Math2070 Algebraic Structures B and C

HW2
Charles Li
Due: Feb 9th, Friday, 11:59pm
Instructions
1. Hand in your work through Gradescope before the deadline. No late HW will be accepted. You
must match the question number with page number.

2. You have to answer all the questions. Show your steps unless otherwise stated.
3. The scores for each part may be adjusted without further notification. The total score is 100.
Questions
1. Let D4 be the dihedral group consisting of the following transformations.

ˆ R : identity map.
ˆ R : rotate anticlockwise 90 .
0
◦

ˆ R : rotate anticlockwise 180 .

1
◦

ˆ R : rotate anticlockwise 270 .

2
◦

ˆ F : Reflect across line A.

3

ˆ F : Reflect across line B.

A

ˆ F : Reflect across line C.

B

ˆ F : Reflect across line D.

C

Let ◦ be the composition of transformations. It is known that (D4 , ◦) is a group.

(a) Compute FA ◦ R3 . No steps are required.
(b) Compute FC ◦ FD . No steps are required.
(c) Show that (D4 , ◦) is not abelian by finding a, b ∈ D4 such that a ◦ b ̸= b ◦ a.
(d) Find the order of R1 .
(e) Find the order of FA .
Answer.

1
The following table gives the result of each map.

1 2 1 2 1 2 2 3
R 0 R 1
−−→ −−→
4 3 4 3 4 3 1 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 4 1
R 2 R 3
−−→ −−→
4 3 2 1 4 3 3 2
1 2 1 4 1 2 3 2
F A F B
−−→ −−→
4 3 2 3 4 3 4 1
1 2 2 1 1 2 4 3
F C F
−−→ −−D
→
4 3 3 4 4 3 1 2

Method 1 use the above table.

(a) Compute FA ◦ R3 :
1 2 4 1 4 3
R 3 F A
−−→ −−→
4 3 3 2 1 2
By the table, FA ◦ R3 = FD .
(b) Compute: FC ◦ FD
1 2 4 3 3 4
F F
−−D
→ C
−−→
4 3 1 2 2 1
By the table FC ◦ FD = R2 .
(c) Consider R3 ◦ FA .
1 2 1 4 2 1
F A R 3
−−→ −−→
4 3 2 3 3 4
By the table, R3 ◦ FA = FC . By part (a) FA ◦ R3 = FD . Hence R3 ◦ FA ̸= FA ◦ R3 .
(d) Apply R1 till we get R0 :
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 2
R 1 R 1 R 1 R1
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
4 3 1 4 2 1 3 2 4 3
The order of R1 is therefore 4.

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 (e) Apply FA till we get R0 .
1 2 1 4 1 2
F A R 3
−−→ −−→
4 3 2 3 4 3
Hence the order of FA is 2.
Method 2: use S4 .

(a) R3 = (1234), FA = (24), thus FA ◦ R3 = (14)(23) = FD

(b) FD = (14)(23), FC = (12)(34), thus FC ◦ FD = (13)(24) = R2
(c) FA ◦ R3 = (14)(23) = FD ̸= FC = (12)(34) = R3 ◦ FA .
(d) R1 = (1432), R12 = (13)(24) = R2 , R13 = (1234) = R3 , R14 = R0 , hence |R3 | = 4
(e) FA = (24), FA2 = R0 , hence |FA | = 2
□
2. Consider the following elements in S9 :
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
σ= , τ=
4 5 3 7 8 9 1 2 6 2 3 9 6 8 7 5 4 1

For the following questions, write down your answer. Unless otherwise stated, permutations should
be written in the form of
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 i6 i7 i8 i9

(a) Find σ ◦ τ and τ ◦ σ.

(b) Find σ −1 and τ −1 .
(c) Express σ and τ as products of disjoint cycles.
(d) Compute σ 2 , σ 3 . You can express your answer as products of disjoint cycles.
(e) Express σ and τ as products of transpositions.
(f) Determine if σ and τ are even or odd permutations.
(g) Find the order of σ and τ .
Answer.
(a)  
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
σ◦τ = .
5 3 6 9 2 1 8 7 4
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
τ ◦σ = .
6 8 9 5 4 1 2 3 7
You can also express the answer as a product of cycles:
σ ◦ τ = (15236)(49)(78), τ ◦ σ = (16)(28397)(45).
(b) Here are the steps the obtain the inverse of σ and τ (the steps are not required)

 
4 5 3 7 8 9 1 2 6
σ −1 = (swap row1 and row2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
= (rearrange the columns, so that the first row is in order)
7 8 3 1 2 9 4 5 6

3
  
2 3 9 6 8 7 5 4 1
τ −1 = (swap row1 and row2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
= (rearrange the columns, so that the first row is in order)
9 1 2 8 7 4 6 5 3

You can also express the answer as a product of cycles:

σ −1 = (174)(285)(69), τ −1 = (1932)(48576).
(c) σ = (147)(258)(69), τ = (1239)(46758).
(d) σ 2 = (174)(285), σ 3 = (69)
(e) We use the formula

(a1 a2 · · · ak ) = (a1 ak )(a1 ak−1 ) · · · (a1 a3 )(a1 a2 ).

(the steps are not required)

σ = (147)(258)(69)
= (17)(14)(28)(25)(69).

τ = (1239)(46758)
= (19)(13)(12)(48)(45)(47)(46).

σ = (17)(14)(28)(25)(69), τ = (19)(13)(12)(48)(45)(47)(46).
(f) σ is odd, τ is odd.
(g) The order of cycles is given by their size, and the order of product of disjoint cycles is given
by LCM of orders of the cycles. Thus |σ| = 6 and |τ | = 20.
□

3. Let (G, ∗) be a group with the identity e.

(a) Let a ∈ G. Show that the ord a−1 = ord a.
(b) Let a ∈ G with order k. Suppose k is odd. Show that ord a2 is also k.
For this part only, you can use the following fact: Let k, x be positive integers. If k is odd
and k|2x, then k|x.

Answer.
(a) We divide into two cases: ord a = ∞ and ord a < ∞.
When ord a = ∞, suppose ord a−1 < ∞ and write ord a−1 = n. Then (a−1 )n = e. However,
an = an (a−1 )n = e gives us a contradiction.
When ord a = n < ∞, then one hand we have (a−1 )n = (a−1 )n an = e. On the other hand,
if there exists m < n such that (a−1 )m = e, e = (a−1 )m an = an−m gives us a contradiction.
(b) First we have (a2 )k = a2k = e. Hence m = ord a2 should be a factor of k. On the other
hand, (a2 )m = e implies k|2m. By the fact in problem, we have k|m. Thus k = m

□
4. Let  
1 2 3 4
σ= ∈ S5 .
2 3 4 1

(a) Express σ as a product of transpositions.

4
 (b) Let
A = (eσ(1) |eσ(2) |eσ(3) |eσ(4) ).
Here ei ∈ R4 is a column vector with the i-th entry being 1 and other entries being 0.
Compute det(A). Show your steps.
(c) Determine whether σ is an even permutation or an odd permutation. Explain your answer
by (i) using part (a), (ii) using part(b)

Answer.
(a) Use the same fact in Q2, σ = (1234) = (14)(13)(12)
(b) Note that

det A =
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
O
0 1
= −
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
O
0 2
= (−1)
0
2 1
1
0
0
0
0
O
0 3
= (−1)
1
3 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

O O
O
The equality 1 is given by exchanging the first and fourth row, equality 2 is given by
exchanging the first and third row and equality 3 is given by exchanging the first and
second row.
(c) i. σ can be written as product of three transpositions, hence odd.

OO O
ii. Our computation is given by swapping the rows in the matrix. Each swapping makes
the determinant multiplying −1. Then after 1 , 2 and 3 , the matrix A becomes
identity matrix which looks like we move the second row to first, third to second, fourth
to third and first to fourth. It is just a cycle σ −1 = (4321) if we label each row. Since
det A = −1, we know it must contain swapping of odd times, hence σ −1 is an odd
permutation. Then σ is also odd permutation. In fact, from our computation gives a
way to decompose (4321) to three transposition of rows (12)(13)(14). This coincides
with we decompose (1234) = (14)(13)(12).
□
5. For each of the following, determine if H is a subgroup of G.

(a) G = (Z, +), H is the set of all non-negative integers.

(b) G = (Z12 , +12 ), H = {a ∈ G : gcd(a, 12) > 1}.
(c) G = S5 , H = {e, (12), (13), (132), (123)}.
(d) G = S5 , H = {e, (12), (34), (12)(34)}.
2π
(e) G = D5 , H = {e, r1 , s}. Here r1 is the rotation of 3 , s is the reflection about the x-axis.
(f) G = D3 , H = {e, r1 , r2 }. Here rk is the rotation by 2πk
3 for k = 1, 2.
Answer.
(a) H is not a subgroup of G. Note that 1 ∈ H, but its additive inverse in G is −1, and −1 ∈
/ H.
(b) H is not a subgroup of G. Note that 2, 3 ∈ H, but 2 +12 3 = 5 ∈
/ H because gcd(5, 12) = 1.
Thus, H is not closed under the operation in G.
(c) H is not a subgroup of G. (12)(123) = (23) is not in H. Thus, H is not closed under the
operation in G.
(d) H is a subgroup of G. Let a = (12), b = (34), c = (12)(34). First, H contains e = eG . Second,
note that e2 = a2 = b2 = c2 = e. Thus each element in H is its own inverse. Third, every
two elements among a, b, c multiplies to the third. Thus, H is closed under multiplication by
the following Cayley table.

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 e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
Thus, H is a subgroup of G.
4π
(e) H is not a subgroup of G. Note that r1 ∈ H, and r1 r1 is the rotation of 3 , and so r1 r1 ∈
/ H.
(f) H is a subgroup of G. Since er1 = r1 e = r1 , er2 = r2 e = r2 , and r1 r2 = r2 r1 = e, H is closed
under multiplication. Now, e ∈ H and r1 is the inverse of r2 . Therefore, H satisfies identity
property and inverse property, and is a subgroup of G.
□
6. Given the following fact (you don’t need to prove the fact):
n
Fact: Let n be nonzero integers, m, k integers. Then n|mk if and only if gcd(n,m) |k, i.e., mk is
n
divisible by n if and only if k is divisible by gcd(n,m) .
Let G = (Z15 , +Z15 ).
15
(a) Show that the order of m ∈ Z15 is gcd(15,m) . Hence, or otherwise, find the order of 3, 10 and
11.
(b) Show that m ∈ Z15 is a generator of G if and only if the order of m is 15.
(c) Find all the generators of G.
Answer.
15m m 15
(a) Let m ∈ Z15 . Then gcd(15,m) = 15× gcd(15,m) is an integral multiple of 15. Then gcd(15,m) m=
15
0 in Z15 . Let k ∈ Z>0 . Suppose mk = 0 in Z15 . Then 15|mk, and so gcd(15,m) |k by the fact.
15
It follows that gcd(15,m) is the order of m.
Therefore, ord(3) = 15/3 = 5, ord(10) = 15/ gcd(15, 10) = 15/5 = 3 and ord(11) =
15/ gcd(15, 11) = 15/1 = 15.
(b) Let m ∈ Z15 . Then m ∈ Z15 is a generator of G ⇐⇒ ⟨m⟩ = G ⇐⇒ |⟨m⟩| = 15 ⇐⇒
ord(m) = 15.
15
(c) Let m ∈ Z15 . Then m is a generator of G ⇐⇒ gcd(15,m) = ord(m) = 15 ⇐⇒ gcd(15, m) =
1. Then the set of generators of G is {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}.
□
7. Suppose (G, ∗) is a cyclic group generated by g, i.e., G = ⟨g⟩. Let H be a subgroup of G.
Let
R = {r ∈ Z : g r ∈ H}.
(a) Show that 0 ∈ R.
(b) Suppose |H| > 1, show that R contains a positive integer. Let n be the smallest positive
integer in the set R.
(c) Suppose m ∈ R. By the divisor algorithm, there exist integers q, r such that

m = qn + r, 0 ≤ r < n.

Show that r ∈ R.
(d) From the previous part, or otherwise, show that R = nZ.
(e) Suppose |H| > 1, then H = ⟨g n ⟩, where n is given by part (b).
(f) Show that H must be cyclic.
Answer.
(a) Since H is a subgroup of G, e = g 0 ∈ H. Then 0 ∈ R.

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 (b) Suppose |H| > 1. Then there exists some g r ∈ H other than e. Then r ̸= 0. Then
g −r = (g r )( − 1) ∈ H. Therefore, ±r ∈ R. Since r ̸= 0, R contains a positive integer. Let n
be the smallest positive integer in the set R.
(c) Suppose m ∈ R. By the divisor algorithm, there exist integers q, r such that

m = qn + r, 0 ≤ r < n.

Now, n, m ∈ R, so g m , g n ∈ H. Then g r = g m−qn = g m (g n )−q ∈ H. Therefore, r ∈ R. By

the minimality of n, r = 0, and so m = qn ∈ nZ.
(d) By the argument of (c), that R ⊆ nZ. Let nk ∈ nZ with k ∈ Z. Then g nk = (g n )k ∈ H, so
nk ∈ R. Therefore, nZ ⊆ R. Then R = nZ.
(e) Suppose |H| > 1. By (d) and the definition of R, one sees that H = ⟨g n ⟩.
(f) When |H| = 1, H = ⟨e⟩. When |H| > 1, by (e), H = ⟨g n ⟩. In either case, H is cyclic.
□
8. Let G = (Z16 , +16 ) and H = ⟨4⟩ = {0, 4, 8, 12}.
(a) Using Lagrange’s theorem, find the number of left cosets.
(b) List all the left cosets of H in G.
Answer.
(a) By Lagrange’s theorem, |G| = |H| · |G : H|. Hence the number of cosets is |G|/|H| = 16/4 =
4.
(b) {0, 4, 8, 12}, {1, 5, 9, 13}, {2, 6, 10, 14} and {3, 7, 11, 15}.
□
9. Consider the subgroup H = ⟨ (1234) ⟩ in S4 .
(a) Use the Lagrange theorem, find the number of left cosets of H in S4 .
(b) Give the list of left cosets of H in S4 .
Answer.
(a) The order of (1234) is 4, so |H| = 4. By Lagrange theorem, the number of cosets of H is S4
is |S4|
|H| = 24/4 = 6.

(b) A list of left cosets of H in S4 is: H, (12)H, (13)H, (14)H, (23)H, (34)H.
One way to see this: For any two distinct a, b among {(12), (13), (14), (23), (34)}, a−1 b = ab
is even and hence if ab ∈ H then ab = (1234)2 = (13)(24). (Because ab is even, ab is either
e or (1234)2 , but the former one is rejected as a and b are distinct.) One check that this is
not the case for any distinct a, b.
□
10. Let G = S5 with composition as the binary operation. Let

H = {σ ∈ S5 |σ(1) = 1}.

(a) Show that H is a subgroup of G.

(b) Find all the left cosets of H in G.
Hint: consider (1 k) ∈ S5 .
Answer.
(a) By the definition of subgroup, we need to check it is closed under group binary operation, it
contains identity, and it contains inverse for each element.
i. Closure ∀σ, τ ∈ H, σ ◦ τ (1) = σ(1) = 1, thus σ ◦ τ ∈ H.

7
 ii. Identity For e ∈ G, since e(1) = 1, e ∈ H.
iii. Inverses For σ ∈ H, σ −1 (1) = σ −1 (σ(1)) = e(1) = 1, hence σ −1 ∈ H.
Alternate method: Because S5 is a finite group, by Dr Chan’s lecture notes, Corollary
4.5, it suffices to prove the closure of the multiplication. Proof of Corollary 4.5 can be found
in my handwritten notes.
∀σ, τ ∈ H, σ ◦ τ (1) = σ(1) = 1, thus σ ◦ τ ∈ H.
(b) First we need to show that eH = H, (12)H, (13)H, (14)H and (15)H are distinct cosets.
For k = 2, 3, 4, 5, e−1 (1k) = (1k) ∈
/ H as (1k) maps 1 to k and therefore does not fix 1.
Next because σ(1i)−1 (1j) = (1i)(1j) is not an element in H for i < j ∈ {2, 3, 4, 5} as

σ(1) = (1i)(j) = j.

Therefore H, (12)H, (13)H, (14)H, (15)H gives us 5 distinct left cosets.

Next we need to show they are all left coset, i.e

S5 = H ∪ (12)H ∪ (13)H ∪ (14)H ∪ (15)H.

For any σ ∈ S5 . Let k = σ(1). If k = 1, then σ ∈ H. Suppose k ̸= 1, then

(1 k)σ(1) = (1 k)k = 1.

Hence
(1 k)σ ∈ H.
Therefore
σ ∈ (1 k)−1 H = (1 k)H.
So every σ ∈ S5 is in one of the above left cosets.
□