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Introduction to Black Studies 4th Edition Maulana
Karenga Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Maulana Karenga
ISBN(s): 9780943412306, 0943412307
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 35.67 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
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 ALSO BY MAULANA KARENGA:

Kawaida & Questions of Life and Struggle (2008)

The Handbook of Black Studies (with Molefi Asante) (2007)

Maat, The Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt:

A Study in Classical African Ethics (2006)

Odu Ifa: The Ethical Teachings (1999)

Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture (1998)

Kawaida: A Communitarian African Philosophy (1997)

Million Man March/Day of Absence Mission Statement (1995)

The Book of Coming Forth by Day:

The Ethics of the Declarations of Innocence (1990)

Reconstructing Kemetic Culture: Papers, Perspectives, Projects (ed.) (1990)

The African American Holiday of Kwanzaa:

A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture (1988)

Kemet and the African Worldview:

Research, Rescue and Restoration (ed.) (1986)

Selections From The Husia: Sacred Wisdom of Ancient Egypt (1984)

Kawaida Theory: An Introductory Outline (1980)

Essays on Struggle: Position and Analysis (1978)

INTRODUCTION TO
BLACK STUDIES

MAULANA KARENGA

FOURTH EDITION

UNIVERSITY OF SANKORE PRESS

Los ANGELES

2010
 Front Cover:
Right to Left: Maiy and Werer,
Ancient Egypt, 18th Dynasty

Cover Design:
University of Sankore Press Collective

INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

Copyright © 2010, 2002, 1993, 1982
by Maulana Karenga

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner
whatsoever without written permission except in the case of
brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

For information address:

The University of Sankore Press
3018 West 48th Street
Los Angeles, CA 90043-1335
www.sankorepress.com

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-943412-30-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009932377

Printed in the United States of America

 In Love and Memory of
Seba, Sister, Simba and Sacred Friend,

LIMBIKO TEMBO

Radiant Spirit, Gentle Teacher,

Giver of a Special Good
To whom I am, we are forever grateful.

and to

Simba and Soldier, Tommy Jacquette-Halifu

Wise Elder, Dr. Addie Brown
Wise Elder, Baba Pamoja
Honored ancestors all;
Whose lives are their lessons and legacy

and to

All the students on campus and in the community

who enrich my understanding and work
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/introductiontobl0000kare_w9w1
ao
EVE SIE, AO eT el OE ne a re me one pretieawe az- JOre FTG cme” See! wet2 Ak

maarien 10 INTRODUCTION <0 7 owikwes x yuan ae ne nes 1

poles EF INING THE LMSCIPLINE «3)0) «oR ene Mella ath BO Mes APEas teIC ae ee ee 2)
POETOBR os o.e yes ss sce padornate sae 8 Sgro siege ee ee s)
Initiative and Experience =... 2... «> & « 35) ere eee lee ei eee eee -
D2 SORIGINS OF THE DISCIPLINE «os is. s/ewcc it g.<0.5« «cole arcegeeiee eae tane e 5
ERVave alite ty, se Une eltt Ste ae eee RIS eee were ne Ts tle we 5
Te Activist-Intellectual | tadition. 2... ac -saeeee eee eee eee eee 7
mocial Struggles and the student Movement. : se. 420 o erie se eee ee 8
The Civil Rients Movement® ws... cine ne een ete ko eee 9
dine Pree speccts Movement.) 0.6 0 Aisa e oh oe sa erence 9 ae eee 10
ie Artic War Movement os 5.0: > gacc ede acew eons a5 oe Geta AME gee 10
Done Black. Power MiOVeMmnent 30+ sss aed’ /acouene vodeiwsesanaionss uA eeene eee eee e 11
Vhe pmervence mt Black Studies. 2) 2. a. y ws owe onde uae eee 2
The Struggle at San Francisco State University (SFSU) 2... 22... 2.24 ees sae 12
PEEL SIRES TOL OETUIGOle: area) oa.c% ecole Boe w kane ae em oe ae es eee 15
13 RELEVANCE OF THE DISCIPLINE 5 cicets oxen ato ain oes 3)ale,ccaeect mak ss ni 16
The Concept ot Relevatite noes 09.a4 ai as oe otgerss Sank bie Om eRe ei ee 16
APACE ONCELES ay sega ipl 2G > a BAT SUK Se ema SRR 17
BOIS) LeGINCOTTIS aries as ae ah concn ice: osRakee Mew Sameer eee ee eee 17
BASIC DCCLIVOS miata 4% oaniak Cua rsa a ee Geran eine ea CRI cee 18
Ties SHOUETO SOL Le LVCON | ans pT Gri Rie sa A) ERS TEU NOR SO Uta ae cee 19
ie SCOPREOF THE DISC
IPL IN capa ete ek «oo 6 stars Soe nai wise alate ee eee tka See eee 23
Te 1G Cs OH AC HSECCS ota sate he holes nas ORL Ah en oe Vere ne ee 23
Missionand WoalsOl tie 1
isCIpINe wn crac ms 4 toi Oe ale cones nee oe 2
RCAAU CVA CsLOCI rem temas facwre eee tn eo nuhaP gc Ui neckconan Gee eek eae US
TNCACETIC. EX CRULOTIC CLs nPein a ustMtrius-< sa ened areas eased) Koayas Aeasso teak 26
SOCIAL Responist
biidyn te aetaeh eile: roi. eck N See 5 a een sae a oa nnn Rvs ee 26
QAR Ge: ko Oe, RIENCE RON MRT ERR, Ws Coca aie vl aa Arete ei 27

vil
 Vill CONTENTS

Key Terms sien: ad a Weve sae Gd ply Aw one endless ph aR ON ee a 27

Study Questions! a4 oa 2 44.5544 5-5 9 2+ 90 ale nom so eee oe 27
Critical Thinking Questions «....4.40. eee eee 0%
s0on8
>.> ote die le oe meet Ry

CHAPTER 2:) DEVELOPMENTAL INITIATIVESssde:. o-oo eee 31

2 Pe OCINTRODUCTION fice cua come Sin 5 nak eso RR fo cleat etnen 31
22° PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE DISCIPLINE) .2).o5.: 502 - ea steely ie ee 32
African Heritaze StudiessAssoctation (AHSA)2 5.09. ©. tee. he eee 32
National Council for Blade Smidies (NCBS).4 40 ee ee ee ee eee 34
Cheikh Anta Diop International Conferencesmani-0 e e e e 36
J<3~ - THE AFROCENTRIC-INITIATIVES tse ee eget ee seer ete tree 39
DA +> «BLACK WOMEN’S. STUDIES ent) oc ceo se ee ce nee ee 44
25's ©MULTICULTURATS. STUDIES sitter 49
26° "CLASSICAL-A FRICAN STUDIES 4. eee hee te eos ee ee eee 52
2] ee AFRICAN DIASPORAUSTUDIES 2h oo 0 oe ee eee ee 58
Reycleyns tae hte a8 5570 eo thee: S SUk etSee Ag Se eee ee ee ne a 60
Srey tre HONS NAF Bs TES We PL TS ee Rea ee ree een os ee 60
Gnecdebhinking Questions ere soy es i a en een eee ee ae cca ae 60

CHAPTER 3: BLACK HISTORY: AFRICAN BACKGROUND. .....<sa...0ssa+++-s--- 65

Dol” SINTRODUCTIONS cs wd cis) purged ee fis lee ay = eee teed a 65
Dela DEFINITION sgests gis 34 Wise © Aaa ale hte ais Rita Ae eee ee 66
DuL. JSPROBLEMS OF STUD Yc cm wu cases ok ee awd = eens -v ere 68
DAL. TIUMAN: ORIGINS IN SAFRICA ‘rast cas5 cave & ects Aas ie ae ce 71
Ooyee LHE NIDED VALLEY (CIVILIZATION So swioaucucsoece » -5'hee ko eee 72
INU DIS auc oipenneaoncesuaus eels oA Rew PAM SK ik 5 50k Rok ang whe Ee al ree 73
Pre-Kerma | KernajiV Nera tedn: «or. cee nivaites «tats uate nema 74
Wetted aac ie Sr RIE rs.ane goesRet Se gee tan ate icaeee dn me 78
BVDG. eg ii ig & pica WY 9 © Sere GC ok 5 cok eR SOUR NS 9)
ThesPoundatioty: dn <5 <asiecowd vik ARR S Om 719
The Lepaeye s- <a cuc.ss dcpehcriiek wieweacral wary Oe < Seeks a eae 81
Eth iopia/Aksiimp : 6 ccnacseca nceels oS Sink las SI SI STe fecal 84
3.60 ~ THE WESTERN SUDANIC:GIVILIZATIONS...¢ aaaw in oe oc es 87
Ci Pewee eRe e me re ee RTE rm OR 87
Mall. ese 3 ars-0ce zapagtlionn ot gee61aapes ashen aster ilcapeetc 89
SOMA. ws saws’ xs.6 Lesipin Bea. scugelpren oesaetCoc Se ea 90
 CONTENTS Ex

Bae HE DAOOR ISTE ERIPIRISTIN SPAIN jovi¥.hisnensrscneins nena Oe PR abel oo ees 92

Oa pgphdDEMERS
AN He KIER PAMPERBS csicGs shoefades slsvd wanda oeeee SAM ORE Maes 96
Di Cai HE UCLIR EOROAPRICAN. SOCIETIES iiitoiowvs ince cldveniiae ae ORE as SG 97
OACRIGIr et eae laa Ges Res cn EE EE AE oso en oe 100
BO LCvts 2 siete AE BAN chin tds po0 RO al 101
RENCE F
MACRIENTAE Mite Ort 29, OATS Meee AI LW GRIN: 6 5 ans Sn eM | 101
Reacal Cainianis Chicstions ied 5 io alg uscvon ig eg-ocgn o Be ee. 102

CHAPTER 4: BLACK HIsTORY: AFRICANS IN AMERICA ..............0.0-000- 105

et EN ERODUNST
IONS ae sed Po. 6 5. aur| aeons CGA ere ean. oe ee 105
ie BGYPT, MALL AND THE OLMECS ooo cunt ai6o » .. catendt tse meee ee 106
Po Le PROUDCAUGTIORENISLAVEMENT Gast ok Gris Wk. «snag dae 4.3502 ae 108
sre, #15,SCORE A
Se re NY OPA ER te Ot IR SO 109
POCO Cra ee aegis sce ae A em ak Ree, o's cada. ss, lea 111
Pt EOL AUESAEN | CRSA SISIANT) OOVOTEM ooo, toy en chic eae ae, Se ee cc Rc oe 112
Ve Denis Ot Pislamement oe aoa cies eae te ee SS tn 113
Ti oyetenn or Peesiaveinents2 po s6 peo acc). aoe ch ok oe en ier osea 113
Bo ESI TANCE IC) EMELAVEMENT 73 47...-i- 7 « o\-c Oe ee ee pe ee Ce 115
Roltaral hesistance <7 5 So os og 4k Apis oun Gs oes Ce 116
Day4s- Day esstance- 5 os ee et ee Sen a ee Lig
PDOMCOH
SR 2 Seg ois 2 eh aris OF Sah gd oP a aoe ee 118
POTATO 8 oes Sct bake wes % 4.40Ree clare 2S eae ee 122
Armed Resistance 5.5 uric 5 Hien es 6 <-y ks nee ee es ee ee ee 125
Fe Viale saiscanes) Ses id nets 4 aos, ances etal ickhek coe Ole Be a oi ee i235
Shai VA Hie ed ob chev on nit dam c'o 48 Pee casted anne FH oe eaten ee ee 126
CeineereidleVeBt ene eat erst ee. 6 eax ob wal da hee a are RR ce 127
Aizo-Mexican AlliandeS Striogles {ty sou a dldare Uo cste SIR Se oa cas ae ee
Afro-Native American Alliance & Struggle .............
eee eeeee ences 128
A.bee CIVIL. VAR ANDAR ECONSTRUCTION sotas oh 4 ewan ha 45 ony as Wea eneains alee 128
GSN Cale Re ee Ea PNET ln erage rg ee ae, eeeES 129
FLSOOLSETC
TIC weiieegtt. €cote dea wee ACG oat OOS whe IO a ule eS tot
4.1) ©LHEAGREAT MIGRATIONS AND URBANIZATION . 30 04 64.59.45 6 iis pees a lee eore sa kare 133
4.8 ORGANIZATION FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE AND SOCIAL SERVICE .............
0000 eee 135
Blacks Women’s. Mational-Glub Movement}ie «ias os204 ss s4aagued booms esis > 135
The Niagara Movement, NAACP and Urban League.................000
eee 136
cians wae 136
A.Op LEADERSHIEZANT) DOCIAL: STRUGGLE % 4.24. Sanit os eh og eens teen PEE.
 ae CONTENTS

Booker T. Washington: «,.c0see ss Aone ek eee

sisstiti ee
uecea so ae 7
W/E.B. DuBois seas. saci-di saoteorehicauapbtetowinentey once ae ee a ee eee 139
Marcus: Garvey cniscsaekacteaich: s as5. se eens ieee eae on aetna ere141
Ida Br Wells- Barnett cin cw aees a oa ee ee eee 144
4:10: . BLACK SCIENCEJAND: INVENTION sania a)ois aa Ae see > ote 147
411. CRISIS:ANDITHE NEW. DEAL 0 ne nce een ty is kk a eh
4)12 . {HE REAEFIRMATION, OF THE 60Si..sict-tote rece veeetege 2.<1cin ence ee ee ee 151
The CivilRights: Movement» sear anc ee meer en a ee eee 153
dhe Black: Power Movements. wy..cneaee b-cateninee 157
Lhe Relivious: Uristegancete emacs acts ats a ais ee ae ee ai oe 158
‘Lhe Culairslgl bisei, ey ee ees tac hes eee ee ee ee 159
Theoliticalaliitists. areas Cee ore eee te enee tee means eaaneen 162
POSES
IK icca wae rae ence Celts tn Pec tancl onWere a eee Gait Fae ates Siete oe eae 165
RCE S EIEN) CICS Mapa vccigine ute ace dom eta COME tet eaCRar nt Laeeae aeaeene eae 165
ENGR ICINCIES etary Aemanlars atts Steep au ROReS RRL Spee epmaea ereNeenee enero te Pac ce 168
Te Ninetiese: stor Sane ee ese cere tee eee 5 RCP tee arte 9 ee 171
fhe Thomas-iilControntations ssn tes 2 ake ee ee eae. oo ee 171
Los Angeles: Revolt 2 Steir tac tere is aernee Cee eee ee 172
Electoral Po lirieees, 2 cogs cisco sgeeece nek aeacie Rete Menage slesakce tet cane ane 172
The Million: Man.March/Day of Absence..)..0... 25 «<6... 5s eevee one 172
ine Million: W onan. March 95 cat. sian emcee ee te aceeieet cen 174
Themvillion Youth: March +. tees. eee os ene oe te 176
‘Tine News eninury catos a' axon ste, oe iaeneete retcis @ 50st aia Rene ae ee 176
TheZO00: Presidential Hlection” aeaw oo eee eee eae 176
The lagedy and Aitermatn On wating. ss sso es eee ee oe 177
The HIW/AIDS Crishs..u on oto samen s wok oy shin eee eee ee ee 179
Police A Base andl WLISCOMULICE ax.scstm sa acme Reena eet cee 180
The Historic Presidential Election of Barack Hussein Obama ............. 181
ICV RLETINS 50 ce nv cae hx gk oes Ct a ee an toe ae eee ee 183
SLUGS OUCSTHON Seay te eck doves tothe ck Soonan GE Ce ee 184
Grocalal hiking Questions... ccs) see be eee eee ee ee ee 102

CHAPTER 5: ;BLACK’ RELIGION... -. one et meta meetin oe eat een 189

D2Ly INTRODUCTIONS Tos)... ce iv ras eh oe ere ec ee en 189
2.2 ~THE ANCIENT AFRICAN TRADITIONS... pense atte ee 190
 CONTENTS Xi

Geena termes sec Manes loG.bsaval ch ee rire Bete 6b) 28 190

UP ey Boas eaBartels
lel ae ee REE TT Sake te hd a 192
takers’
GTs ale)spe Soviet a he peal eS a RETR ene Se 192
The Creston Marmstivew.s «44 negoancly deeceeinh oole ie. is cee: 193
A ERMORUCAL LOSIOTIES sar Mceeteteussys rcscnnculer othe eee ee tela: ee 195
Maat‘ The Ancient. Evyprian Tradition-Jiia.). (aan et A 9 196
PRUBOCUECEIONT ¢congas Arliss ccans caclacsad ages ee ee Gok at? 196
CET 08 I Yo Goats
=o)Rehreeeeear ON Reiter ty715 se Fo, 9, 14 RRR ee 1g
Ladies FLOSIA soe ookcnssistas ail caakas Sa ed ee oe 198
Basic elenets: cekus ecetces, coileen nice ee ee 198
Eiumuns as the Divine Image of God i.e.
See ee 199
The. Dienity of the Human Béing iss. .dc'. 5 ee eeeee 200
Standing. Worthy Before’(God and the Peopler;2.....4..44
90% aA 6... 201
Worthiness Before Nature.........c07 aa ae ee ee awe 201
The Practice of the Seven Cardinal Virtues of Maat ................05. 203
The Essentiality of Service, Especially to the Vulnerable................ 205
Practiceiof the Declarationsof Innocente*axn Were ae hin Sa. we 206
Judement, Jusiiiication.and Immortality 32eiecc cide ee See a | 206
Ifa; The Ancient. Varuba: Tradition: <.4.2...<.1....0 eee eesee ce nee 207
TAEYUACTIOIY 2<2 7g haat BOOP Be, LS ae Te eaten ha ap ce 207
Boab, DCIS Mace Oe fesd wlend = viisee bid AY bh ae ee ee 208
The Goodness of the World 4. 2.4 dass 24 can oe Se 209
The Ghosern Status-of Humans-s. 55 eco daw earner eee 210
The Right:to-A. Good. Life v2 ation tines ane eee ZU
Conditions for A Good Wold An Aaah cece tee
ee Mila
The Requirements
for A Good World (aye rere)" 0.0. eer 212
Neal WY AGT eer ee CRIES teas Re oe Ma aerick Se a 215
A Wioralieer Sartinicese. 6, SAP ees ns crew ha wa esa ha aee oo zi
FLHemmenicralicyOr opaTacter on. nce vaca s + ee wads 6 orn oie aan. eRe 213
i pce lh 15 Yd 10 6 Meee sare ree & rb Ca tg AERA Nee Betis cso a Eo 213
EASEHICES SO LTUCTIE ¢ ect oie ae sn oer ee SN Meee ne enmee 14
eee LE CHRIST CAN, ERATION Peete eee ayeeae a le Serea devine a: + 4a e aieneey «eae hoe ee 214
BUTWERG
LHR Gitieytuba wee mena eke Renake Rr Bra eran mii icds Kiesiiledh roe iooig een 214
Relics Conversion and | transition a. snes cme dau ascean eee cc wee 9 eee 214
The Historical Moleror tne CHUrCh, suc... 1.0 sees . oct ernemictat eso. ea OS
The socmltbtniceormiartin Wuther King =. fo.% f2: Foca. t vec see os ae ee cee 218
 Xil CONTENTS

Black Liberation Theology ssc ¢cc 0c 20s sels oles cia-tks = one ee oe 220
Historical Backeroutid. (4. sz cceen ies si-keteeecele Seeere) Pree Pane Relsetae 220
James Coie: alsin rots alaPevonvstpes shone ons ea ele etPee ea he ee 220
Albert Cleage (Bishop Jaramogi Abebe Agyeman) .........----++-++++++: 224
SUM MALY 5 ag» sac eipseeces retiens le Ulacanes ie) Agee erence => > 2 Nee 224
Black Christian Womanist Theology and: Ethics¥y.- 222.975 2. ees. 225
Jacquélyn Grant, cree oseaterieiencc ose Stet haa < ORM ots allele nee225
Katie Carini Gin ite sbe-tec sconcleorrh cvoteonPraenege cc acre a oes cre oe re 224
5 AS 2 THE ISLAMIC: TRADITION 4,sc ecnued.do-<:eesdue eadwons pacuestelnts ekaccIoueag eee are ee ae, pee 228
bemtesieataavsaies Ute x losayn re apact
[Rite Aree COT Beicccco. ov ve<Acsvmouo ec Ne Ne a ei 228
The Moorish: Science Teniple x24 ieee e ce.) a Sree cs ee 230
The Nation of Islam 29:20. cao Ee SR es On eres cee ee a ee 132
The Secie-Ethical Teachings of Maleotm Aaarws varus. eee os eee ee 234
Transtormation and.the Rebuilding. .... 93a. Seek eens.
56 ee eee 237
Lranstormation . w¢Waidth ogc hns, 2 yee cet, See ee ee 234
The Rebuildingand: Mint BouissFarrakhans So 7:6 See ae. se ea ee 238
African American Women in Islam: Gender, Justice and Jihad ................ 239
Armina W aclid.,.<. ia. Ry EA Rl ene Se I A eee ee 239
Debra Mihashir. Majeed <.5.02. xi: SRI aie t RGR eee ae eee 241
ea TSIM Ssale mecca "oar as ehgE se OrsearveaOE-Sy2 REIN ym mE wR: 4 oS co ne 243
Strechy QUCSHOMS pleas er 55k Sereos upon cervim, come 9S Ree © PR Re RR cee a 244
Critical Thinking (Questions 8.05, arans incu 534.0ose oa we EO QR ey RN aS bac. 244

GHAPTER'6:. *BEACK SOCIOLOGY ina 5 Oath, den es 249

OL. — INTRODUCTIONS tek cic 5 ereco aie are we Oe ot See et eae kek 249
62> JTHE: PROBLEM OF GHETTOIZATION 553s «tanks 'sona waht
hee Sane 250
6.5) ,LHE RACE/ CLASS QUESTION ei cace oreo tent ater ers © Wate a ol 253
he Class Quesion. bs:4-9 5 saccular eee ene ee 254
Race arid RACs sx ap inne. 0o ipSinence eee Roe ere isk<acae RI Late ce Zoo
6.4 LHEISSUE OF CULTURE» <x vecpa\o api cutee seen Regine ie a
eeee ee 256
piece pacniae ae eae
‘he Deticieney Paradiom-...4ike.n uubense 256
‘The Crusian Paradigni: sc.1.< <.<wnxichauennieai oak 2aeee eeeence 258°
The Kawaide: Paracign o:;:.15,s1sye ieee tense reed 5 0 emieee 260
6,9’ ~ "THE BLACK FAMILY \./dssii ssa ccna susoeicnwoke eyiggiae
e/a tata aa
ciiare
ee 264
The Pathologieal-Pathosenie Schoolint. =, cecuae ek 0 eae ne 264
The Adaptive Vitality School
 CONTENTS Xill

Ere ahemt yn, dain’ cedaeade was«jee ee REBAR a whe 268

iGates DUAR Ravi [ayBEMALE RELATIONS 50o csi weg ined si.cu eerennagasnsle napa WASTER 4d ces 0 268
Woaranist/heminist LaScourse. cata mdsuw ons See alee wie owe 268
MERCER PAPi Le IE CES cane sshsata usewies ed I I oct bass ds hs 269
Early Reathinmation and Reconstruction inthe U.S.css nade os dae onc. 269
Ue(2 [DERG eve) ae ee eae ORERSPC CID od 2° 5),ae aaa 21
Busts A GaSe
caTeN hg tig Ac, dcrinlsrm eu iaeea: hu a ra, el pee 272
Disinctionsend Delineatiois sty 2< kee ran Mla eee x Adee oe. 274
Afcentierw ouianisme,, desta Gene Sao. o os AO ee 219
Feminist AVamanisniii2oe 2 ye eee Ae oe ee wD
Christian Womanism: ........ +: ST
a OT ert, es ee 275
Muslin Woomanism: cues xc dh ek cus eee) Pe ee ee 276
Ba. LAE QUrsTION OF OUALITY. RELATIONS oc.5<00ugules
@ as ee eee 276
the Sienihicance of che Subject o5cccug op enact Oa eee 276
Tae SeeMNN VS OHIOTLS, Meee) Gy wicucogs\ conbao wave Sie aaa Ree RN es 279
7iE Bs Connection yates <\v34 ote p.ce GI oe eae 280
eles Larisa ites ow xara sins eee A a 280
Re Ore® Sone ction ieee hick od lee (sciceassedh cin. PRO ae a 280
Re DenenencuyMannection ous aiycoiss Ge ae ene pee 281
CLOW ATE OU OOS Ger FEbeius cme Biesedoas anes ula buys Oe oo ah eae 281
PM cad
ENTILS Yc yep ME Paes ahtane ate LOREEN ASAT isos cnTacit crate echo"Gsailor 283
Bay UCSIONS tue Gin hee OUR 5 CA ahonn 4a a esiadnn aay REL AD ie eee 284
iced, 1 pining Cuestiont s cists | enn stl aay SCENE a 0 shoke Pee ea aca 284

ARETE Bays DUACK POLITICS eo ieraimatann ind icsn-va melas 6 Renee LEON eae: 289
Ud wesINTRODUCTION sete nth eecctores aulaonlaegsicié A SP II EN COR SN RS COPE 289
ATICTEDICCRINCES. aia web capt vsicear tessa g atanann 01a fee. ya we eat oleae es AEE 289
iristructions 16 Ine FiiMe WiINISter 1 wane 4.)0c ere ann Seem eS 289
LN eloyWiacollcre) W@elerar etelt teeerareean des iF Oe RENEE tere totes. ede. ah cr.291
Teme POLI Tice dN THES cos CONTENT oo cuaae s ttn aie tier en eminem ran Senne hoes ame jhe6)
GB LSS catalgheen
dS ogg as ie MR tea on RUE S I OMS AS On RE FU Ee 294
The Presence ot Conilicte (ota esene esis ns 0s Boe WN tg oe ngs 5 ag 295
Se an cI erests tent cer wean er Tepes vice werent tas Ae ae er nue Oi cn se 295
SarlBUMets Sle BT Ra pce ere: rg Ae RRS MY Sy ara ar 296
Relators prieet ett rece retro w veo hares arate Hoa estes t Sug asks + case296
Ngoc DONE CAI CR Re EE AOA iA Dy 297
 XIV CONTENTS

7:3..— PARTY POLITICS sesc sssec ie Bowtgin volose ep aoe co and 298
Rationale vais ous. inon.eistd. dee tolane auee s Dy eee ae eee ee cee 298
The Republican Experience c,.c..0.0 5+o eee ae en ss ee 299
The. Democratic, Experience « .c:-.cwim de ee oui c aemeener ee ene me ean oe eee 301
Black Party, Initiatives 2.4 asd Sata eee ee eee ee 303
Independent. Patties, .xecccku sc. ocak cai ce ee ee aes 303
Parallel Parties aiiausclue ctiequwao cee oe eee eee ee ae 304
The National Black Independent PoliticaliParty#j.5. seroma
eet eas = 304
7.4). STHE JACKSON. CAMPAIGNS, 4.5.3 nme oki loieae ae eee tr latinas oy 306
7.5 THE HISTORIC PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF BARACK HUSSEIN OBAMA.........--- 307
1.6... BLACK. ELECTED OFFICIALS, e-cp- pr ee ei ee ee 313
Limitations and Constraints oc... sine ee eo ec ee ee 313
Functions:af, BEOSs4 «sci, ang wee dt EA et & RAC Un ee ee ee 315
dal. OANTEREST. GROUP POLITICS 6osccc tidied un scss 2 ane eee ek ene ee ee 316
Liberal Strategyas cpcaici i+ euenriowness vse nk lucua ons tees eke et re 316
(Conservative, Strategy ugar ay a aU ens Jee Oe ees be 317
The Radical Serateyey iso pcSetaceusetrats asd ge ee es eee 319
atiGmal
isi 2.2sites rnas-v2-02esdiree ghee ee ete ea Ae aa ee eee 319
Ban ATHCAn ISIN yolei 5,<isucsoxncemp aeve is APE Oe Rn Ee ek Pe 319
Socal isi azarataveran cowsssionehbeaks oe us iam oe beac een A ee coe ce320
SUIDMIALYU atapacas nisseania ln ate,wae AIS NERO nga eta ie wa Ras 320
i.Cee COALITIONS AND, ALLIANCES i. savin erud due kaa © oak &olee x =) 322
Miscomee
ptiOnsyauicc, asco tials ieonies tia SeNaiiese <a. nua Rin Sa ee 322
Black-Jewith Relations: ei we a6 eee ie, 0k ta on 324
The ipemocratic Coalition: «545 s.0is ales « caw a 6 <de seks hae 6 ee ee 325
LibetrAIA Mian Ges sige wis svdo-talecm balinsnciveretgege-s fsaslac Saeed es ee ce 325
AllianeesiVieh Pesples of Col6n.:.s:..0eeawnaws ccs anes eee 326
TSENML OTIS MF Mth Md hie ene Hace ska cdscnersbnis leks scx RR a 327
SEN IOU Sie van, Aen he ee a CT Tb Ay eee Re Se A SD 328
GSritpcal slipiig Qulestions ates siseonwrsesng sesh neta diene: 505tvERA eleaes eae ea ee 328
a eS Ee eee

CHAPTER'S 2 BLACK: ECONOMICS 5 1c mck cekyocera 331

Sol TINTRODUCTION: cc 5 vat o. Gu dese eds oes ch eC Sect eee 351
Links Between’ Politics and Economics’se..5. 0.0. set ee ee
e 332
The Concept.6f Political Economy: 0.0.1 ce <a. eee 332
5.2° POLITICAL. BCONOMIC STATUS cca) ¢ oo 0 oe se ease an te ee 332
The Colonial Analogy 7.7... « .ea-cstenenset cree enn ee : Tape EPA
 CONTENTS XV

Cee ATOR RGONOMES DISADVANTAGE scicsvaro two weet sonetain eee ee Moan fe 334
ATROON emEUCLALY cer teca waitin a bnNickne sevens pascal a CIN <b ted 334
ESO ACE Be 4 prhasniee SABRIC mtd ae Ha AC. ps ce ok 555
ebieie] epics in aren) ee eee Ne To A Ta «cc coer... | ees 337
Siete eve BSS sen latleleGe pee tee Renee Ren res SET cy 7 7 Ae ne 339
Aa an aB47 eo CO eh neem a ey me Ta). ss) ae 340
Path ev ROBLEMSOR: EUAGIE ADI) IOLASS ccs osssvecsnslatonsvaipsursevick une a a EM Pisces oe 342
aa LE MEDDL ECLASS VAR EN sit deandnioan: tend gielsstn aS MN ss ccs 345
Oem wLIE, CINDER CUASS cites vacnciies -osecgacd scmparursiv'e Sireseeetias NEED SOR ONO ne Socks347
Bed ow SOLAS IONS Biadecreee o Sterene ais: Dehnahncilg ted -ds5p2 ahem utone eae EE Ne eas 349
(Sovernment Intervent w.0dh oon: 0unsanda papi seeawa ee oe 350
THE Private Senter: canna dune dawn @eeee usc oe Re ee, oe 350
TE SOMUIDALY eed icebeares serie tase As ee a ee 350
Ee Ns pri a ts in as dn eck pee eee gad
Government: Directed sonsue cin SEE SA ST an i eee 32
Economic. Recommendations: «c+. <4.0ce eMMs a ok oe mee
Political Raeciaumendations\:c2)«) |<. 5 cone ceo
BEB en: ceo5 352
Educational Recommendations wu .ancncxsnnee
re ee ee kc ss352
PrHCALESSCLOT NGCCTE sicwie tec snowed vviethvese-oncpes RI a eR EE ae hate 353
Statidatd Reganwendations ...cieic oencnerareocnesmiastene
eee ae en ae eee 353
Expanded Recommendations cc jcc:. G8 <2 ssiaangny ae eels oo oe 353
Conary WifeCted aa cee scene 'si'e sinew si alae ae cletsSee eee eae 354
Cooperative Economics: A Developmental Strategy ..............0..00000- 355
eo ov s oe emer hl ae Rae eet has ed Be Sen > 5 cnn. oe ode 2 ee 307.
CPA NICSELON Se Mae spe a ae aalSaltsAaa na a se Bho.5 weed: BPP Tarte g Gace Oh ate ae 358
Wrancal Thinking Questions: Ss nes Pel POR sein menecpctew 94 ho A LE Se a ae 358

CHAPTER Opes DLACK (GRC APIVE PRODUCTION gc nits ec oe oceat uses Paeuaite Me 361
OI <) BspowYe] © 618). Meek” reer aeTce aE DOE In MOONE RMSE WeCe ynmmMim rts. 361
ETS PUTS,Napa Te ey ey ear ree Oe Par MON! RE Se REEVT Rar See 361
Ta ee eee ee ee ee ee Neer e 362
OF MAD LAIR EA RC ee ae a St a ees a eee cow)gre oe 365
The eonririentarcAirican- DineNSiON ...area aces sda ade ade egere ooo 4 onvies 365
Peicostori LEMietecnce ee 0s ene he es ee hone ue eyes <1 366
alee ae es a se aoe eine 5 ts ga cas0 Suis. dren es nee waved 366
Pectioae Laaier eerie heli ae CPE eam ee o's ca he od Oe HMR 376
By ES HERS ge PBS 969 Reel gn 368
 Xvi CONTENTS

O83 STBUACK IMUSIC LA ecicscntsvavecaiaravece osncdicanlansinaine RA UDI ee EE eee mee Ae ee ali oe 369
African Origins iccccscur aims chevrwseeentad en Capra aie Serta 369
The Spitituals ss. cea fastietee neces tes xnesve oyatoue ete oreo ee eae ce Tee 370
Songsiof Work and Leisure: 0.60.0. iyiucssine cy eaascesloee ee oleete anmmetens eit eae Dal
Thre’ Bye se ic en oe i cs cdedee coconse aeaided tsesas Oe en cote a
Ragtime cate teat cote hcsiecetexixvsend Sesacented oneyetoooeeeooeet ete etanA tem teers 372
Gospel Musiciciiiy vie ac:acteiovencecrtiews ssicig GRE BAanoAmee tes nea ea EEN reo 373
The Emergence of Jazz, awea time t ceincka bic oo ee een eee tee 373
Rhythm and Bluess oc ccc -saeieuen sci teens as one eee 374
Rapand Hip Hopistug ck. See Oe che eee ee oe 376
OA. 2BUACK. LITER ATUREGS syc6A Aivceeo al. sAaiesasvcws sosaetyotlen nnd CGR eae ne ae etc iete380
The Bsrhy Period. [saet atenircey i oteiasesstiectnc minssdes Oe a te 380
TheEarly Beriodd Df ecpccacscdssertetconsc ab yeast cae ee en eee 382
Teed SOUS Lae, Rawee Oe ac cscod,duodances teSdnSanay by pee wedge a 383
che Pre-Harlem. Renaissance Period ..,. «cs. Seen ae oe ie ee 383
ThedHarlem:-Renaissance cic...scascss Sap ee Re. an ek ee 383
De Sites see PRE a essa bssd aoa seas OES, on ee i ee 385
TIRED OV ERIE S Ooi vereugaces ka acioness SARE RAN ORG, a eo 385
The bigh ties anduN ineties .s..c.sccenunnie
neo saan 6 ene MMR ee sae 386
SR Nepal SEI TLL Visca us encleraclicaemsne
veeearimecece eae ie hadianees
on ode re391
REVEL er. +.0 <p apemiteares coe Gv cemnuyna:e a Yo.ayraston aha xe RRR gee RCE roe 392
Study Questions x eae te ahs aE cacscidss S26.ntiecay gttren& 5a RISE ein ice 392
Critical Thinking Questions aa. «« <..caemee. Aneel a ee Bee ee 393

CHAP T ER {10m BLACK: PSYCHOLOGY: o vw isssece egies auAa does Sak Ce I ee 397
OMe ENTRODUCTION teetieg fats 28 SRR oR SSSR EE ee 397
ie ME LLUISTORICAL. ORIGINS & vier ccneusitacassecm Clotarash wm vad or Re a etn 398
0S geeLHRER. MAJOR SCHOOLS: DELINBATIONS§: svc, ae ce ceaaee emee eereee eo neee 400
10 Aso CHOOLS MODELS AND METHODOLOGIES ec. eee. ce eee 401
‘The? Traditional SCHOGl scr ea te ee 401
Kenneth Clarks Son 555. coce UA OO UL Game oe eC 401
Willian Grierand Price Cobbs ..4.5 4). tek ae ee ee 402
Alvin Powsea tint sess cs a oda ates cree oe ee ee 402
The ReformistSchOol:. <0, sides vc uamed 4h Relieve 404
Charles Thomas. cious Wien. tls lutea (acre kOe ere eee nie 404
 CONTENTS XVil

ToseDbuAN hills wortcie kee al iuloat iti ea eRe Jd Poe... S,,405

SN Liiai) Onis ae., cet de eae ene bemerenrier as aetna 406
MERAH OueCnOD ise hii cine « mee he canner sapere EE og ec 50. 408
Navin ga kbar pistes! zc) vrs ols ae gas 1 oe a ees es 408
Robi Be kambon «joseph: Baldwin): .ceeweeet
ne es, Bee ee 410
Linda lamesiivershs cr tek t:Je oN) cia eh ee Coe Re Stor 412
WYSce Noblesse: cantcsucnnectdiouchevecngetcnsessch0c,
Otter ee ad EEE. ce 414
Brances (ress WelSi 8. co,cousysinscesn neeoe Se RA ee I oS, 415
ATMS VTL a ttbeys bade SooWo onc Shncassddaec ONAN. te Cs A Ree ERC Bo 417
Bobby Miieht incite pals aigaun Aates aol Asad aoe acl eer bes 418
Mi ETHOS bce ae So ca Wot eee ee eee ere 420
Ei lervinere coke wee Ce oe Ree bas cv ee. eee 42]
RPE CPESELONS chess, 5:Sic,Saccm- 9 aineuen nn ¢ =a avin,abGenet eta koe, ETE a ee ee 42]
CECA TOU UNOATUBES oo seceinis. naesnoaync sooatyre sans SME SERIES ee REE oor 422

GHAPTER: 11s, CRITICAL ISSUES AND-CRITICAL (LHINKING aco Sheree Gla 425
MPR INTRODUCTION RUM SeaG CN his sas AS. Po ee ee eel 425
Bie, PU HEKATRINA. DIGASTER A fucken etcetera s Cine OecsueSeee Gch SPR eee ee 429
FEA Con te PU Cane acne oncesge,Fercgnorn apacadionay.acvonee St RE ose eat 429
Withessing the Worst... orking tor the Best «15, eoamesteenuke
Aueserer.. onl Meets 43]
eS OE ELLV/ ALOIS CRYSIS §sos bocite Pied snnils SBiogand inne dackasth wh tt eae ae 433
Eopaging the lesnd of HIVIAIDS aicune tacbhwisis cf aa eg grid), ea Sa eee 433
Cheating lateatvantEra ett VIALS tis 5 26 evo os oa oe Se ee 435
il4 RACE AND POST-RACTAIN DISCOURSE:.200 4 isca' So Ne abides PARAS 9 vee ae 437
Reattinming tour Riot Exist. 9 cpt a1 ss mn eet mone os Aer nee oe oces eee 437
Resisting the, ptasite OF BLACKNESS... eer guess a auis wien ncex, Cree eatin ne teehee aad440
Les RANZAFRICANISM, A PRICAGAIND) ELATTT |mm. sucksadic sastnllwiges Staines take Scab ge hace aahs ah: 44)
EAEri caith LA erat YAN c's Oe yd pans"Salata Bex ksh Skhaar SB: eee iy Sue bags 442
Celebinting African Liberation, Day. tie. atadat ie. eS we leks hae ett ae 6 444
Standingunisolidatity with rainy. ok a A A ee es ee 447
|
PirUiioPS Amite Elid mech ot pray a Mane Race ater wrk Can area wees Sane eae Adley 449
atta atic ETLCA ELASTIC WIS tormee Meaeig 8 Mrasus ings olden sta ays ev na ed arenas Ne eae451
IS CmMLMIMIGR AUIO Nite vata ERNST icky iki ahs oases Minas kam cel iets Sate454
ihe: btbites aia Ptronssok lm lotatlOnna roe spotters lacncuaceiiotasacslt oils tare capleadn soe Pcoe 454
BoundageSetuneand Border Crossings tis « he c1ins deeb oly eas he case 8 456
 XVill CONTENTS

11-7) ETHICS OF REPARATIONS bicoct 4-50¢testete gee apegei+ Sadetensscarsts oe le ec 458

Reaffirming the Righttulnessiof Reparations’ .6 1... . 1c seme teeterite 458
The Collective Vocation of Reparations: 23... .4 2. eee nee ee 460
11,8,,.. POLICR,ABUSE-AND MISCONDUCT ).n4:0 5:52 3 po40 gusset sae oa eee 462
Guarding Against’ the Guardians: .\) 9). ae: eles oseee ee 462
Waiting for Words of Justices.) a2. ote ote aes ee ee 465
10.9: «POPULAR CULTURE, ISSUES 6.5.0 tho sesceys 01s ass niin oe 9c ee ea 467
Peddling Pathology-im.the Mediai<.-)s0n.-.co <2 eee eee 467
Playin’ ‘and Preymg-on: Precious” 27-46. eon 469
Rollercoasting with Michael Jackson 2... < sy.0e-e a See oe 472
1110... -AN ETHICS OF SHARING: AsPUBLIC. POLICY INITIATIVE... Jc 2-ce es cee 474
Introduction. «27-1 yin Sew need a6 oe oe ee ee eee ee 474
Self-Wnderstandine and Self-Assertions. ...0-. >-.ca6 = > aoe re eee 474
Public’ Pimlosophy-and Discourse: <2. 5s sys w <6 oa a ee 475
shated Status \ ti We ete 5% 25 ce 65 ak die eee ee es ee 476
shared KnOwledgon’ «inva, Sys Rei lee a ae en es 477
ohared Space vu Se504 2th RR LO, Bee eee ee 477
Shared Wealthe...c.tnwn then weeks waey Rees wie ek ee ae 477
Shared Power ue 20 ews cen OR nti sm Ie Se ee 478
Shared MMterests qo.svery- 1.44. avalos eels Sek RR Sree a 478
Sharéd Responsibility’... derdaueh tage n ee Gee ea 479
Furthet, Readinng.p.4.% 4 .6.a weed sebacton Roystercas-sieagiee tea Se a eee 479

Bote Chédits ota. TAIN, Gliese 2X a ween ge aN isc TIA A 48]

RETETENCES ss 6 yA So ti ite PIR oe ee eal Od.Wk HASRE S ARET ot ae 483
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FOURTH EDITION

he 28 years that have passed since I wrote the first edition of Introduction to Black Studies
have yielded a tremendous and constantly expanding amount of scholarly literature.
As the discipline continues to develop, new issues, concepts, theories and controversies
emerge. In this fourth edition, as all the previous ones, I have made a great effort to keep
abreast of this latest, diverse and wide-ranging scholarship and discourse, making critical
selections, and incorporating those materials which were deemed most relevant and useful.
Moreover, since IBS was first published, hundreds of professors have assigned the first three
editions and thousands of students have used them. Their comments and suggestions have
aided me in maintaining the quality of scholarship that has made IBS retain its preeminent
position among introductory texts in the discipline since it was first published.
I’m aware of the value the text has, both in the academy and in the community, provid-
ing a culturally grounded framework and important data useful for engaging critical issues
which concern the African American and world African community. And thus, I’m con-
stantly attentive to ensuring that this work maintains the level of scholarship and usefulness
that have earned it its special position within the discipline and the community.
In this fourth edition, several new features are included to facilitate and enhance stu-
dent learning. A new feature, “Nommo: The Creative Word” appears in every chapter.
These frames include excerpts from the writings or speeches of noted leaders, thinkers,
and educators such as Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, Anna Julia
Cooper, Mwalimu Nyerere, Nathan Hare, Molefi Asante, Barbara Wheeler and Michelle
and Barack Obama. In addition, there are excerpts from texts and art from the classical
cultures of ancient Egypt, ancient Yorubaland, Nokland and the Kingdom of Kongo. These
texts give students a sense of the period in which they are located, the issues involved, and
an expanded notion of Black intellectual history.
Moreover, this fourth edition also includes the following additions and changes: key
terms which are highlighted and are accompanied by definitions within the text and also
placed at the end of the chapter; new study questions; critical thinking questions; and new
sections on African Diaspora Studies, the Cheikh Anta Diop Conference, Ida B. Wells-
Barnett, Islamic womanism, the New Century with critical issues, and a section on the
historical election of Barack Hussein Obama to the Presidency of the U.S. in both the Black
History and Black Politics chapters. In addition, there are new photos and artwork, a new
chapter on Critical Issues and Critical Thinking, including a discussion of critical thinking
and articles on the Katrina Disaster, the HIV/AIDS Crisis; Race and Post-Racial Discourse;
Pan-Africanism, Africa and Haiti; Immigration; the Ethics of Reparations; Police Abuse
and Misconduct; Popular Culture; and An Ethics of Sharing.
Finally, |am profoundly grateful, as always, to those who have assisted me in the com-
pletion of this fourth edition directly and/or indirectly. |am appreciative of my colleagues,
other faculty, students and the general readers who choose and use this book and of their

xix
 KX PREFACE

valuable suggestions and observations on it, and | have tried to respond appropriately. My
profound thanks and appreciation goes also to the members of my organization, Us, who
have always provided me with a valuable context of intellectual exchange, challenge and
support: especially, Sanifu Adetona, Sikivu Alston, Thabiti Ambata, Tulivu Jadi, Thanayi
Karenga, Tiamoyo Karenga, Mpinduzi Khuthaza, Mshinda Nyofu, Kojo Rikondja, Thema
Rikondja, Hasani Soto, Aminisha Tambuzi, Johnnie Tambuzi, Robert Tambuzi, Wasifu
Tangulifu, Malaika Tawasufi, Chimbuko Tembo and Ujima Wema.
A special thanks goes also to Tiamoyo Karenga for many of the pictures and artwork
which appear in this work. I am grateful also to my colleagues for their critical observations
and ongoing valuable exchanges: Molefi Asante, Amen Rahh, Ana Yenenga, Ama Mazama,
James Stewart, Patricia Reid-Merritt, Dorothy Tsuruta, Shirley Weber, La Frances Rodgers-
Rose, Haki Madhubuti, Freya Rivers, Nathan Hare, Julia Hare, Adisa Alkebulan, Christel
Temple, Zizwe Poe, Catherine Bankole-Medina, Geoffrey Giddings, and all the other mem-
bers of the Executive Board of DISA, and Khonsura A. Wilson, LaRese Neferet Hubbard,
Michael Tillotson, Reiland Rabaka, Armstead Allen, Charles Jones, Terry Kershaw, Fred
Hord, and Theman Taylor.
I offer thanks also to the members of the National Association of Kawaida Organizations
(NAKO) and all those who have attended the Kawaida Institute of Pan-African Studies’
(KIPAS) annual summer seminar in Social Theory and Practice, for the engaging conver-
sations and insightful exchanges on a myriad of issues, and especially to Segun Shabaka,
Maisha Ongoza and Kamau Tyehimba, chairs of NAKO in New York, Philadelphia and
Chicago respectively, and to all the members of the various chapters in these cities. Asante
sana (thanks very much) also to the vice-chairs of Us, Tulivu Jadi and Chimbuko Tembo,
who again relieved me of responsibilities so I could finish this project. Asante sana also to
my publisher, Chimbuko Tembo for a special friendship, constant assistance, support and
regular understanding about missed and revised deadlines. And finally, I say to Tiamoyo,
my rare and irreplaceable friend, administrative assistant, wife, constant companion in love,
work and struggle and in all things good and beautiful - asante, asante nyingi na baada ya
asante, mchanga wa pwani ni haba — thanks, many thanks and compared to the many times I
say thanks, the grains of sand on the seashore are few.

Maulana Karenga
Los Angeles, California
6250 - July - 2010
 he
re a
INTRODUCTION
 . ‘

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 We
ft. |INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1

1.1 DEFINING THE DISCIPLINE

DEFINITION

lack Studies is easily one of the most dynamic, controversial and impor-
tant disciplines to develop in the last four decades. It came into being in
struggle, as part of the African American struggle in the 1960s for freedom, jus-
tice, equality and power. This unconventional way of asserting itself on campus
ignited controversy and conversations that still accompany it. Black Studies
challenged the structure and functioning of the university, i-e., the racial focus
of its knowledge base and instruction; its relations of power; the way it excluded
and marginalized people of color, and the irrelevance of its education for libera-
tion and life which were considered the burning issues at hand by Black Studies
advocates.
In this active and intellectual challenge, Black Studies opened the way
and served as a useful model for other excluded and marginalized groups in
their struggle for respected presence and rightful representation in the cur-
riculum and on campus. Moreover, throughout its history, Black Studies has
stimulated important debates and discussion on campus and in society around
critical educational and social issues. Also, it has made a central contribution
to the position that quality education must be a multicultural education and
must be relevant to the students and communities that the university serves.
And it contends to ignite and spur debates and discussion, not only about the
use, meaning and quality of education, but also about issues of vital social and
human concern.
As a discipline, a specialized branch of study and knowledge, Black Studies is
the critical and systematic study of the thought and practice of African people in their
current and historical unfolding. It is a critical study in that it is characterized by
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

careful analysis and considered judgment. And it is systematic in that it is struc-

tured and methodical in its pursuit and presentation of knowledge. Likewise,
stress on the historical and current unfolding of African thought and practice
is meant to call attention to their diverse, dynamic and constantly developing
character (Asante and Karenga, 2006; Reid-Merritt, 2009). The word African
refers here to African peoples on the continent of Africa and those in the
Diaspora. The term Diaspora means the dispersion or scattering of people with a
common origin. Thus, it is used in Black Studies to refer to Black people whose
common origin is in Africa, but who have dispersed or been scattered through-
out the world, i.e., in the Americas, the Caribbean and other islands of the
seas, Europe and Asia (Olayin and Sweet, 2010; Opekwho and Nzegwu, 2009;
Harris, 1993).
Because Black Studies began as a self-defined and organized discipline or
area of study among African Americans, it tends to focus most heavily on the
African American initiative and_experience (Anderson and Stewart, 2007;
Conyers, 2005). Buttfrom its beginning, Black Studies scholars have always
defined and developed the discipline as inclusive of African peoples through-
out the world African community (Turner, 1984). This is especially true of the
continent of Africa where the history and culture of African peoples have their
origin and whose culture and politics still inform and inspire African American
activities and interests (Asante, 2007a; Magubane, 1987). But it is also true
of African Caribbeans, African Native Americans and African Latinos, i.e.,
Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Brazilians and others, whose histories overlap and
intersect with that of African Americans around such issues as freedom, justice,
immigration, religion, cultural exchange and struggle (Asante, 1997; Hine and
McLeod, 2001). This thrust to include all Africans as subjects of study is called
pan-African which means including all Africans (Martin, 1998; Abdul-Raheem,
1996). It is in the interest of recognizing this pan-Aftican scope of Black
Studies that some scholars call the discipline “Pan-African Studies,” “Africana
Studies” or Africology. However, again Black Studies from its inception carried
this inclusive pan-African conception of itself as a discipline (Karenga, 2009;
Reid-Merritt, 2009).

INITIATIVE AND EXPERIENCE

As stated above, Black Studies focuses on the African initiative and experi-
ence in the world. The concept of initiative means thinking and acting according
to one’s own will and interests. It thus refers to Africans thinking, acting, produc-
ing, creating, building, speaking and problem-solving in their own unique way
in the world. This concept which is also called agency or the capacity and will
to act, is extended to mean tthe capacity and will to make history, create culture
 CHAPTER |: INTRODUCTION

and address critical human concerns in a meaningful and successful manner (Asante,
1990; Karenga, 1997).
In the early years of the development of Black Studies, the phrase “teach-
ing the Black (or African) experience” was used to describe the central focus
of the discipline (Young, 1984). At that time, the term “the Black experience”
was used to refer to everything African peoples had done and undergone. But as
the discipline developed, greater emphasis was increasingly placed on stressing
agency, what Africans had done rather than what they had undergone. As a
result, the term, experience, began to be used in a more restricted sense as that
which is undergone or lived through. The concept of initiative, then, focuses on
what Africans have done and do and the concept of experience deals with what
Africans have undergone and lived through. For example, Africans emerge as
the first humans and experience the wonder, awe and dangers of nature. They
take initiative in organizing ways to secure food, clothing, and shelter, and to
build family, community and human culture. Eventually Africans develop some
of the basic disciplines of human knowledge and some of the greatest civiliza-
tions in ancient times in the Nile Valley, i-e., Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia.
Moreover, Africans experience the Holocaust of enslavement, but take ini-
tiative in resisting enslavement in various ways and creating realms of freedom
in an unfree, brutal and dehumanizing situation. Also, they construct a new
synthesized culture in which African spirituality, ethics, art, music, literature,
dance, family and other cultural forms are both partially retained and reshaped
in the crucible of new circumstances (Franklin and Higginbotham, 2010). In
the age of segregation, the legal separation and unequal treatment of racial groups,
African Americans experience another form of oppression. But they are not
passive victims. They seize initiative and wage a struggle which destroys legal
segregation, expands the realm of freedom in the country and provides a model
and inspiration for other marginalized and oppressed groups and peoples in
this country and around the world. Again, the important issue here, as Black
Studies stresses, is to offer a dynamic portrait of African life in which Africans
are not simply people swept up in the experience of victimization or passive
encounter in the world, but rather are active agents of their own life, engaging
their environment, each other and other people in unique, meaningful and
valuable ways.

1.2. ORIGINS OF THE DISCIPLINE

INTRODUCTION

ome scholars, talking of Black Studies in the general sense, argue that Black
Studies began in ancient societies like ancient Egypt, Mali and Songhay
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

which clearly established an intellectual tradition of study of themselves and

the world in which they lived. However, if we speak of Black Studies as a
self-defined and organized discipline in the university, then we must place its
origin in the 1960s. In fact, Black Studies, as an intellectual practice, is rooted
in and reflects the social visions and social struggles of this period. The critical
concerns in struggles for freedom, justice, equality, power, political and cultural
self-determination, educational relevance, and for an expanded sense of human
possibility are all reflected in both the vision and practice of Black Studies. And
it is from these critical concerns and the struggles which gave concrete expres-
sion to them that Black Studies developed its self-understanding as both an area
of critical intellectual study and an instrument of social change in the interest
of African and human good.
Black Studies, then, began as both a political and academic demand with
grounding in both the general student movement and the social struggles of the
60s out of which the Student Movement evolved (Van Deburg, 1993; Pinkney,
1976; Brisbane, 1974; Edwards, 1970; McEvoy and Miller, 1969). The 60s was a
time of upheaval and confrontation, and students — Africans, Native Americans,
Latinos, Asians and Whites — were at the center of the struggles which produced
this process. Beginning first off campus in a struggle against the racist structure
and functioning of society, students began to see the university as a key institu-
tion in the larger system of coercive institutions created by the established order
to maintain its power. The university was pictured as a microcosm of society,
a small example of how society looked and functioned in terms of race, class
and power. It was perceived as racist
and unresponsive to peoples of color.
Moreover, it was seen by the students
as committed to the exploitation and
oppression of Blacks, other peoples
of color and the poor and to their
exclusion from the social knowledge,
wealth and power in U.S. society.
The decision then was made to take
up the struggle against society at the
university, which was seen as society’s
“brain” and its “intellectual factory”
which produced its leaders and fol-
lowers as well as its cherished social
myths (Robinson, Foster and Ogilvie,
1969; McEvoy and Miller, 1969; Van
Seshat, female divine patron of learning and knowledge, ancient Deburg, 1993:63-92). Thus, Black
Egypt ‘
Studies scholars and students linked
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

knowledge and power, campus and community, student learning with student
service and activism in and for community, society and the world.

THE ACTIVIST-INTELLECTUAL TRADITION

Although Black Studies evolves in the context of the social and intel-
lectual struggle of the Sixties, it of necessity draws on the rich resources of the
African past, both ancient and modern models and data. And certainly, one
of the most important models it borrows from and builds on is the activist-
intellectual tradition of African culture. This tradition extends back to ancient
Egypt with its model of the socially conscious and activist intellectual, the sesh,
who understood themselves in both moral and social terms and constantly
expressed a commitment to using their knowledge and skills in the service of
the people or what was termed doing Maat, truth, justice and rightness in the

iy
sf
SS
Nommo. The Creative Word

a am an excellent noble, endowed with praise,

One whose virtue the Two Lands know; A refuge for the poor,
A raft for the drowning,
A ladder for one who is in the abyss.
One who speaks for the wretched,
Who assists the unfortunate, and
Who aids the oppressed by his excellent deeds;
The one honored by the King, Harwa.

Iam a noble for whom one should act, One steadfast to the end of life.
I am one beloved ofhis city, praised of his district,
Kind-hearted to his towns.
I have done what the people love and the divine ones praise,
One truly worthy ....
Who gave bread to the hungry and clothes to the naked,
One who removed pain and suppressed wrongdoing;
Who buried the honored ones, embraced the aged,
And removed the need of the have-not. (I was)
A shade for the orphan, A helper for the widow,
One who gave rank even to an infant.
I did these things knowing their weight,
And their reward from the Master of Things:
To endure in the mouth of the people, without end,
throughout eternity,
And to be well remembered in the years after.
Amenhotep, son of Hapu, a sage, scribe and minister
under Amenhotep III, revered after death for his The prince, count, greatly honored by his lord, in favor with his Lady;
ven etiae Brel see Lith Dinloaks Kind in speech, pleasant of words, kind and gentle to great and small;
i My reward is being remembered for my virtue,
My ka enduring because of my kindness — Harwa

i Harwa, Chief Administrator of the

Divine Wife of Amen, Amenirdis
Sesh of Axncient Egypt
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

world. This Maat-doing included insuring justice, caring for the vulnerable
and the environment, respecting persons as bearers of dignity and divinity, and
working for future generations (Karenga, 2006, 2008b).
Likewise, the sage and teacher (oluké) Orunmila of Yorubaland taught that
people should speak truth, do justice, be kind to each other, and struggle for
good in the world. He also taught that the fundamental criterion for a good
world and the key instrument in creating the good world is effective knowledge
of things, a moral wisdom which enables human beings to come together for the
purpose of increasing and sustaining Ire, good, in the world (Karenga, 1999:229-
230). Therefore, in these and other African societies, the commitment to
learning is based on the conception of knowledge which values knowledge not
simply for knowledge sake, but rather knowledge for human sake. In a word,
knowledge is considered important not simply to enjoy oneself or even simply
get a job, but because of its value and role in improving the human condition
and enhancing the human prospect or human future.
This activist-intellectual tradition was maintained and further developed
in more modern times with activist-intellectuals such as: Maria Stewart,
Martin Delaney, David Walker, Frederick Douglass, W. E. B. DuBois, Anna
Julia Cooper, Ida B. Wells, Mary McLeod Bethune, Ella Baker, Septima Clark,
Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Kwame Ture, et al, who used their knowledge
and skills to aid the people and address critical issues of their times in both
discourse and social practice. This commitment to knowledge in the service of
community, society and humanity is the ground of the African activist-scholar
or activist-intellectual tradition. And it is reaffirmed in the self-defined mission
of Black Studies which links the academic and social, the quest to learn with
the obligation to serve (Crouchett, 1971; Turner and McGann, 1980; Stewart,
1984; Karenga, 1988; Woodyard, 1991). The activist-intellectual tradition then
poses as a central task of both Black Studies scholars and students to master,
discover, produce and present knowledge in ways that measure up to the highest
of standards of intellectual work and-then to use that knowledge in the service
of community, society and humanity. And it also cultivates appreciation of the
value of critical study of African culture and of engaging it as a rich resource
for models of excellence in human thought and human practice and as Black
Studies’ fundamental point of departure for all its work.

SOCIAL STRUGGLES AND THE STUDENT MOVEMENT

The social struggles in the Sixties served as both a context and encourage-
ment for the emergence of a student movement which linked itself to these
larger struggles for social change both on-campus and off-campus. There were
four basic thrusts in the student movement, each of which aided in creating
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION | 9|

the context and support for the emergence of Black Studies as a discipline.
These are:

the Civil Rights Movement;

the Free Speech Movement;
the Anti-Vietnam War Movement, and
p the Black Power Movement.
>>p

Although the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power Movement are
more directly related to the struggle
for Black Studies, the Free Speech
Movement and Anti-Vietnam War
Movement on campus indirectly
aided the overall thrust. For they
helped create a climate of struggle
dedicated to challenging university
authority, encouraging and demon-
strating student power and question-
ing the content and meaning of
educational practices.

THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

The first thrust of the Student

Movement began in 1960 with Black
Students who played a central and
indispensable role in the Civil Rights
Movement in the South (Forman, Bob Moses, SNCC, teaching volunteers for civil
rights work
1972; Carson, 1981; Morris, 1984;
Williams, 1987; Branch, 1988; Crawford, Rouse and Woods, 1990; Robinett,
1997; Young, 2008). Essentially, the Movement sought to: 1) break down the
barriers of legal segregation in public accommodations; 2) achieve equality
and justice for Blacks; and 3) organize Blacks into a self-conscious social force
capable of defining, defending and advancing their interests. The Student Non-
Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) emerged as a vanguard group in the
Civil Rights struggle and especially in the Student Movement. In its role as the
preeminent student group in the country, SNCC not only mobilized, organized
and politicized thousands of Black students, but also politicized many White
students and their leaders through recruiting and training them and bring-
ing them to the South to work in the struggle (McAdam, 1990; Cohen and
Zelnick, 2002). As Clay Carson (1981:129) notes, White summer volunteers
| 10 | INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

in Mississippi “who returned home greatly influenced by their experiences . . .

would bring a measure of SNCC radicalism into the student’s rights and antiwar
movements.” This link would prove valuable for joint action later.

THE FREE SPEECH MOVEMENT

The second thrust of the Student Movement began with the Free Speech
Movement at UC Berkeley in 1964. It was essentially White student protest
against the rigid, restrictive and unresponsive character of the university. In
a word, it was a demand for civil rights on campus (Draper, 1965; Lipset and
Wolin, 1965; Rorabaugh, 1989; Cohen and Zelnik, 2002). The leadership of
the Movement which had served as summer volunteers in Mississippi with
SNCC expressed a link between the civil rights struggle on campus and in the
larger society. In fact, they posed the Free Speech Movement on UC Berkeley’s
campus as “another phase of the same struggle,” i.e., the civil rights struggle in
the larger society and expressed the similarity of suppression of powerless Blacks
and students by the established order (Carson, 1981:129).

THE ANTI-WAR MOVEMENT

The third thrust of the Student Movement began in 1965 which was the
general student protest against the Vietnam war and university complicity in it
through its cooperation with the government in recruitment and research and
development programs (McEvoy and Miller, 1969; DeBendetti and Chatfield,
1990). The anti-war movement was launched by New Leftists, especially the
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Although African Americans had
begun resistance to the war and the draft, they had not created a unified move-
ment or linked yet with White activists. SNCC, which inspired leaders of SDS
to social activism, supported this resistance and encouraged other Black activ-
ists to get involved in a united front effort. In fact, in 1968 SDS at its annual
convention drafted a statement, which acknowledged their debt to the Black
struggle in the South and SNCC in particular for their new consciousness and
activism. Thus, the united student protest against the Vietnam war and uni-
versity complicity in it was initiated by the White Left, but SNCC and other
African American activists participated in it and helped shape it.
SNCC, Us, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and other African
American activists participated in the anti-war movement, not only from a
student position, but also from a Black and Third World, people of color, position ~
(SNCC, 1968; Taylor, 1973; Hare, 1973; Karenga, 1997). African Americans’
opposition to the war in Vietnam was based on their opposition to: 1) the
threat the draft posed to Blacks and other males of color not covered by student
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION wie

deferment and especially vulnerable in the South; 2) the government’s war

against Third World liberation movements and peoples in general and Vietnam
in particular; and 3) fighting an unjust war for a nation depriving Blacks of basic
civil and human rights (Taylor, 1973; Terry, 1970, 1985). Thus, they forged a
link between the Black Freedom struggle, Third World Liberation struggles and
their opposition to the war (Carson, 1981:183-185; Karenga, 1997:48). This
combined struggle again linked university change to social change and further
revealed the university’s vulnerability to student power and activism.

THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT

The final thrust of the Student

Movement which led directly to the
establishment of Black Studies began
in 1965 with the emergence of the
Black Power Movement (Joseph,
2006; Theoharis and Woodard, 2005;
Woodard, 1999; Van Deburg, 1997;
Pinkney, 1976; Brisbane, 1976).
Although the phrase “Black Power” did
not evolve until 1966 as a battle cry
of SNCC, the beginning of the Black
aah - oth Power Movement is generally set at
Sisters in Blackness at Spelman College giving the Black Power = =1965, the year of the Watts Revolt in
salute popularized by the Organization Us. Los Angeles. This marked the begin-

ning of a series of revolts across the

country through the latter part of the 60s. The Black Power Movement ush-
ered in a new dialog about relations of power in society and the university, the
pervasive character of racism, and the need for struggle to overturn the estab-
lished order and create a more just society (Carmichael and Hamilton, 1992).
Black Power advocates stressed the importance of self-determination — cultural,
political and economic, and the need for power in achieving and maintaining
it. They also argued for a relevant education, an education that was meaning-
ful to the students, useful to the community, and reflective of the realities of
society and world (Hare, 1969, 1972; Karenga, 1988).
In addition, Black Power advocates, like the Organization Us and other
cultural nationalist organizations, called for a focus on cultural grounding,
studying and recovering African culture and extracting from it models of
excellence and possibility (Karenga, 1980, 2008). This was to be done not
only to achieve a proper self-consciousness and restructure the university
curriculum, but also to rebuild community and society. They also stressed the
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

Simba Wachanga, The Young Lions, of the Organization Us, holding up

text on Kawaida in study session

need for the university and society to recognize the diverse cultures of U.S.
society and practice cultural pluralism (the predecessor to multiculturalism
today), i.e., mutual respect for all peoples and due recognition of their contribution
to U.S. and world history. Finally, Black Power advocates called on students to
engage in struggle in the classrooms, on campus in general and in society not
only to improve the quality of education, but also to improve the life of African
people and change society itself (Turner, 1970; Stewart, 2004).

THE EMERGENCE OF BLACK STUDIES

THE STRUGGLE AT SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY (SFSU)

In the context of the Black Power Movement’s stress on self-determination,

cultural grounding, relevant education, cultural pluralism and student activism,
Black Studies emerges as a movement and a discipline. It began in 1966 at San
Francisco State College (SFSC), now called San Francisco State University,
and was again initiated and led by Black students (T’Shaka, 1982; Edwards,
1970; Orrick, 1969). It came at the rising tide of the Black Power Movement
and reflected its sense of social mission and urgency. By 1966, the Watts Revolt
and the Black Power Movement had ushered in a more racially self-conscious
and assertive activism and Black students at SFSC and on other campuses began
to respond to this resurgence of nationalist activism. Thus, in 1966, the Negro
Students Association changed their name to the Black Student Union (BSU)
to indicate a new identity and direction. And in the fall of the same year, the
BSU, led by James Garrett, produced a document arguing for and demanding
the first Department of Black Studies.
 Massive student rally for Black Studies at Howard University

Continuing their thrust, Black students established a Black arts and culture
series in the Experimental College which was also created in 1966 and became
involved in SFSC’s tutorial program for the surrounding community. This and
other community service activities signaled the social commitment and service
which Black Studies advocates would place at the center of the academic and
social mission of Black Studies. Since the Experimental College was set up with
student money, there was no serious resistance to it, but the demand by the
BSU for a legitimate Black Studies Department funded by the college and con-
trolled by Black people brought stiff resistance. Moreover, the BSU demanded
a special admissions program which would waive entrance requirements for a
given number of Black students.
This also was resisted, even though Black enrollment had been reduced dras-
tically from over a thousand to a few hundred by the College’s tracking system.
In February, 1968, Dr. Nathan Hare (1969, 1972) was appointed as coor-
dinator of Black Studies and was given the task of formulating an autono-
mous Black Studies Department. Dr. Hare, author of the 1960s classic, The
Black Anglo-Saxons (1965, 1992) and former professor of sociology at Howard
University, was fired for his activism in support of the students and the struggle
for a “relevant education” at Howard (Black Think Tank, 2010). He had writ-
ten, with the students and on their behalf, “The Black University Manifesto” in
which he called for the “overthrow of the Negro College” which was “internally
and intellectually White” and “to raise in its place a Black university relevant
to the Black community and its needs.” Dr. Hare continued this stress on rel-
evant education when he went to San Francisco State and later in his role as
founding publisher of the Black Scholar, a central journal in Black intellectual
history and struggle.
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

he early advocates of Black Studies sought both the collective

elevation of a people, with education of, from, and for the
masses, and the training of a mass-minded Black conscious middle
class. Black Studies was to provide a working model of theoretics
for both Black and White colleges, correcting “negro” colleges’
fallacies and seizing equitable power and control at White colleges.
Instead of searching merely for equality of education, its premise
was: |) that there can be no equality of education in a racist society;
2) the type of education conceived and perpetuated by the White
oppressor is essentially an education for oppression; and 3) Black
education must be education for liberation, or at least for change. In
this respect, it was to prepare Black students to become the catalysts
for a Black cultural revolution. All courses — whether history, lit-
erature, or mathematics — would be taught from a revolutionary
ideology or perspective. Black education would become the instru-
ment for change.
Dr. Nathan Hare
Its initial vehicle, Black Studies, was at best a mass movement and a mass
struggle based on the notion that education belongs to the people and the idea is to give it back to them. Hence,
most crucial to Black Studies, Black education, aside from its ideology of liberation, would be the community
component of its methodology. This was designed to wed Black communities, heretofore excluded, and the edu-
cational process, to transform the Black community, making it more relevant to higher education, at the same
time as education is made relevant to the Black community. Such education would bring both the college to the
community and the community to the college.
Source: p. 33 in Nathan Hare,
“The Battle for Black Studies,”
The Black Scholar, 3, 9 (May, 1972) 32-37

By April, Hare had completed his proposal, “Conceptual Proposal for a

Department of Black Studies,” which included not only the structure for the
department, but also a program of special admission for Black students, and a
B.A. degree in Black Studies. However, the board of trustees continually delayed
implementation of the program and it is this which led to the students’ striking.
By late 1968, the situation had escalated to the point where the BSU launched
a strike on November 6th around a series of demands including a Black Studies
Department, special admissions, financial aid and decisions on personnel.
The university was closed down; students clashed with police; presidents were
changed with regularity; and the community became involved in the campus
struggle in a way it had never done. Eventually, the students won; the strike
ended March 20, 1969 and San Francisco State became the first institution of
higher education to establish a Black Studies program and department.
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Influenced by the writings of the African revolutionary, Frantz Fanon’s

(1968) and the emphasis on Third World solidarity by Third World Liberation
Movements, other Third World groups joined with the BSU under the umbrel-
la organization, the Third World Liberation Front. These other Third World
groups included the Mexican American Student Confederation (MASC), the
Asian-American Political Alliance (AAPA), the Intercollegiate Chinese for
Social Action (ICSA), the Philippine American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE)
and the Latin American Student Organization (LASO). Reflecting a common
concern for Third World Students and Third World Studies, they issued fifteen
demands which served as a model for other Black Studies struggles. The SDS,
Peace and Freedom party and White students from the Experimental College
formed a strike support committee and worked to join the struggle of Third
World students with the struggle against the war, ROTC on campus and other
issues which linked the university with the government. In this student thrust,
however, it was Blacks (and other Third World students) who again led the way
and the Whites supported, as in the first thrust in the early 60s.

OTHER SITES OF STRUGGLE

As Robert Brisbane (1974:228) notes, Black students paid close attention

to the struggle at San Francisco State and were impressed with the capacity of
students to win concessions from the administration. Thus, already “by fall of
1968, the experiences of San Francisco State were being duplicated on dozens
of campuses throughout the country.” On every occasion, these struggles were
seen as linked to the overall struggle for Black liberation and were often led
by Black nationalists or Black Power advocates. Among these were members
of SNCC, Us and other Kawaida formations on the West and East coasts, the
Revolutionary Action Movement, the Black Panther Party, the Congress of
Racial Equality and smaller local nationalist formations. As Alphonso Pinkney
(1976:177) observed, the struggle for Black Studies was “seen as a necessary
component of Black liberation” and White resistance seen “as an attempt to
preserve (Black) subordinate status in society. . . .” It became important then
to break what was perceived as the White monopoly on knowledge and its use
and create a new context for producing and sharing a new knowledge, directed
toward service to the community rather than toward suppressing it.
Thus, the struggle to win Black Studies coincided with the general student
revolt against the structure and functioning of the university. And at the
beginning it often was supported by other Third World students and Whites.
Eventually, however, the majority of Black students would reject cooperation
with Whites and insist on Black self-determination and independence
from alliances with them. Black students, then, went on to launch a series
 | 16 | INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

of struggles and negotiations which forced most of the major colleges and
universities to agree to establish some form of Black Studies by 1969.
The Black Studies struggle extended also to Black colleges which had prided
themselves on being pioneers in teaching the Black Experience. What they
actually taught was “negro history” which both in content and consciousness
was different from the liberational thrust for which Black Studies advocates
struggled. Brisbane (1974:238-239) lists three reasons the Black colleges resisted
the challenge: 1) alleged financial problems; 2) assumption that only a militant
faction advocated it; and; 3) the “bourgeois mentality” of the staff which was
“committed to working within the system (and) completely rejected the notion
of Black liberation.” However, after a series of struggles and after “Harvard, Yale
and Columbia universities provided ‘legitimacy’ by the adoption of such pro-
grams,” leading Black universities like Atlanta, Fisk, Howard, Lincoln, Morgan
and Tuskegee began to initiate Black Studies Programs by fall of 1969.

1.3. RELEVANCE OF THE DISCIPLINE

THE CONCEPT OF RELEVANCE

@)e of the most important concepts in the general Student Movement and
especially in the Black Student Movement which waged the struggle for
Black Studies was the concept of a relevant education, a concept which had
both academic and social dimensions. A relevant education for Black Studies
advocates was an education which is meaningful, useful and reflective of the realities
of society and the world. For Black Studies and Black Power advocates the central
realities were: 1) the need to solve the pressing problems of the Black commu-
nity, society and the world and; 2) the revolutionary struggle being waged to
end racist oppression and change society and the world. To be relevant, educa-
tion had to address these issues and contribute to these interrelated projects.
Thus, Nathan Hare (1969:42), one of the guiding theorists and founders of the
Movement, argued for an African American education, which would contribute to
solving “the problems of the race” by producing “persons capable of solving problems
of a contagious American society.” Moreover, he concluded, “a Black education
which is not revolutionary in the current day is both irrelevant and useless.” It is this
stress on academic and social relevance of education that not only gave Black Studies
its central self-conception and mission, but also brought it its major opposition. The
push for relevant education in the university was thus joined with a thrust by Black
Studies to establish and maintain its own relevance as both an academic and social
project. Therefore, in developing a relevant Black Studies, Black Studies advocates
expressed two sets of basic concerns, i.e., academic and social ones (Robinson, Foster
and Ogilvie, 1969; Blassingame, 1973).
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

ACADEMIC CONCERNS

On the academic level, they were concerned first with the intellectual
inadequacy and injurious nature of traditional White studies. White studies
was seen as inadequate and injurious in its omission and/or distortion of the
lives and culture of African people and other people of color, i-e., the majority
of humankind. Secondly, Black Studies advocates perceived White studies, for
the most part, as so much propaganda for the established order which posed
Whites as the paradigm, exemplary model, for all other peoples. In a word, the
educational process was seen in today’s language as essentially Eurocentric, i.e.,
centered on and privileging European people and culture at the expense of the culture
and lives of the people of color.
Also, the Black Studies advocates saw White studies as resistant to
education for social change which was central to a relevant education. Finally,
Black Studies advocates argued for the need to teach Black Studies from “a
Black frame of reference” (Karenga, 1969:43ff). This would later become a call
for an Afrocentric perspective on the African initiative and experience in the
world, i.e., a view centered within the culture and in which Africans are the subjects
and agents of their own history (Asante, 1990, 1998, 2008).

SOCIAL CONCERNS

Black Studies advocates were first concerned with the low number of
Blacks on campus which they saw as a racist exclusion to maintain the White
monopoly on critical knowledge and to thwart the rise of a Black intelligen-
tsia capable of effectively leading and serving Blacks. Thus, one of their first
demands was special admission and recruitment efforts to correct this problem.
Secondly, Black Studies advocates were concerned with treatment of Black stu-
dents on campus. In fact, a key set of grievances and incidents on San Francisco
State’s campus centered around what was considered racist treatment of Black
students in terms of news reports, counseling, instruction, representation on
decision-making bodies, etc. Thus, they sought to make Blacks respected and
politically effective on campus (Hare, 1972:33).
Thirdly, Black Studies advocates were concerned about what they con-
ceived the university’s transformation of Black students into vulgar careerists
with no sense of social commitment and little more than what Frantz Fanon
called “obscene caricatures” of Europe, pathetic imitators of their oppressors
(Fanon, 1968:255). Finally, Black Studies advocates were concerned with the
social problems of the Black community and how Black students and Black
Studies could address and solve them.
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

BASIC OBJECTIVES

It is around these general concerns that Black Studies advocates across the
country laid out some basic academic and social objectives which interlocked
and mutually reinforced each other (Blassingame, 1973; Hare, 1969; Robinson,
Foster and Ogilvie, 1969). The first and seemingly most urgent objective was
to teach the Black experience in all its variedness and with special attention
to history, culture and current issues. Also, it was advocated that the data and
instruction include both the Continental African and Diasporan African expe-
rience, the Diasporan focus treating first African Americans and then all other
Africans spread across the world.
A second beginning objective of Black Studies was to assemble and create
a body of knowledge which contributed to intellectual and political emancipa-
tion. That is to say, a freeing and development of the mind and then using that
knowledge in the interest of Black and human freedom. Political emancipa-
tion as a social goal was seen as dependent on intellectual emancipation as an
academic goal. These contentions were reflective of Harold Cruse’s (1967) and
Franklin Frazier’s (1973) positions the duties and responsibilities of the Black
intellectual in the liberation of African people.
Logically linked to the above objective was a third objective of creat-
ing intellectuals who were dedicated to community service and development
rather than vulgar careerism. Restating W.E.B DuBois’ (1961) argument against
Booker T. Washington’s overstress on vocation at the expense of education for
social competence and contribution, Black Studies advocates stressed the need
for Black intellectuals who were conscious, capable and committed to Black
liberation and a higher level of human life. One of the most quoted contentions
from Fanon’s (1968:167) classic work Wretched of the Earth by Black activists
was his contention that “each generation must...discover its mission, fulfill it
or betray it.” For Fanon and the Black Studies advocates this mission was the
liberation of the people and building of a new world and a new people for the
new world.
Fourthly, Black Studies advocates posed as an early objective the cultiva-
tion, maintenance and continuous expansion of a mutually beneficial relation-
ship between the campus and the community. This relationship was best posed
in Dr. Nathan Hare’s (1978:18) statement which became a slogan and call to
action of the Black Studies Movement, “We must bring community to the
campus and the campus to the community. Because education belongs to the
people and we must give it back to them.” Thus, the classic alienation between
the intellectual and the community would be prevented in an ongoing mutually
beneficial exchange, where knowledge is shared and applied in the service of
liberation and development of the Black community. (Hare, 1972:33).
 CHAPTER |: INTRODUCTION | 19 |

Finally, an early (and continuing) objective of Black Studies advocates was

to establish and reaffirm its position in the academy as a discipline essential
to the educational project and to any real conception of a quality education.
This was and remains both an academic and political challenge. The political
challenge is one of negotiating successfully with administrations and other
departments who are hostile to Black Studies and who reductively translate
its relevance and contribution to the educational mission of the academy. The
academic challenge is to constantly answer the critics of Black Studies with
counter arguments, critical research, solid intellectual production and effective
teaching.
There are two basic arguments traditionally put forth against Black Studies.
The first is that Black Studies is not a serious discipline. The second is that
it is concerned with the social at the expense of the academic. These argu-
ments, however, do not really hold weight given Black Studies’ over forty-year
history of teaching, research, intellectual production and service to students
and the university. In fact, Black Studies has enriched intellectual and social
discourse and expanded the concept of a quality and comprehensive education.
Moreover, Black Studies has rightfully reaffirmed the importance of students
cultivating a sense of care and responsibility for the community and world they
live in and understanding the value of the acquisition and use of knowledge to
improve the human condition and enhance the human future.
It is important to note here that the national university system has begun
to stress a modified form of Black Studies’ historical and ongoing emphasis on
linking community and campus and on student social responsibility. It is called
“service learning,” a project which concedes the importance of social engage-
ment, but unlike Black Studies, does not link it to social change (Jones, Dixon
and Umoja, 2005). This difference, of course, is rooted in the different social
positions of the advocates of each approach. The university system evolved as
a central source to teach and perpetuate the established order. Black Studies
emerged as an intellectual and practical critique and corrective of the estab-
lished order. Unlike the builders and sustainers of the established order, then,
Black Studies scholars and advocates pose a concept of service and engagement,
not in the interest of preserving the system, but of changing it in pursuit of a
just society and the expanded possibilities of a good world.

THE GROUNDS OF RELEVANCE

Through the practical and theoretical struggle of over forty years to achieve
and refine these early objectives, fundamental grounds of relevance of Black
Studies have been established which clearly define the academic and social
contributions and purpose of Black Studies. The first ground of relevance of
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

Black Studies is that it is a definitive contribution to humanity's understanding

itself. Black Studies is an important contribution to humanity’s understanding
itself because African people are the fathers and mothers of both humanity and
human civilization. It is in studying African people that we get an idea of the
earliest humans beginning to develop language, art, religion, family and other
social forms.
We also are able to witness and study the development of some of the basic
disciplines of human knowledge and some of the greatest civilizations of antiq-
uity in the Nile Valley (Karenga, 2006; Obenga, 2004; Diop, 1991; Morkot,
2000; Freeman, 1997; Siliotti, 1996; Wildung, 1997). In this same framework,
Black Studies is also important because it is a study of a particular people which
aids in the study of humanity as a whole. In other words, to study any people
is a contribution to our efforts to understand humanity as a whole. For each
people offers its own unique and equally valuable way of being human in the
world and thus contributes to our comprehensive understanding of humanity in
all its similarity and diversity.
A second ground of relevance of Black studies is found in its contribution to
U.S. society’s understanding of itself. It is not an exaggeration to say that Black
and other Ethnic Studies offer some of the most trenchant criticism and defini-
tive mirror of American society. If it is true that one does not evaluate a society
by its public pronouncements but by its social practice, then, the study of the
Black experience in the U.S. would obviously give an incisive look at American
life, from a race, class and gender perspective. U.S. society claims freedom,
justice and equality for all, but Black Studies poses a more definitive view of
social wealth and power in the U.S. It is thus to the credit of Black Studies and
the social struggles which inform its focus, as I (Karenga, 1977:50) have argued
elsewhere, that they “have provided the U.S. with an essential theoretical and
practical self-criticism.”
Thirdly, and as a logical consequence of the first two contentions, Black
Studies has established its relevance as a contribution to the university’s realiza-
tion of its claim and challenge to teach the whole truth, or something as close to
it as humanly possible. No university can claim universality, comprehensive-
ness, objectivity or effectiveness in creating a context for the development of
a socially competent and aware student, if it diminishes, denies or deforms the
role of African peoples in history and society. Wright (1970:366) offered an
observation in the early development of Black Studies that retains an essential
measure of truth. It is that until the challenge of Black Studies and later other
ethnic studies:
Higher education in the United States of America had been almost com-
pletely under the sway of an illusion shared by nearly everybody of European
descent since the Middle Ages — the illusion that the history of the world is the
history of Europe and its cultural offshoots; that Western interpretations of that
 CHAPTER |: INTRODUCTION

experience are sufficient, if not exhaustive and that the resulting value systems
embrace everything that matters.
Black Studies scholars, other ethnic studies scholars in this country and
Third World scholars in other countries continue to provide an important
antidote and alternative to such illusions and the provincialism they produce
(Asante, 1999).
Fourthly, Black Studies has demonstrated its relevance as a contributian to
the rescue and reconstruction of Black history and humanity. As an affirmative,
critical and corrective academic and social project, Black Studies affirms the
truth of Black history and humanity and critiques and corrects the racist myths
assembled to deny and deform them. Having made a necessary critique of such
faulty scholarship, Black Studies, then, begins with rigorous research and criti- ,
cal intellectual production in the key social science, history, which yields data
and interpretations valuable to all the other fields of Black Studies and offers a
more accurate picture of Africans’ contribution to human initiative and human
achievement in the world.
A fifth ground of relevance of Black Studies is that it is a critical contribu-
tion to a new social science which will not only benefit Blacks, but also the U.S.
and the world. Joyce Ladner’s (1973) announcement of “the death of White
sociology” can only be answered with the creation of an alternative (affirma-
tive, critical and corrective) sociology or more accurately, a new social science
which sets a model for others by the standards it sets for itself.
As a contribution to a new social science, Black Studies is interdisciplinary,
becomes a paradigm for the multidimensional approach to social and historical
reality (Hamilton, 1970). It is a model of a holistic social science and an inclu-
sive humanities, not simply focusing on Blacks, but critically including other
Third World peoples and Whites in appropriate socio-historical periods and
places of interaction with Blacks. In a word, it denies no people its relevance,
unlike the case of traditional White studies. Also, Black Studies is critical and
corrective of the inadequacies, omissions and distortions of traditional White
studies. Thus, it introduces practices which stimulate innovation and deeper
inquiry directed towards producing new ideas and new approaches to human
reality and human relations. Black Studies, as both an investigative and applied
discipline, is dedicated not only to understanding self, society and the world
but also to changing them in a positive developmental way in the interest of
human history and advancement. In this quest, it challenges the false detach-
ment of traditional White studies which contradicts reality and obscures clarity
(Hamilton, 1970).
A sixth ground of the relevance of Black Studies is its contribution to the
development of a socially conscious Black intelligentsia and professional stratum.
Here, Black Studies seeks to cultivate a body of intellectuals who are committed
to using their knowledge in the service of community, society and ultimately
 INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES

humankind. It is also an effective response to DuBois’ (1969) call in his semi-

nal essay, “The Talented Tenth,” for the academic and social cultivation of a
body of conscious, capable and committed men and women who would assume
leadership of the Black community, set its ideals, direct its thoughts and aspira-
tions and lead its social movements in the struggle for social change. It is also
reflective of Mary M. Bethune’s (1939:10) call for service oriented professionals
and intellectuals to “discover the dawn and to bring this material within the
understanding of . . . the masses of our people.” Such stress reaffirms the histori-
cal, intellectual and activist thrust of Black education and reflects an important
continuity of thought and practice.
A seventh and final ground of relevance of Black Studies is that it is a vital
contribution to the critique, resistance and reversal of the progressive Europeanization
of human consciousness and culture which is one of the major problems of our
times. The Europeanization of human consciousness and culture is used here to
mean the systematic invasion and effective transformation of the cultural con-
sciousness and practice of the various peoples of the world by Europeans. This is
achieved essentially through technology, education, and the media and results
in three basic things: 1) the progressive loss and replacement of the historical
memories of these people; 2) the progressive disappreciation of themselves and
their culture as a result of a conscious and unconscious assessment of themselves
using European standards, and; 3) the progressive adoption of a Eurocentric
view not only of themselves, but also of each other and the world. This in
turn leads to damage and distortion of their own humanity and the increasing
degeneration of the cultural diversity and exchange which gave humanity its
rich variousness and internal creative challenge.
The established tendency is to use the category “westernization” to express
this process of the Europeanization of human consciousness and culture. But in
fact, “westernization” is a cultural category that camouflages the fundamental
racial reality of European dominance. After all, when one refers to western
culture, it is not to indicate Hawaiian or Inuit cultures, the most western of peo-
ples. Nor is it meant to suggest the various other cultures of peoples of color in
the western hemisphere, i.e., Native Americans, Africans, Latinos or Asians.
Black Studies challenges both the cultural content of what is called “west-
ern” and the definition itself, arguing for a multicultural interpretation of
“western” rather than a Eurocentric one. Moreover, Black Studies joins with
other ethnic studies scholars in creating and posing paradigms for multicultural
exchange and possibilities of a just and good society. Such exchange and pos-
sibilities, of course, necessitates respect for each people’s right and responsibility
not only to exist but to speak their own special cultural truth and make their
own unique contribution to the forward flow of societal and human history
(Karenga, 1988:406ff).
 CHAPTER |: INTRODUCTION

1.4 SCOPE OF THE DISCIPLINE

CORE FIELDS OF BLACK STUDIES

he scope of Black Studies is expressed in its definition and by the boundar-

ies it has set for itself as a multidisciplinary or multi-field discipline. In its
thrust to study the multidimensional aspects of Black thought and practice in
their current and historical unfolding, Black Studies seeks to study phenomena
and processes in an inclusive and comprehensive manner or holistically. The
thrust of Black Studies, then, is to view each thing in the context of the whole,
to always ask historical as well as current questions about it and to study things
under investigation from many sides in an attempt to achieve as comprehensive
and thorough an understanding as possible.
As a discipline dedicated to a holistic study of Black life, Black Studies
contains fields in social science and in humanities. It has also explored the idea
of including natural and physical sciences. As James Stewart (1992:54) argues,
this inclusion of physical and natural sciences in the realm of Black Studies
is vital to the ongoing development of the discipline. The inclusion of these
fields, he maintains, does not require the development of a “Black Chemistry”
or “Black Physics.” Rather, he continues, it requires (1) “the exploration of the
potential insights from the new field of ‘science, technology and society’ into
a Black/Africana Studies framework,” (2) exploration of the value and use of
“new information technologies. . .to accelerate development of the field” as
exemplified in Hendrix’ et al’s (1984) discussion of Black Studies and computer
use; and (3) the development by theoretical mathematicians and statisticians of
“empirical techniques based on circular rather than linear models.”
Stewart is correct to reject a Black science which suggests a biological or
racial base. But if he extends the prohibition to include cultural emphasis,
then he undermines the very meaning of Black Studies, i.e., to speak African
people’s special cultural truth and make their own unique contribution to the
forward flow of human history. Thus, Black science like Black sociology will, of
necessity, reflect a cultural context and conception. A primary task of the Black
Studies scientist will be to ask is there a uniquely African as well as general
human approach to science? And if so, is it of value today and again, if so, in
what ways? In this regard, a beginning task of the Black Studies scientist will
be to develop a philosophy of science rooted in and growing out of an African
worldview. It will raise not simply questions of knowledge, but equally impor-
tant ethical ones about the meaning, purpose and use of science. Moreover, a
history of African science - Continental and Diasporan - placed in the context
of the development of science in the world is also important (Van Sertima,
1983). The point here is that as a multi-field discipline, Black Studies borrows
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 YORITOMO LIBERATING A THOUSAND CRANES IN HONOR OF
HIS VICTORIES.

Although he bequeathed his power and the prestige of his name to

his descendants, thus securing for the latter the possession of the
Shôgunate, the office became a purely nominal affair. Like the
illustrious dead Yoritomo, who had wrested all real authority from the
imperial throne, leaving it only the bare show and pomp of power, so
now the Hōjō stepped in, and in their hands the Minamoto Shôguns
were but puppets moving at the will of their so-called guardians.
Daily the Hōjō adherents grew in strength and numbers, and every
position of trust and influence was soon occupied by them and their
creatures. In the arrogance of their pride, engendered by a long
continuance of absolute power, they at last did what even the great
Yoritomo himself had never dared to do,—they failed to pay even
outward reverence to the Emperor, and openly showed the mailed
hand by which he was ruled. Mikado after Mikado was forced to
abdicate in favor of some other member of the imperial family whom
the Hōjō thought more devoted to their interests, and the ex-
Emperors who had provoked their resentment—banished, sent into
exile, or forced into cloisters—were treated with rigor, often with
humiliating severity.
Such a course could not last. Neither the prestige gained for the
Hōjō by their military talents,—which in the year 1279 had repelled
the invasion of the great Mongol Chieftain Kublai Khan, with its
myriads of ships and its numberless army,—nor the merits of their
civil administration, which preserved internal peace, promoted
agriculture, industry, and trade, and showed harshness only in what
might be thought to trench upon their assumed prerogatives, could
reconcile the people to the disrespect shown to their Emperors. The
gods from whom the latter descended must sooner or later take
vengeance not only upon the desecrators, but also upon the people
who stood passively by and permitted this unholy work to proceed
without interfering.
Although hardly probable, it is yet perhaps barely possible, that the
Hōjōs harbored the thought of being able some day to usurp the
imperial throne; and it may have been this hope which dictated their
policy. They could not but know that such a consummation might be
looked for only after long years of preparation, and they therefore
tried to lessen the imperial prestige by forcing successive Mikados to
abdicate, and making light of their sacred rights and prerogatives.
But if some such deep-laid scheme really animated their course,
events proved that they had miscalculated the force of the feeling
which inspired the people, and which made love and reverence for
their Emperors the foundation of their patriotism and religion.
Repeated outbreaks against the Hōjō domination had occurred
within the last decade; but they had been quelled before assuming
any serious dimensions, and
summary punishment dealt out
to those concerned in them.
One of these, which had been
instigated in secret by the son
of the reigning Emperor, had
caused the father to lose his
throne and be banished to a
distant island, while the son
was forced to shave his head
and enter a convent, and
eventually to leave even that
retreat and flee to the
mountains to save his life.
Ono ga Sawa, although he
hated the Hōjō at heart, was
too prudent, without seeing a
reasonable chance of success,
to commit himself to any
movement which might
endanger his house and his
life. The great want of the
disaffected was a leader,—one
who by birth, position, and
personal qualities might
command the confidence and
esteem of all classes among
them. At last, however, news MAN IN ARMOR.
arrived at Kuwana in the fall of
the year that Nitta Yoshisada
had raised the standard of revolt and called upon the whole country
to assist him. This new champion of the Mikado was lord of the
castle of Nitta; and he as well as his brother, the lord of the castle of
Ashikaga, who had joined him in the rising, were direct descendants
of a celebrated Minamoto chief, their fiefs, which lay in contiguous
provinces, within easy distance of the Hōjō stronghold Kamakura,
having been in uninterrupted possession of themselves and their
forefathers for nearly four hundred years.
Nitta had earned a high military reputation while serving as captain
in the Hōjō armies. He had been deputed with a large force to
subdue Kusunoki Masashige, who had thrice within three years
raised the flag of revolt, and although defeated each time, had still
managed to escape to unfurl anew the imperial standard and
assemble soldiers in its defence. Although Nitta had always been
ready to support the Hōjō chiefs against rivals, or even in schemes
of personal aggrandizement, he yet had no wish to fight against the
supporters of the Mikado. He dared not refuse the command offered
to him, as he would thus lay himself open to suspicion, and suspicion
then meant death. His resolution in this dilemma was soon made.
Having started with his troops, he carefully sounded the temper of
the officers and men; and finding it what he expected, exhibited a
commission which he had procured from the exiled Emperor, at the
same time describing to them in an eloquent and affecting speech
the condition of their rightful rulers. They one and all agreed to fight
for the cause which they had been sent to overthrow.
All previous outbreaks had been confined to distant provinces, and
the lack of unity and concerted action, together with the want of
military ability among many of the would-be leaders, had resulted in
their easy suppression by the disciplined forces sent against them.
Nitta was resolved to carry the war into the enemy’s country, where
he knew the disaffected would muster in great numbers as soon as a
favorable opportunity should present itself; but for a time he pitched
his camp at his own castle. Before setting out, however, he sent
proclamations to the different provinces, stating his intention of
restoring the wrongfully exiled Mikado to the possession of the
throne and to the enjoyment of that supreme power which belonged
to him, and calling upon all loyal subjects to aid in carrying out this
sacred mission. Nitta’s emissaries were everywhere received with
joy and acclamation, and with promises of aid in men, money, and
war material,—promises which, as the immediate future showed,
were religiously kept.
 CHAPTER VII.
When Ono ga Sawa heard of Nitta’s rising and the manifesto, he
hesitated not a moment, but immediately proclaimed himself one of
those who were determined to secure to the Emperors their legal
rights. On account of his bodily infirmities, he was unable to take an
active part himself; but couriers were immediately despatched
assuring Nitta of his support, and promising that two thousand of his
best fighting men should leave Kuwana and march to Nitta’s aid
within four days. He was as good as his word, and within the
specified time as fine a body of troops as could be found in any part
of the Empire, well equipped and provided with all necessaries, were
ready to march in defence of their Emperors against the Hōjō
usurpers.
Sennoske naturally formed one of their number; but, contrary to
the Duke’s apprehensions, Mutto had not asked to join the
expedition, and the latter’s faithful and efficient services were so well
appreciated by this time that Ono ga Sawa felt greatly relieved at
being assured of having him by his side in case of any local
disturbance which Hōjō partisans might raise.
While making his hurried preparations, it seemed to Sennoske that
his father was several times on the point of telling him what he felt
must be the secret of his life; but each time Mutto checked himself,
changing the conversation to other subjects, and the last day of
Sennoske’s stay had nearly passed away without his having learned
anything in regard to it. He had not yet found time in the hurry of
preparation to take leave of Muramasa and O Tetsu. Going to
Senjuin late in the evening, when all his arrangements for departure
had been completed, he found the girl at the open door of the forge
awaiting his arrival, the smith and his son being within, busily
engaged in work. The young man followed his future little wife, as he
already sometimes playfully called her, to a room above; and there
the two exchanged those vows and professions of love and promises
of eternal faithfulness which, in Japan as well as everywhere else,
have been repeated millions of times before, and will be repeated
millions of times again. Then their talk ran on, and became
principally a reiteration of the hope of meeting each other again, with
flattering prognostications on the part of O Tetsu as to the
distinctions which her lover was sure to gain in battle; and in spite of
the latter’s deprecating remonstrance, it was evident by his pleased
looks that he listened not unwillingly. His was a handsome face, and
the flush of enthusiasm and of sanguine youthful ambition which now
sat upon it enhanced its natural beauty.
So engrossed were the lovers in each other that they took no note
of the opening of the sliding door of the room, and both started upon
hearing the voice of O Tetsu’s father, whom they now saw standing
close beside them, holding in his hand a sword splendidly mounted
in gold, and wrapped in rich silk. There was a kindly look on his face
such as even his daughter had rarely seen there before; and when
he asked her to leave them alone for a few moments, his naturally
harsh and firm voice was modulated in a soft and tender tone. His
rugged, athletic frame evidently shook with strong emotion; but
Sennoske, who had often seen him when laboring under strong
excitement, knew that this time the moving cause was neither anger
nor hate.
“Take this sword,” he said, Sennoske the while becoming almost
delirious with joy; “a better one I never forged in my life.” Then, after
a moment’s pause, he added: “I have learned to feel more affection
for you, Sennoske, than I thought I could ever feel for any one
outside of my own family, partly probably because I trust that with
you my daughter will be happy; but I also love you for your own
sake, and because your youthful ambition reminds me of a time
when I was like you. I hope and trust that your fate points to a
happier lot than mine has been. I am of humble birth; and this, with
the peace reigning over the land, has proved an impassable barrier
to my achieving distinction in arms and carving out a name for
myself that might, as I once dreamed, stand worthily by the side of
Japan’s great heroes.
 “Oh! the misery of feeling that one possesses the strength of arm
and the resolute will to achieve great things, and yet to lack every
means of action; to be treated as an inferior by every one of those
proud samurai, the immediate forefathers of many of whom have
been of as low birth as myself, and only achieved distinction in the
glorious Gempei wars! I was born to the humble lot of a peasant, to
labor from early morn until late at night, while my food was of the
poorest and scantiest description; but I would have worked ten times
harder, and been satisfied with even worse fare, if I could have had a
chance of bettering my fortunes. To accomplish this and rise above
the station in which I was born, I could see only one road open to
me,—to become a renowned sword-smith. It was not easy to do this.
I had no father and no brother to initiate me into the secrets of the art
handed down from father to son, generation after generation during
hundreds of years, as is the rule with the craft. Many a weary mile
did I travel, enduring hunger and thirst and, what was worse to me,
numberless slights and indignities, before I found one who was
without son or male kindred, and with whom I succeeded in obtaining
service. He had a daughter; and no lovesick swain ever showed
more outward tokens of the depth and strength of his devotion, or
spoke more passionate words of burning love to the object of it, than
did I to that ugly shrew, whom I loathed from my very soul when I
gave her my hand and took her name. For seven long years did I
dissemble, performing the most menial services to prove my
faithfulness, before my master and father-in-law thought fit to initiate
me into the first principles of the art. My teacher could tell me little
more, and I soon outstripped him.
“The gods have been kind to me, and have rewarded me for my
prayers by granting me skill and ability; have answered my fasting
and my devotion, my days and nights of restless toil, by allowing me
to discover many secrets which are unknown to others. Oh, the
fools, the fools! they think that steel is dead because it is cold and
motionless and without apparent life! Thrice-told fools and idiots!
they kill the life which exists in the iron as it comes from Nature, and
they give no other in return; and yet they know from their forefathers,
and have learned to prattle, that the sword is the living soul of the
samurai.
 “There is life in this blade
which I give you to-day, my
boy,—better, finer, and
richer life than in most of
the boors who try to fashion
a sword. But remember that
on this account, unless you
use it wisely and carefully,
this sword is a dangerous
gift. Never draw it unless
you need its help; never
return it to its scabbard
without using it; and never
let it remain undrawn longer
than a cycle of twelve
years. Should you ever by
any unforeseen fatality
have drawn and exposed it
to the light of the sun, the
moon, or the stars without
being able to use it on the
enemy who provoked you,
then before returning it to
its scabbard use it on some
inferior animal; but never
think of sheathing it without
the blade having come in
PEASANT.
contact with the blood of
something still living. If you
act thus, you will find it your
devoted friend; it will obey and even anticipate your thoughts and
desires; with the least guidance it will strike your enemies and those
who are opposed to you in their weakest places unto death, in spite
of numbers and courage, in spite of armor and helmet. But if you fail
in obeying the directions I have given you, the blade will turn upon
and mark you for its victim with equal certainty; and even were you
to bury it in the deep ocean, it would not fail to wreak vengeance
upon you.”

SENNOSKE RECEIVING THE SWORD FROM THE SMITH.

The mainspring which moved the nature of the smith was evident.
Sennoske, although he was young and inexperienced in the
passions which stir the heart and guide the actions of men, was yet a
keen observer, and he could now easily fathom the depths of the
sword-smith’s strange nature. He saw that the man’s ruling passion
was ambition,—ambition so inordinate that it could never be
satisfied, and which, burning so fiercely without hope of realization,
had retired into itself and assumed the semblance of a morose and
misanthropic disposition. The mildness apparent in him when he
entered the room had passed away after a few moments; and as he
recounted his sufferings and disappointments, the play of his
features and the tones of his speech had been a fitting
accompaniment to the words he uttered. Yet his voice had never
been loud, and while allowing scope to his passions he still evidently
held them in check. Nevertheless the eyes which shone like coals of
fire, and the half-hissing sound of his utterance showed plainly how
deeply he was moved by dwelling upon his real and fancied wrongs.
Sennoske had often seen fierce outbreaks of temper; yet as he now
listened he gave an involuntary start, due not so much to what was
presented to his senses as to the thought of how fierce a volcano
must have been burning for years in that herculean frame. Slight as
the movement was, it did not escape the smith; it arrested
immediately the force of the current into which he had drifted with the
recital of these reminiscences, and as he continued he resumed the
quiet earnestness which he had shown upon first entering.
“I have long looked forward to the breaking out of this war, and I
thought at one time that my son would realize my hopes of a glorious
career in arms; but although physically strong and active, he does
not possess a nature to achieve great things. You, however, I firmly
believe, will make a name. When you return from this campaign the
hand of O Tetsu shall be yours; and the name of Muramasa shall
indeed be coupled, not only with the skill of the forge, but also with
the memory of heroic deeds. This sword which I give you forms part
of the dowry of your future bride, with whom I will now leave you to
say your last farewell. Before you start for the seat of war, if your
father is as yet unacquainted with what I know is your wish as well
as mine, I desire you to inform him of the purport of our
conversation.”
 The parting of the lovers was of necessity brief, as it was time for
Sennoske to return; but deep love and passionate devotion spoke on
both sides, and O Tetsu was overjoyed at hearing that her father had
openly countenanced their mutual affection. As the young man
passed through the forge on his way home, he again wished to thank
the smith for his princely gift; but Muramasa, who had relapsed into
his usual taciturn mood, stopped him short, telling him that his father
had a right to whatever time was still at his disposal. With a few
words of farewell to the smith and his son, and a last look at O
Tetsu’s window, he tore himself away.
When he reached home he found his father sitting beside the
brazier, with letters and papers spread out before him. At the sight of
the magnificent sword, Mutto showed even more emotion than his
son had expected under the circumstances. He looked at it on all
sides, weighed it in his hands, and partly withdrew the blade, slowly,
inch by inch, replacing it only to withdraw it similarly over and over
again. While this was going on, Sennoske, not without a sinking
heart, acquainted him with what had happened regarding O Tetsu;
but, contrary to his fears and expectations, the recital elicited no
displeasure and hardly any surprise.
 RESENTING AN INSULT.

“Many a man superior to you in worldly position would willingly and

gladly marry an Eta if she brought him such a dowry,” was the
response; “and even without this princely gift I could have raised no
objection to your marriage with one who is in other respects your
equal. But, my boy,” Mutto continued, in a tone which showed that he
was powerfully affected, “you run a risk beyond that of any of your
companions. With your strength, your skill in arms, and your
discriminating wisdom, I have no fears for you as to the ordinary
chances of battle. If you fall, it will be as a hero. Otherwise, with all
these advantages, added to the sword you carry, you will be sure to
achieve distinction.
“There is, however, a task which devolves upon you where no
public honor is to be gained, and where the danger is infinitely
greater,—nay, where it is extremely doubtful whether you will survive
success, or even the mere attempt to achieve it. I have refrained
from speaking to you about this heretofore, and my intention was to
give you all the particulars to-day. But upon mature consideration I
have determined again to defer it. Old Yamagawa, who accompanies
you, knows the matter, and has my orders to disclose it to you when
the occasion demands. I know you will not hesitate a moment to do
and dare everything to accomplish the object I have in view; but act
with prudence and circumspection, and do not endanger yourself
recklessly. My future without you would be dreary; and although I
should not hesitate to sacrifice your young, hopeful life in the pursuit
of a just vengeance, yet to see that vengeance accomplished and
still preserve you would be happiness indeed. You have yet to take
leave of the Duke, and you will naturally desire to show your sword
at court. Do not be chary of doing so; it will be of great benefit to you.
You will start with the first approach of dawn, and we will spare each
other the pain of any further leave-taking. So farewell, and may the
gods protect and prosper you!”
 Sennoske was deeply touched; yet, with the varied emotions
which the day had brought forth, the pain of separation was less
acute than under ordinary circumstances it would have been. At the
castle the preparations for the departure of so many men of rank
caused an unusual stir, with attendant bustle and commotion. When,
after having himself announced, Sennoske entered the large
audience-hall, he found it filled with court nobles and with those who,
like himself, were bound for the war, and had come to pay their
homage to the Duke before departure. Passing through the crowded
ranks to the raised platform where the Duke had his seat, he there
made the customary low obeisance. Ono ga Sawa, with whom he
had always been a favorite, after addressing him in his usual kindly
way, at once fixed his attention upon the sword, which in truth looked
sufficiently conspicuous.
“What, Sennoske,” he exclaimed, “you, who are such a sober,
steady youth, nevertheless indulge in this finery, and begin to be a
dandy now, when rough life in field and camp is about to open for
you! It must have cost all your pocket-money to have this tinsel put
on your sword. In my time we took pride only in the blade itself, and
carried it in unvarnished plain wooden scabbards. Is it your old
sword, or have you also exchanged it for some modern weapon
which glitters and shines to match the outside, but which will break
as soon as your hand causes it to fall upon helmet or cuirass?”
“It is a Muramasa, your Highness, which the smith himself gave
me less than two hours ago; and if it be only as true as the hand and
heart of him who guides it, it will not fail in splitting the helmets and in
passing through the bucklers and armor of those against whom your
Highness bids me draw it.”
While speaking, Sennoske offered the sword for inspection to the
Duke, whose astonishment, shared by every one present, was so
great that he could not control it; and the youth remained with the
weapon in his outstretched hands for several moments before the
other recovered sufficiently to take it from him. Looking at it in the
orthodox fashion, by withdrawing it slowly and carefully, inch by inch,
until about half of it was exposed, Ono ga Sawa’s astonishment gave
way to admiration; and so absorbed did he become in his gaze, that
notwithstanding those present in the hall, whose surprise had been
as great as that of their chief, pressed around him closer than court
etiquette ordinarily permitted, he seemed utterly oblivious of their
curiosity. A long time elapsed before he even looked up, and then
those around, recollecting themselves, hastily drew back; but his
thoughts were as yet too much occupied with the sword to notice any
impropriety.
“To a warrior by birth and training like myself there is nothing in my
dominions of equal value with your sword, Sennoske,” the Duke said
at last; “and to tell you to be careful of such a treasure would be like
asking the heavens to guard the sun, like telling a child to cherish its
parents, like importuning a samurai not to fail in the duty of kataki-
uchi. In the struggle before us, which is the cause of the heaven-
descended Emperors, we need not fear defeat in the end; but should
it happen that any single action in which you participate go against
us, I charge all your companions to see that this sword is not lost,
and that even if you fall, it be brought back here and returned to your
father. It will be the thought of many that Muramasa has
distinguished you in a way which your years hardly justify; but he has
only given expression to opinions which I also hold as to your merit. I
hope and believe you will return safely and with honor; and if my
good wishes count for anything, you have them in the fullest degree.”
Meanwhile the news had been spread in the courtyard by some of
the servants, who had heard it in the hall; and when Sennoske
retired, he found himself surrounded by an eager crowd anxious to
examine his gift and to congratulate him upon his good fortune. Most
of them doubtless were sincere; for he had always been a great
favorite, and there was little to excite envy in the modest manner
with which he had invariably borne himself. He was detained for a
considerable time, and it was nearly midnight before he reached his
home, where Yamagawa waited for him.
Everything was ready for departure; and as he threw himself upon
the quilted mats of his bed for a few hours’ repose, the events of the
day flitted before him, mingled with hopes dictated by ambition, with
a vague dread as to his father’s objects and purposes, and of course
with tender thoughts of O Tetsu. But even these did not prevent him
from soon falling into a deep sleep, which the exertion, the
excitement, and the varied incidents of such an eventful day
naturally induced in a healthy and robust body; still they were
powerful enough to retain their influence over his mind after
consciousness had left it. They conjured up picture after picture of
happiness, and when he awoke a few hours afterward, O Tetsu’s
image was still in his thoughts and her name on his lips.
Rousing himself, his eye fell upon the sword by his side, and then
only did the reality come home to him; with a half sigh, in spite of the
exulting glance which he bestowed upon the weapon, he was soon
dressed and ready for departure. He could hear his father moving
about in the next room, which was separated from his only by a
paper-covered partition; but as he did not come out, Sennoske,
remembering his instructions the day before, made no attempt to see
him again. As he went to join his party, it gave him a pang to
recollect how much more his mind had been occupied with thoughts
of the girl he loved, than of the man who until now had been parent,
friend, teacher, and everything to him; and he muttered a fervent
prayer that it might be granted him to try his strength with his father’s
unknown enemies, and to bring back a cheerful look to that stern,
sad face, so long clouded by sorrow.

SADDLE, STIRRUP, AND SADDLE-CLOTH.

 CHAPTER VIII.
The war in which Sennoske now took part forms one of the most
glorious epochs in Japanese history. On one side was the imperial
family, who in an unbroken line had ruled the land for two thousand
years; and yet this period represented but a small part of the time
during which their authority had been recognized, for they were
directly descended from the gods who had been venerated and
adored from time immemorial. Opposed to the imperial cause was a
horde of usurpers, whose only claim to recognition was the power
which they wielded temporarily, and, as they themselves knew,
unjustly. It was a struggle of the inherited and invested majesty of
right, religion, patriotism, and justice, against usurpation, cunning,
and intrigue; and the result could not be in doubt. Yet it is a subject
of just pride to the imperial family and to the people whom they
govern that victory was achieved in so short a time, a few months
being sufficient for the complete overthrow of the hitherto all-
powerful usurpers. The latter and their adherents fought bravely, and
their natural courage was doubtless stimulated to its utmost by the
knowledge that defeat with them meant utter annihilation,
accompanied with eternal shame and disgrace. Yet their desperate
valor availed them nothing. They fought like burglars caught in the
act; but the cool, steady, and determined loyalty of the imperial
partisans mowed them down as the sharp knife of the husbandman
cuts down noxious weeds.
Although the Kuwana contingent was one of the first to join the
forces of the popular general, Nitta, they found him already greatly
strengthened by numerous volunteers and deserters. Several
encounters which soon took place with detachments of Hōjō forces
sent against them resulted in an easy victory, as large numbers of
the vanquished troops deserted their colors and enlisted for the
righteous cause. In one of these engagements, Nitta, who always
fought in the van of his troops, noticed near him a knight whose
alertness and elasticity of movement, in spite of his complete coat of
mail, could belong only to a young man, while the blows which he
dealt were such as few even among veterans could give,—his sword
at every stroke cleaving a Hōjō armor and going deep into the body
beneath it. It was no other than Sennoske, whom, immediately after
the fray and on the field of battle, Nitta made one of his aids. Others
besides the general had noticed the prowess of the new-comer, and
admiration changed to wonder when he took off his helmet and
showed his fair, boyish face, as yet with scarcely a vestige of beard,
and with a complexion that a girl might have envied.
 SENNOSKE IN BATTLE.

Within a few weeks the army in and around the castle had, in the
opinion of its leader, become strong enough to try issues with the
enemy in the latter’s stronghold. Marching orders were therefore
given, and the troops were told openly that their destination was