only need to show ar ∈ I when
we show that I absorbs products.
(a) We claim that I1 is an ideal of R. To see this, we check the three conditions:
ˆ I1 is nonempty since the zero polynomial is in I1 .
ˆ Suppose f, g ∈ I1 . Then f (1) = f (3) = g(1) = g(3) = 0. Therefore, (f + g)(1) =
f (1) + g(1) = 0 and (f + g)(3) = f (3) + g(3) = 0, which shows that f + g ∈ I1 .
ˆ Suppose f ∈ I1 and g ∈ R. Then (f g)(1) = f (1)g(1) = 0 and (f g)(3) = f (3)g(3) = 0,
which shows that f g ∈ I1 .
Therefore, I1 is an ideal of R.
(b) We claim that I2 is not an ideal of R. To show this, we provide an explicit example that
violates the definition of an ideal.
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = x − 3. Note that f (1) = 0 and g(3) = 0, so f, g ∈ I2 . However,
(f +g)(x) = 2x−4 and the only zero of f +g is x = 2, which is not an odd integer. Therefore,
f +g ∈ / I2 and I2 fails to be closed under addition. Hence, I2 is not an ideal of R.
(c) We claim that I3 is not an ideal of R. To see this, we provide an explicit example that
violates the definition of an ideal.
Consider f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Note that f ∈ I3 since f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ Q.
However, f g = x3 and (f g)(−1) = 1 ̸= −1 = f g(1), so f g is not in I3 . Therefore, I3 is not
closed under multiplication by elements of R. Hence, I3 is not an ideal of R.
(d) We claim that I4 is an ideal of R. To see this, we check the three conditions:
ˆ I4 is nonempty since the zero polynomial is in I4 .
ˆ Suppose f, g ∈ I4 . Then x2 − x + 1 is a factor of f (x) and g(x). Therefore, x2 − x + 1 is
also a factor of (f + g)(x) = (f (x) + g(x)), which shows that f + g, f − g ∈ I4 .
ˆ Suppose f ∈ I4 and g ∈ R. Then x2 −x+1 is a factor of f (x), say f (x) = (x2 −x+1)q(x)
for some q(x) ∈ Q[x]. Therefore, (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) = (x2 −x+1)q(x)g(x), which shows
that f g ∈ I4 .
Therefore, I4 is an ideal of R.
(e) I5 is a not and ideal. f = 2x2 ∈ I5 as x = 0 is a real root of f .
g = −x2 + 1 ∈ I5 as x = 1 is a real root of g.
But the sum 2x2 + (−x2 + 1) = x2 + 1 has no real root. Hence f + g is not in I5 .
□
3. Determine if each of the following maps is a ring homomorphism:
(a)
ϕ : Z −→ Q,
ϕ(n) = 2n, n ∈ Z.
(b)
ϕ : Z6 −→ Z3 ,
ϕ(s) = s3 , s ∈ Z6 ,
where s3 denotes the remainder of the division of s by 3.

2
(c)
ϕ : Z7 −→ Z5 ,
ϕ(s) = s5 , s ∈ Z7 ,
where s5 denotes the remainder of the division of s by 5.
(d)
ϕ : Z5 −→ Z10 ,
ϕ(s) = s, s ∈ Z5 .
Answer.
(a)
ϕ(1 · 1) = ϕ(1) = 2 · 1 = 2 ̸= 2 · 2 = ϕ(1)ϕ(1).
Hence, ϕ is not a ring homomorphism.
(b) This is a ring homomorphism.
It is clear that ϕ(1) = 1. To show that ϕ is compatible with addition and multiplication, we
first make the following observation:
Since 3|6, for all a, b ∈ Z such that a ≡ b mod 6, we have a ≡ b mod 3.
For all a ∈ Z, since a ≡ a6 mod 6, we have:
a ≡ a6 mod 3.
Since c ≡ d mod 3 implies c3 ≡ d3 mod 3, it follows that:
a3 ≡ (a6 )3 mod 3.

Consequently, for s, t ∈ Z6 , we have:

ϕ(s + t) = ϕ((s +Z t)6 )
= ((s +Z t)6 )3
= (s +Z t)3
= s3 + t3 ( in Z3 )
= ϕ(s) + ϕ(t).
Similarly,
ϕ(st) = ϕ((s ·Z t)6 )
= ((s ·Z t)6 )3
= (s ·Z t)3
= s3 · t3 ( in Z3 )
= ϕ(s)ϕ(t).
We conclude that ϕ is a ring homomorphism.
(c) This is not a ring homomorphism. To see this, suppose ϕ is a homomorphism, then ϕ(1) = 1,
and ϕ(0) = 0.
We have: !
X7 X7
ϕ 1 = ϕ(1) = 2
i=1 i=1
P7
in Z5 . On the other hand, i=1 1 = 0 in Z7 . So, ϕ(0) = 2 ̸= 0, contradicting ϕ(0) = 0.
(d) This is not a ring homomorphism.
P5
Suppose ϕ is a ring homomorphism. Since i=1 1 = 0 in Z5 , and ϕ(1) = 1, we have:
5
! 5 5
X X X
ϕ(0) = ϕ 1 = ϕ(1) = 1 = 5.
i=1 i=1 i=1

But a ring homomorphism must send 0 to 0, and 5 ̸= 0 in Z10 . Hence, ϕ is not a ring
homomorphism.

3
 □
4. Let R = Q × Q endowed with addition +:

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)

and multiplication ×
(a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bd).
(a) Show that R is a ring.
(b) Show that R is not field.
(c) Show that ϕ : R → Q, ϕ(a, b) = a is a ring homomorphism.
(d) Show that ψ : Q[x] → R, defined by ψ(f (x)) = (f (1), f (3)), is a ring homomorphism. Then,
by considering the kernel of ψ, show that the set I1 defined in Question 2a is an ideal.
Applying the first ring isomorphism theorem to ψ : Q[x] → R, what can you conclude?
Answer.
(a) We need to verify that R satisfies the axioms of a ring:
ˆ (R, +) is an abelian group:
– Associativity: (a, b) + [(c, d) + (e, f )] = (a, b) + (c + e, d + f ) = (a + c + e, b + d + f ) and
[(a, b) + (c, d)] + (e, f ) = (a + c, b + d) + (e, f ) = (a + c + e, b + d + f ), so associativity
holds.
– Identity: (0, 0) + (a, b) = (a, b) + (0, 0) = (a, b) for all (a, b) ∈ R, so (0, 0) is the
identity element.
– Inverse: (−a, −b) + (a, b) = (0, 0) for all (a, b) ∈ R, so every element has an inverse.
– Commutativity: (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) = (c + a, d + b) = (c, d) + (a, b) for all
(a, b), (c, d) ∈ R, so addition is commutative.
ˆ Multiplication is associative: ((a, b) × (c, d)) × (e, f ) = (ac, bd) × (e, f ) = (ace, bdf ) =
(a, b) × (cf, df ) = (a, b) × ((c, d) × (e, f )) for all (a, b), (c, d), (e, f ) ∈ R.
ˆ Multiplication distributes over addition: (a, b) × [(c, d) + (e, f )] = (a, b) × (c + e, d + f ) =
(a(c + e), b(d + f )) = (ac + ae, bd + bf ) = (ac, bd) + (ae, bf ) = (a, b) × (c, d) + (a, b) × (e, f )
and [(a, b)+(c, d)]×(e, f ) = (a+c, b+d)×(e, f ) = ((a+c)e, (b+d)f ) = (ae+ce, bf +df ) =
(a, b) × (e, f ) + (c, d) × (e, f ) for all (a, b), (c, d), (e, f ) ∈ R.
ˆ Multiplication has an identity: (1, 1) × (a, b) = (a, b) × (1, 1) = (a, b) for all (a, b) ∈ R,
so (1, 1) is the identity element of multiplication.
Therefore, R is a ring.
(b) To show that R is not a field, we exhibit a nonzero element that does not have a multiplicative
inverse. Suppose (a, b) ∈ R is the multiplicative inverse of (0, 1), i.e. (0, 1) × (a, b) =
(a, b) × (0, 1) = (1, 1). Then we have a × 0 = 1, which is impossible since a ∈ Q. Therefore,
(0, 1) does not have a multiplicative inverse in R, and R is not a field.
(c) To show that ϕ is a ring homomorphism, we need to verify that it preserves identity, addition,
and multiplication:
ˆ ϕ((1, 1)) = 1.
ˆ ϕ((a, b) + (c, d)) = ϕ((a + c, b + d)) = a + c = ϕ(a, b) + ϕ(c, d) for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ R.
ˆ ϕ((a, b) × (c, d)) = ϕ((ac, bd)) = ac = ϕ(a, b) × ϕ(c, d) for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ R.
Therefore, ϕ is a ring homomorphism.
(d) To show that ψ is a ring homomorphism, we need to verify that it preserves identity, addition,
and multiplication:
ˆ ψ(1) = (1, 1).
ˆ ψ(f (x)+g(x)) = (f (1)+g(1), f (3)+g(3)) = (f (1), f (3))+(g(1), g(3)) = ψ(f (x))+ψ(g(x))
for all f (x), g(x) ∈ Q[x].
ˆ ψ(f (x)×g(x)) = (f (1)×g(1), f (3)×g(3)) = (f (1), f (3))×(g(1), g(3)) = ψ(f (x))×ψ(g(x))
for all f (x), g(x) ∈ Q[x].

4
 Therefore, ψ is a ring homomorphism.
The kernel of ψ is the set of polynomials f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that ψ(f (x)) = (f (1), f (3)) =
(0, 0), which means f (1) = f (3) = 0. This is precisely the ideal I1 . Therefore, I1 is an ideal
in Q[x].
By the first ring isomorphism theorem, we have Q[x]/I1 ∼ = im(ψ) ⊆ R.
Furthermore we can show that ψ is surjective by the following methods
Method 1 Using the Lagrange interpolation theorem.
Recall The Lagrange interpolation theorem states that for any distinct elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
in a field k and any y1 , y2 , . . . , yn in k, there exists a unique polynomial f (x) ∈ k[x] of degree
at most n − 1 such that f (xi ) = yi for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
In particular, if we take n = 2, x1 = 1, x2 = 3, y1 = a, and y2 = b, then there exists a unique
polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] of degree at most 1 such that f (1) = a and f (3) = b. Therefore, for
any (a, b) ∈ Q × Q, there exists a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that ψ(f ) = (a, b). Hence, ψ
is surjective.

Method 2 Explicit construction by the Lagrange interpolation theorem.

We define
−(x − 3)a + (x − 1)b
f (x) = .
2
It is easy to verify that f (1) = a, f (3) = b. Therefore, for any (a, b) ∈ Q × Q, there exists a
polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that ψ(f ) = (a, b). Hence, ψ is surjective.

Method 3 Using Linear algebra.

Let f (x) = cx + d with f (1) = a, f (3) = b. Solving c, d from the following system of linear
equations:

c + d = f (1) = a
3c + d = f (3) = b,

we obtain c = (b − a)/2, d = (3a − b)/2.

Therefore, for any (a, b) ∈ Q × Q, there exists a a linear polynomial f (x) = cx + d ∈ Q[x]
such that ψ(f ) = (a, b). Hence, ψ is surjective.

Since ψ is surjective, we have im(ψ) = R. Therefore, Q[x]/I1 ∼

= R.
□
5. Let   
a 4b
R= : a, b ∈ Q
b a
be endowed with the operations of matrix addition + and matrix multiplication ∗.
(a) Show that (R, +, ∗) is a ring.
(Hint: the associativity and the distributivity of + and ∗ follow easily from the corresponding
properties of addition and multiplication of matrices.)
 
a 4b
(b) Show that ϕ : R → Q, defined by ϕ = a + 2b, is a ring homomorphism.
b a
(c) Show that R is not an integral domain by finding a zero divisor in R. Justify your answer.

Answer.
(a) Closure of +:
       
a1 4b1 a 4b2 a1 + a2 4(b1 + b2 ) a 4b
+ 2 = =
b1 a1 b2 a2 b1 + b2 (a1 + a2 ) b a

with a = a1 + a2 ∈ Q, b = b1 + b2 ∈ Q.

5
 Closure of ∗:
      
a1 4b1 a2 4b2 a1 a2 + 4b1 b2 4(a2 b1 + a1 b2 ) a 4b
= =
b1 a1 b2 a2 a2 b1 + a1 b2 a1 a2 + 4b1 b2 b a

where a = a1 a2 + 4b1 b2 ∈ Q, b = a2 b1 + a1 b2 ∈ Q.
The additive inverse is in R.
   
a 4b −a 4(−b)
− =
b a −b −a
is in R.
Let a = 0, b = 0, then the zero matrix is in R.
Let a = 1, b = 0, then the identity matrix is in R.
(b) ϕ(I2 ) = 1.

       
a 4b1 a 4b2 a 4b1 a 4b2
ϕ( 1 + 2 ) = ϕ( 1 ) + ϕ( 2 )
b1 a1 b2 a2 b1 a1 b2 a2
LHS is a1 + a2 + 2(b1 + 2b2 ). RHS is a1 + 2b1 + a2 + 2b2 .

      
a 4b1 a2 4b2 a 4b1 a 4b2
ϕ( 1 ) = ϕ( 1 )ϕ( 2 )
b1 a1 b2 a2 b1 a1 b2 a2
LHS = a1 a2 + 4b1 b2 + 2(a2 b1 + a1 b2 ).
RHS = (a1 + 2b1 )(a2 + 2b2 ) = a1 a2 + 2a1 b2 + 2a2 b1 + 4b1 b2 .
Both sides are equal.
(c) General form  
2b 4b
A=
b 2b
Let  
−2 4
B=
1 −2
B is in R (with a = −2, b = 1). And AB = 0.
□
6. Let R be a commutative ring.
(a) Let I be an idea of R. Suppose a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ I. Show that (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) ⊆ I.
(b) Let I be an idea of R. Suppose 1 ∈ I. Show that I = R.
(c) Let a, a1 , a2 ∈ R. Show that (a1 , a2 ) = (a) if any only if there exist r, s, u, v ∈ R such that
a1 r + a2 s = a, a1 = au and a2 = av
(d) Let a1 , a2 ∈ R. Show that (a1 , a1 + a2 ) = (a1 , a2 ).
Answer.
(a) (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) denote the ideal generated by a1 , a2 , . . . , ak . Note that a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ I. Let
Pk
x ∈ (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ). Then x = i=1 ri ai for some ri ∈ R. Since I is an ideal, it is closed
under multiplication by elements Pk of R, x ∈ I, therefore ri ai ∈ R. Since I is an ideal, it is
closed additions, therefore i=1 ri ai ∈ R. Therefore, (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) ⊆ I.
(b) Since 1 ∈ I, for any r ∈ R, we have r = r · 1 ∈ I. Therefore, I = R.
(c) Suppose (a1 , a2 ) = (a). Then, a1 , a2 ∈ (a), thus a1 = au and a2 = av for some u, v ∈ R.
Moreover, since a ∈ (a) = (a1 , a2 ), there exist r, s ∈ R such that a = a1 r + a2 s.
Conversely, suppose there exist r, s, u, v ∈ R such that a1 r + a2 s = a, a1 = au and a2 = av.
Then a1 , a2 ∈ (a) and so (a1 , a2 ) ⊆ (a) by part (a).
Similarly, a = a1 + a2 s ∈ (a1 , a2 ) and so (a) ⊆ (a1 , a2 ). Therefore, (a1 , a2 ) = (a).

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 (d) We have a1 , a1 + a2 ∈ (a1 , a2 ), and a1 , a2 ∈ (a1 , a1 + a2 ). By part(a), we have (a1 , a1 + a2 ) ⊆
(a1 , a2 ).
Furthermore a1 ∈ (a1 , a1 + a2 ), a2 = 1R (a1 + a2 ) + (−1R )a1 ∈ (a1 , a1 + a2 ). By (a) again,
(a1 , a2 ) ⊆ (a1 , a1 + a2 ). This concludes that (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 , a1 + a2 )
□
√ √
7. Let R = Q[ 5] = {a + b 5 : a, b ∈ Q} endowed with real number addition + and real number
multiplication ×.
√
(a) For z ∈ R, we can write z = a + b 5 for some rational numbers a and b. Show that such a
and b are unique. √
In particular, if a, b are rational numbers such that a + b 5 = 0, then a = b = 0.
(b) Show that (R, +, ×) is a field.
Hint 1: the associativity and the distributivity of + and × follows easily from the corre-
sponding properties of addition and multiplication of real numbers.
Hint 2: √
1 1 a−b 5
√ = √ × √ .
a+b 5 a+b 5 a−b 5
√
(c) For z√∈ R, we can write z = a + b 5, where a and b are rational numbers. Define ϕ(z) =
a − b 5. Show that ϕ is a ring isomorphism from R to R.

Answer.
√ √ √
(a) Suppose a1 + b1 5 = a2 + b2 5. Then, we have√(a1 − a2 ) + (b1 − b2 ) 5 = 0. If b1 − b2 ̸= 0,
then we can divide both sides by b1 − b2 to get 5 = ab12 −a
−b1 .
2

However, since the left side is an irrational number and the right side is a rational number,
this is a contradiction. Therefore, we must have b1 − b2 = 0, which implies b1 = b2 . Now, we
have (a1 − a2 ) = 0, which implies a1 = a2 . Since both a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 , the coefficients
a and b are unique.
(b) (R, +, ×) is a field:
ˆ Closure under addition
√ and multiplication:
√ √
Let z1 = a1 + b1 5, z2 = a2 + b2 5 ∈ R. √ Then, z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) 5 and
z1 × z2 = (a1 a2 + 5b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 5 are both in R as well.
ˆ Commutativity, associativity and distributivity:
As noted in the problem statement, commutativity, associativity and distributivity of +
and × follow easily from the corresponding properties of addition and multiplication of
real numbers.
ˆ Existence of additive and multiplicative
√ identities: √
The additive identity is 0 = 0+0 5 ∈ R. The multiplicative identity is 1 = 1+0 5 ∈ R.
ˆ Existence of additive
√ inverses: √
For any z = a + b 5 ∈ R, its additive inverse is −z = −a − b 5 ∈ R.
ˆ Existence of √
multiplicative inverses:
Let z = a + b 5 ∈ R, with z ̸= 0. Then, we can find the multiplicative inverse of z using
the hint:
√ √
1 1 a−b 5 a−b 5 a −b √
√ = √ × √ = 2 2
= 2 2
+ 2 5.
a+b 5 a+b 5 a−b 5 a − 5b a − 5b a − 5b2
a
Since z ̸= 0, we have a2 − 5b2 ̸= 0. Thus, the multiplicative inverse of z is a2 −5b2 +
−b
√
a2 −5b2 5 ∈ R.
Therefore, (R, +, ×) is a field.
(c) To show that ϕ : R → R is a ring isomorphism, we need to show that it is a bijection and
that it preserves the ring operations.

7
 ˆ Bijection:
√ √ √
a−b 5 for z = a+b 5 ∈ R, we can define the inverse function ϕ−1 (z) = a+b 5
Since ϕ(z) = √
for z = a − b 5 ∈ R. Since both ϕ and ϕ−1 map elements from R to R, ϕ is a bijection.
ˆ Preserves identity: ϕ(1) = 1.
ˆ Preserves addition:
√ √
Let z1 = a1 + b1 5, z2 = a2 + b2 5 ∈ R. Then,
√ √ √ √
ϕ(z1 +z2 ) = ϕ((a1 +a2 )+(b1 +b2 ) 5) = (a1 +a2 )−(b1 +b2 ) 5 = (a1 −b1 5)+(a2 −b2 5) = ϕ(z1 )+ϕ(z2 ).

Therefore, ϕ preserves addition.

ˆ Preserves multiplication:
√ √
Let z1 = a1 + b1 5, z2 = a2 + b2 5 ∈ R. Then,
√ √
ϕ(z1 × z√ √ 5b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 5) = (a1 a2 + 5b1 b2 ) − (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 5 =
2 ) = ϕ((a1 a2 +
(a1 − b1 5) × (a2 − b2 5) = ϕ(z1 ) × ϕ(z2 ).
Therefore, ϕ preserves multiplication.

Therefore, ϕ is a ring isomorphism from R to R.

□
√ √
8. Let R = Z[ −5] = {a + b −5 : a, b ∈ Z} endowed with complex number addition + and complex
number multiplication ×.
(a) Show that (R, +, ×) is a commutative ring but not a field.
√
(b) For z = a + b −5 ∈ R. Let N (z) = |z|2 = a2 + 5b2 . Show that
i. For z ∈ R, N (z) is a non-negative integer.
ii. For z1 , z2 ∈ R, N (z1 z2 ) = N (z1 )N (z2 ).
Hint: For complex numbers z1 , z2 , |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.
(c) Let a, b ∈ R. Show that b ∈ (a) if and only if there exists r ∈ R such that b = ar.
(d) Let a, b ∈ R and a ̸= 0. Show that if b ∈ (a), then N (a)|N (b).
√
(e) Show that the ideal I = (1 +√ −5, 3) is not a principal ideal.
Hint 1: If I = (a), then 1 + −5 ∈ (a) and 3 ∈ (a). Then using part 8d, find all the possible
values of N (a).
Hint 2: Given a positive integer number m, there are only finitely many integers x and y
satisfying x2 + 5y 2 = m
(f) Write down the definition of principal ideal domain (PID). Is R is a PID?
Answer.
(a) We show that R forms a subring of C, and we need to show that it satisfies the following
properties:
√ √
ˆ R is closed under adddition: Let z1 = a1√+ b1 −5 and z2 = a2 + b2 −5 be elements of
R. Then z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) −5 is also an element of R, since a1 − a2 and
b1 − b2 are both integers.
ˆ (R, +) is associative.
Because R is a subset of C, the associativity of addition in R follows from the associativity
of addition of the complex numbers.
√
ˆ 0 ∈ R: The element 0 = 0 + 0 −5 is an element of R, since 0 and 0 are both integers.
√ √
ˆ Existence of addition inverse: For z = a+b −5, the addition inverse −z = −a−b −5 ∈
R.
√ √
ˆ R is closed under multiplication: Let z1 = a1 + b1 −5 √ and z2 = a2 + b2 −5 be elements
of R. Then z1 z2 = (a1 a2 − 5b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) −5 is also an element of R, since
a1 a2 − 5b1 b2 and a1 b2 + a2 b1 are both integers.
ˆ (R, ×) is associative.
Because R is a subset of C, the associativity of multiplication of R follows from the
associativity of multiplication of the complex numbers.

8
 √
ˆ 1 ∈ R: The element 1 = 1 + 0 −5 is an element of R, since 1 and 0 are both integers.
ˆ Distributivity
Because R is a subset of C, the distributivity of addition and multiplication of R follows
from the distributivity of addition and multiplication of complex numbers.
ˆ (R, ×) is commutative.
Because R is a subset of C, the commutativity of multiplication of R follows from the
commutativity of multiplication of the complex numbers.
Then we conclude that R is a ring.
It is not a field since the multiplicative inverse of 2 does not exist in R. Hence, (R, +, ×) is
a commutative ring but not a field.
√
(b) i. For any z = a + b −5 ∈ R, a2 + 5b2 ≥ 0 since a, b ∈ Z. Therefore, N (z) = |z|2 is always
non-negative.
ii. For any z1 , z2 ∈ R, we have |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | ⇒ N (z1 z2 ) = |z1 z2 |2 = |z1 |2 |z2 |2 =
N (z1 )N (z2 ).
(c) If b ∈ (a), then there exists an r ∈ R such that b = ar. Conversely, if there exists an r ∈ R
such that b = ar, then b ∈ (a).
(d) If b ∈ (a) and a ̸= 0, then there exists an r ∈ R such that b = ar. This gives N (b) = N (ar) =
N (a)N (r). Then N (a)|N (b).
√ √
(e) Suppose I = (a) for some a ∈ R. Then, 1 + −5, 3 ∈ (a). By part 2, N (a)|N (1 + −5) = 6
and N (a)|N (3) = 9. The only possibilities for N (a) are 1 and 3.
However, there are no integers x and y satisfying x2 + 5y 2 = 3, and if N (a) = 1, a = ±1.
Then (a) = R. √ √
Suppose I = R, then 1 ∈ R = I. There exists r = a + b −5 and s = c + d ∈ R such that
√
1 = (1 + −5)r + 3s
√ √ √
= (1 + −5)(a + b −5) + 3(c + d −5)
√
= (a − 5b + 3c) + (a + b + 3d) −5

Thus

1 = a − 5b + 3c (1)
0 = a + b + 3d (2)

Taking mod 3, we have

1 ≡ a − 5b + 3c ≡ a + b (mod 3) (3)
0 ≡ a + b + 3d ≡ a + b (mod 3). (4)

Thus 1 ≡ a + b ≡ 0 (mod 3). This is absurd. Therefore, I cannot be a principal ideal.

Alternate proof for I ̸= (1)
This proof may be slightly more challenging to follow. In particular, it requires understanding
√ below). Let I = {a : a ∈ I} and
the multiplication of ideals (as discussed in Question 13
note that we can show that I is an ideal equal to (1 − −5, 3).
Consider the product II, which is given by
√ √ √ √ √ √
II = (3(1+ −5), 3(1− −5), (1+ −5)(1− −5), 32 ) = (3(1+ −5), 3(1− −5), 6, 9) ⊆ (3).

If we assume I = (1), then we have I = (1). Thus, we obtain II = (1)(1) = (1) ⊆ (3), which
is clearly absurd. Therefore I ̸= (1).
(f) A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal. Since
R has a non-principal ideal I by (e), R is not a PID.
□
9. Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal I of R is said to be a prime ideal if for any a, b ∈ R and
ab ∈ I, then a ∈ I or b ∈ I.

9
 (a) Suppose R = Z, show that I is a prime ideal if and only if I = (p), where p is a prime number
or p = 0 or p = 1 (the bold words are newly added to fix a mistake).
(b) Show that I is a prime ideal if and only if R/I is an integral domain.

Answer.
(a) (⇒) Let I be a prime ideal. Because Z is a PID, Z = (m) for some integer m. If m ̸= 0, ̸= 1
and suppose m is not a prime. Then m = ab, 1 < a, b < m. Thus ab = m ∈ I. Since
0 < a, b < m, thus m ∤ a, m ∤ b, so a, b ∈
/ (m) = I. Hence (m) is not a prime ideal. This
concludes that m must be a prime.

(⇐) If p = 0, I = (0), ab ∈ I implies a = 0 or b = 0. If a = 0, then a ∈ I. If b = 0, then

b ∈ I. Hence I is a prime ideal.
If p = 1, I = R, so both a, b are in I. Hence I is a prime ideal.
Next suppose p is a prime. If ab ∈ (p), then p|ab. By Euclid’s lemma, p|a or p|b. If p|a, then
a ∈ (p). If p|b, then b ∈ (p). Thus (p) is a prime ideal.
(b) (⇒) If I is a prime ideal. Let a, b ∈ R/I such that a b = 0. Hence ab = 0. This implies that
ab ∈ I. Because I is a prime ideal, so a ∈ I or b ∈ I. If a ∈ I, then a = 0. If b ∈ I, b = 0.
Hence R/I is an integral domain.

(⇐) Now suppose R/I is an integral domain. Suppose a, b ∈ R such that ab ∈ I. Then
a b = ab = 0. Because R/I is an integral domain, so a = 0 or b = 0. If a = 0, then a ∈ I. If
b = 0, then b ∈ I. Hence I is a prime ideal.
□
10. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam.

(a) Let R = Q[x]. Show that (3, x − 1) = (1)

(b) Let R = Z[x]. Show that (x − 3, x − 4) = (1)
Hint: Use 6c.
(c) Let R = Z[x]. Show that I = (3, x − 1) is not a principal ideal.
Suppose on the contrary that I = (3, x − 1) = (d(x)) for some d(x) ∈ Z[x].
Hint 1: 3 ∈ I = (d(x)), i.e there exists a polynomial q(x) such that 3 = d(x)q(x). What
can you say about d(x).
Hint 2: for the d(x) obtained from Hint 1, x − 1 ∈ I = (d(x)), i.e., x − 1 = d(x)q(x) for
some polynomial q(x). Is it possible?
Hint 3: If I = (1), then there exist a(x), b(x) ∈ R such that 3a(x) + (x − 1)q(x) = 1.
Substitute x = 1 into the equation.

Answer.
(a) (3, x − 1) ⊆ R = (1).
Next, consdier any f (x) ∈ R. Let r(x) = f (x)/3 ∈ R. Since 3 ∈ (3, x−1), by the definition of
an ideal f (x) = 3r(x) ∈ (3, x − 1). Hence R ⊆ (3, x − 1). This concludes that R = (3, x − 1).
(b) Let I = (x − 3, x − 4). Then we have 1 = (1)(x − 3) + (−1)(x − 4) ∈ I. The result follows
from Question 6c.
(c) Let I = (3, x − 1) = (d(x)) for some d(x) ∈ Z[x]. Since 3 ∈ I = (d(x)), there exists q(x) ∈ R
such that 3 = d(x)q(x). By comparing the degree on both sides, 0 = deg d + deg q. Hence
deg d = deg q = 0. it follows that both d(x) and q(x) are integer constant functions and d(x)
is an integer factor of 3. Hence, d(x) = ±1 or ±3.
Since x − 1 ∈ I = (d(x)).

There exists q(x) ∈ R such that x − 1 = d(x)q(x). If d(x) = ±3,
x−1
then d(x) = ± 13 x − 13 is not in R. Therefore d(x) must be equal to ±1.
If I = (±1) = (1), then there exist a(x), b(x) ∈ R such that

3a(x) + (x − 1)q(x) = 1.

10
 Substituting x = 1 into the above equation, we obtain

3a(0) + 0q(0) = 1.

Hence, 1 = 3a(0). It follows that 3 is a factor of 1, which is a contradiction.

□
11. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam.  
a b
R={ : a, b ∈ R}
−b a
endowed with matrix addition + and matrix multiplication ∗.

(a) Show that (R, +, ∗) is a field.

Hint: the associativity and the distributivity of + and ∗ follows easily from the corresponding
properties of addition and multiplication of matrices.
 
a b
(b) Show that ϕ : R → C, defined by ϕ( = a + bi, is a ring isomorphism.
−b a
Answer.
(a) (R, +, ∗) is a field:
   
a b c d
i. (R, +) is an abelian group: For any , , we have
−b a −d c
     
a b c d a+c b+d
ˆ Closure: + = ∈ R.
−b a −d c −b − d a + c
ˆ Associativity and Commutativity inherits from M2 (R).
           
a b 0 0 a b 0 0 a b a b
ˆ Identity: + = and + = for
 −b a
 0 0 −b a 0 0 −b a −b a
a b
all ∈ R.
−b a
     
a b a b −a −b
ˆ Inverse: For any ∈ R, we have − = ∈ R such that
   −b a    −b a  b −a  
a b −a −b 0 0 −a −b a b 0 0
+ = and + = .
−b a b −a 0 0 b −a −b a 0 0
 
1 0
ii. (R× , ∗) is an abelian group with identity element , and every element having
0 1
multiplicative
 inverse.
  
a b c d
For any , ∈ R× , we have
−b a −d c
     
a b c d ac − bd ad + bc
ˆ Closure: ∗ = ∈ R× since the determinant
−b a −d c −bc − ad ac − bd
of the matrix is (ac − bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 = (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) ̸= 0.
ˆ Associativity: This inherits from M2 (R)
           
a b 1 0 a b 1 0 a b a b
ˆ Identity: ∗ = and ∗ =
−b a −0 1 −b a −0 1 −b a −b a
 
a b
for all ∈ R× .
−b a
   a b 
a b − a2 +b
ˆ Inverse: For any ×
∈ R× such that
a 2 +b2 2
∈ R , we have b a
−b a a 2 +b2 a2 +b2
   a b     a b   
a b a2 +b2 − a2 +b 2 1 0 a 2 +b2 − a2 +b 2 a b
∗ b a = and b a ∗ =
−b a a2 +b2 a2 +b2
−0 1 a2 +b2 a2 +b2
−b a
 
1 0
.
−0 1

11
          
a b c d ac − bd ad + bc c d a b
ˆ Commutativity: ∗ = = ∗
−b a −d c −bc − ad ac − bd −d c −b a
iii. Multiplication distributes over addition: This inherits from M2 (R).
 
a b
(b) ϕ : R → C, defined by ϕ( ) = a + bi, is a ring isomorphism:
−b a
   
a b c d
i. ϕ is a homomorphism: for any , ∈ R, we have
−b a −d c
     
a b c d a+c b+d
ϕ( + ) = ϕ( )
−b a −d c −b − d a+c
= (a + c) + (b + d)i
= (a + bi) + (c + di)
   
a b c d
= ϕ( ) + ϕ( )
−b a −d c

and

     
a b c d ac − bd ad + bc
ϕ( ∗ ) = ϕ( )
−b a −d c −bc − ad ac − bd
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
= (a + bi)(c + di)
   
a b c d
= ϕ( ) · ϕ( ).
−b a −d c

a b
ii. ϕ is bijective: ϕ is injective since if ϕ( ) = 0, then a = b = 0. ϕ is surjective
−b a 

a b
since for any z = a + bi ∈ C, we have ϕ( ) = a + bi.
−b a
□
12. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam.
Let R be the set of 2 × 2 real matrices of the form:
 
a −3b
, a, b ∈ R.
b a

Given that R is a commutative ring under the usual operations of addition and multiplication for
matrices, show that R is isomorphic to C via the map:

ϕ : R −→ C
√
 
a −3b
ϕ = a + bi 3
b a

Answer. First, we note that the multiplicative identity element of R is

 
1 0
1R = .
0 1

We first show that ϕ is a ring homomorphism.

√
 
1 0
(a) ϕ(1) = ϕ = 1 + 0 · i 3 = 1, which is the multiplicative identity element of the
0 1
ring R × R.

12
 (b) For any a, a′ , b, b′ ∈ R, we have:
  ′
−3b′
 
a −3b a
ϕ + ′
b a b a′
a + a′ −3(b + b′ ) √
 
=ϕ ′ ′ = (a + a′ ) + (b + b′ )i 3
b+b a+a
 √   √ 
= a + bi 3 + a′ + b′ i 3
 ′
−3b′
  
a −3b a
=ϕ +ϕ
b a b′ a′

(c) For any a, a′ , b, b′ ∈ R, we have:

  ′
a −3b′
 
a −3b
ϕ · ′
b a b a′
 ′
aa − 3bb′ −3ab′ − 3ba′
 ′
aa − 3bb′ −3(ab′ + ba′ )
 
=ϕ =ϕ
ba′ + ab′ −3bb′ + aa′ ab′ + ba′ −3bb′ + aa′
√
= aa′ − 3bb′ + (ab′ + ba′ )i 3
 √   √ 
= a + bi 3 · a′ + b′ i 3
  ′
a −3b′
 
a −3b
=ϕ ·ϕ
b a b′ a′

It remains to show that ϕ is bijective. We note that if:

 ′
−3b′
  
a −3b a
ϕ =ϕ ,
b a b′ a′

then:
√ √
a + bi 3 = a′ + b′ i 3

which implies that a = a′ , b = b′ . Hence, ϕ is one-to-one.

For any z = x + iy ∈ C, where x, y ∈ R, we have:
 √   √  √
x√ −3(y/ 3)
ϕ = x + y/ 3 i 3 = x + yi.
y/ 3 x

This shows that ϕ is onto.

We conclude that ϕ is an isomorphism. □
13. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam
Let R be a ring. By definition, the polynomial ring R[x] consists of polynomials in x with coeffi-
cients in R, and is equipped with the usual addition and multiplication operations for polynomials.
Prove that if two rings R and R′ are isomorphic, then so are the polynomial rings R[x] and R′ [x].
Answer. Suppose there exists a ring isomorphism:

ϕ : R −→ R′ .

Define a map:
Φ : R[x] −→ R′ [x]
as follows: !
n
X n
X
i
Φ ai x = ϕ(ai )xi , ai ∈ R.
k=0 k=0

Then:

13
 ˆ Φ(1) = ϕ(1) = 1.
ˆ
 
max{n,m}
n m
!
X X X
i i i
Φ ai x + bi x = Φ (ai + bi )x
k=0 k=0 k=0

(Here, ai , bi = 0 if i > n, m, respectively.)

max{n,m}
X
= ϕ(ai + bi )xi
k=0
max{n,m}
X
= (ϕ(ai ) + ϕ(bi )) xi
k=0
(since ϕ is a ring homomorphism)
Xn Xm
= ϕ(ai )xi + ϕ(bi )xi
k=0 k=0
n
! m
!
X X
i i
=Φ ai x +Φ bi x
k=0 k=0
ˆ
!    
n
X m
X n+m
X X
Φ ai xi · bi x i = Φ  ai bj  xk 
k=0 k=0 k=0 i+j=k

(Again, ai , bi = 0 if i > n, m, respectively.)

   
n+m
X X
= Φ ϕ ai bj  xk 
k=0 i+j=k
 
n+m
X X
=  ϕ(ai )ϕ(bj ) xk
k=0 i+j=k

(since ϕ is a ring homomorphism)

n
! m
!
X X
i i
= ϕ(ai )x · ϕ(bi )x
k=0 k=0
n
! m
!
X X
i i
=Φ ai x ·Φ bi x
k=0 k=0

Hence, Φ is a ring homomorphism. By assumption, ϕ : R −→ R′ has an inverse map ϕ−1 : R′ −→

R. Define Φ′ : R′ [x] −→ R[x] as follows:
n
! n
X X
′
Φ i
ai x = ϕ−1 (a′i )xi , a′i ∈ R′ .
k=0 k=0

Then, it is clear that Φ′ ◦ Φ and Φ ◦ Φ′ are the identity maps on R and R′ , respectively. Hence,
the map Φ has an inverse Φ−1 = Φ′ , so it is bijective.
We conclude that Φ is a ring isomorphism. □
14. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam.
Let R, S be commutative rings. Let J be an ideal in S. Suppose there exists a ring homomorphism
ϕ : R −→ S. Show that:
ϕ−1 (J) := {r ∈ R : ϕ(r) ∈ J}
is an ideal in R which contains ker ϕ.
Answer.

14
 ˆ Since J is an ideal, 0 ∈ J. Since ϕ(0) = 0 ∈ J, we have 0 ∈ ϕ−1 (J).
ˆ Given r, r′ ∈ ϕ−1 (J), we have:
ϕ(r), ϕ(r′ ) ∈ J.
Hence, ϕ(r + r′ ) = ϕ(r) + ϕ(r′ ) ∈ J, since ϕ is a ring homomorphism and J is closed under
addition.
ˆ Given any r ∈ ϕ−1 (J), t ∈ R, we have:

ϕ(rt) = ϕ(r)ϕ(t) ∈ J,

since ϕ is a ring homomorphism, ϕ(r) ∈ J, and J is an ideal in S. So, rt ∈ ϕ−1 (J).

We conclude that ϕ−1 (J) is an ideal in R.
Given any a ∈ ker ϕ, we have ϕ(a) = 0 ∈ J, that is, a ∈ ϕ−1 (J). Hence, ker ϕ ⊆ ϕ−1 (J). □
15. No need to hand in answer for this question. But you still need to study it for the
final exam.
Let R be a commutative ring. Let A and B be ideals in R. Define their sum and product,
respectively, as follows:

A + B := {r ∈ R : r = a + b for some a ∈ A, b ∈ B.}

( n
)
X
AB := r∈R:r= ai bi for some positive integer n, ai ∈ A, bi ∈ B. .
i=1

Show that the set A ∩ B, A + B and AB are ideals in R.

Answer.
ˆ – Since A and B are ideals, both contain 0. Hence 0 ∈ A ∩ B.
Suppose x, y ∈ A ∩ B. Then x, y ∈ A. Since A is an ideal, therefore x + y ∈ A.
– Also x, y ∈ B. Since B is an ideal, therefore x + y ∈ B. Thus x + y ∈ A ∩ B.

– Suppose r ∈ R, x ∈ A ∩ B. Since x ∈ A and A is an ideal, therefore rx ∈ A. Similarly

since x ∈ B and B is an ideal, therefore rx ∈ B. Thus rx ∈ A ∩ B. This concludes that
A ∩ B is an ideal.
ˆ – Since A and B are ideals, both contain 0. Hence 0 = 0 + 0 lies in A + B.
– Since A and B are ideals, for any a, a′ ∈ A and b, b′ ∈ B, we have a + a′ ∈ A and
b + b′ ∈ B.
Hence, for any r = a + b and r′ = a′ + b′ in A + B, where a, a′ ∈ A and b, b′ ∈ B, we
have r + r′ = (a + a′ ) + (b + b′ ) ∈ A + B.
– Since A and B are ideals, for any a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and s ∈ R, we have sa ∈ A and sb ∈ B.
Hence, for any r = a + b ∈ A + B, where a ∈ A and b ∈ B, and any s ∈ R, we have
sr = sa + sb ∈ A + B.
We conclude that A + B is an ideal.
ˆ – Since A and B are ideals, both contain 0. Hence 0 = 0 · 0 lies in AB.
bi and r′ =
P ′ ′
ai bi in AB, where ai , a′i ∈ A and bi , b′i ∈ B, we have
P
– For any P
r = aiP
′ ′ ′
r + r = ai bi + ai bi ∈ AB.
– Since A is anPideal, for any aP ∈ A and s ∈ R, we have sa ∈ A.
For any r = ai bi and r′ = a′i b′i in AB (ai , a′i ∈ A, bi , b′i ∈ B) and s ∈ R, we have:
X X X X
sr = sai bi + sa′i b′i = (sai ) bi + (sa′i ) b′i ,
| {z } | {z }
∈A ∈A

which lies in AB.

We conclude that AB is an ideal.
□

15